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THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •  BOSTON  *  CHICAGO  •  DALLAS 
ATLANTA  *  SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  AND  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON  '  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA  »  MADRAS 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
OP  CANADA,  LIMITED 

TORONTO 


The  Races 
of  Europe 

CARLETON    STEVENS    COON 

Assistant  Professor  of  Anthropology 

HARVARD      UNIVERSITY 


New  Tork 

THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

• 

7939 


COPYRIGHT,  1939, 
BY -THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED NO    PART    OF    THIS    BOOK    MAY    BE 

REPRODUCED  IN  ANY  FORM  WITHOUT  PERMISSION  IN  WRITING 
FROM  THE  PUBLISHER,  EXCEPT  BY  A  REVIEWER  WHO  WISHES 
TO  QUOTE  BRIEF  PASSAGES  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  A  REVIEW 
WRITTEN  FOR  INCLUSION  IN  MAGAZINE  OR  NEWSPAPER 


Published,  April,  1939. 


SET   UP    AND   ELECTROTYPED    BY    T.    MOREY    6t    SON 
PRINTED    IN    THE    UNITED    STATES    OF    AMERICA 


To 

PROFESSOR  WILLIAM  Z.  RIPLEY, 
Author  of  the  earlier  and  classic 

RACES  OF  EUROPE, 

at  whose  suggestion  the  present  work  was  begun 
and  in  whose  honor  it  is  named. 


INTRODUCTION 

The  present  book  is  offered  to  the  College  audience  as  a  text  in  a  specific 
branch  of  physical  anthropology.  In  it  an  attempt  is  made  to  trace  the 
racial  history  of  the  white  division  of  Homo  sapiens  from  its  Pleistocene 
beginnings  to  the  present.  Although  six  chapters  are  specifically  devoted 
to  a  study  of  skeletal  material  by  consecutive  cultural  periods,  the  main 
emphasis  is  placed  upon  the  racial  identification  and  classification  of 
living  white  peoples.  If  there  is  one  consistent  theme  in  this  book,  it  is 
that  physical  anthropology  cannot  be  divorced  from  cultural  and  his- 
torical associations,  and  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  "pure"  biology, 
at  least  in  reference  to  human  beings. 

In  writing  a  book  of  this  character  it  has  been  necessary  to  employ  a 
number  of  technical  terms;  the  reader  will  find  these  defined  in  the  glos- 
sary. Statistical  tables  have  been  purposely  omitted  from  the  text,  but 
since  many  of  the  conclusions  and  identifications  made  in  the  chapters 
of  skeletal  history  are  novel,  it  has  seemed  advisable  to  document  them 
by  means  of  tabular  material.  For  this  reason  the  fifty-three  columns  of 
basic  cranial  means  have  been  included  as  Appendix  I. 

References  to  all  sources  from  which  material,  anthropometric  or  other- 
wise, has  been  drawn  are  given  in  footnotes  in  the  sections  in  which 
specific  data  are  mentioned.  Although  over  four  thousand  titles  have  been 
consulted  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume,  the  author  makes  no  pre- 
tense to  have  covered  the  entire  literature  of  the  subject.  A  number  of 
unimportant  references  have  been  purposely  omitted,  and  many  others 
which  are  important  have  without  doubt  been  overlooked.  Except  for 
materials  used  with  special  permission  in  advance  of  publication,  no 
reference  is  made  to  data  appearing  later  than  July,  1938. 

Two  collateral  phases  of  physical  anthropology  have,  for  adequate 
reasons,  been  completely  avoided:  the  study  of  blood  groups  and  the 
question  of  racial  intelligence  or  racial  psychology.  The  science  of  blood 
groups  has,  by  1 938,  developed  a  prodigious  bibliography  of  its  own,  and 
will  soon  be  treated  in  a  special  survey  by  Professor  Wm.  Boyd  of  Boston 
University.  So  far  as  specialists  in  this  field  have  yet  determined,  there  is 
no  genetic  linkage  between  blood  group  types  and  anthropometric 
phenomena.  The  subject  of  racial  intelligence  has,  on  the  other  hand, 
not  progressed  far  enough  to  merit  inclusion  in  a  general  work  of  racial 
history;  it  has  furthermore  provided  too  ready  a  field  for  political  exploita- 
tion to  be  treated  or  interpreted  as  a  side  issue  with  scientific  detachment. 


INTRODUCTION 


Races,  in  the  present  volume,  are  studied  without  implication  of  inferiority 
or  superiority. 

In  the  financing  of  the  work,  in  the  collection  of  data,  and  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  manuscript,  many  persons  have  participated.  The  initial 
work  of  collection  and  preparation  was  financed,  for  two  years,  by  gener- 
ous grants  from  the  Milton  Fund  and  John  G.  Clark  Bequest  of  Harvard 
University.  Further  financing  which  permitted  its  completion  was  pro- 
vided by  my  father,  Mr.  John  Lewis  Coon,  by  The  Macmillan  Company, 
and  by  Mr.  Lloyd  Cabot  Briggs.  For  the  original  suggestion  that  I  be 
chosen  to  write  the  book,  for  his  support  in  obtaining  the  original  research 
funds,  and  for  his  continual  advice  and  encouragement,  I  am  deeply 
indebted  to  my  teacher,  Professor  Earnest  A.  Hooton,  who  initiated  me 
to  physical  anthropology  and  to  whom  I  wish  to  render  here  an  expression 
of  homage  and  appreciation  not  only  as  my  personal  mentor  but  also  as 
the  spiritual  father  of  American  physical  anthropology. 

Of  the  many  assistants  who  helped  with  the  tedious  labor  of  translating, 
abstracting,  calculating,  plotting,  checking,  and  typing,  four  deserve 
especial  credit:  Mrs.  Mary  Ruby  Gardner,  Miss  Anna  Szugzda,  Mr. 
Eugene  C.  Worman,  and  Mr.  Jens  Yde.  Mr.  Elmer  Rising,  who  pre- 
pared all  of  the  maps,  charts,  and  line  drawings,  made  the  task  of  illus- 
tration easy  with  his  experience  and  cooperation.  Mr.  Frederick  P. 
Orchard  and  Miss  Marion  Lambert  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the 
photographic  illustrations. 

Miss  Constance  Ashenden,  Librarian  of  the  Peabody  Museum  of 
Harvard  University,  under  whose  direction  every  article  in  the  scientific 
periodicals  included  in  the  library  has  been  separately  catalogued  by 
author,  subject,  and  country,  placed  at  my  disposal  her  great  knowledge 
of  the  bibliography  of  anthropology,  as  well  as  her  time  and  patience. 
To  her  and  to  Mr.  Francis  Gould,  her  assistant,  I  owe  an  especial  debt 
of  gratitude. 

The  following  persons  have  permitted  me  to  make  use  of  unpublished 
anthropometric  materials:  Dr.  Gordon  T.  Bowles,  Mr.  C.  Wesley  Duper- 
tuis,  Mr.  Robert  W.  Ehrich,  Dr.  Henry  Field,  Mr.  James  Gaul,  Mr. 
Herbert  R.  Glodt,  Dr.  Earnest  A.  Hooton,  Dr.  Byron  O.  Hughes,  Dr. 
Frederick  P.  Hulse,  Dr.  W.  Marion  Krogman,  Mr.  Homer  H.  Kidder, 
Mr.  Martin  Luther,  Dr.  Theodore  W.  McCown,  Dr.  Geoffrey  M.  Morant, 
Dr.  Carl  C.  Seltzer,  Dr.  William  Shanklin,  Professor  Boris  N.  Vishnevsky, 
Mrs.  Ruth  Sawtelle  Wallis,  Professor  Franz  Weidenreich.  Each  of  these 
persons  will  be  further  accredited  in  reference  to  the  specific  material  used. 
It  is  hoped  that  a  cursory  mention  of  their  data  in  this  volume  will  stim- 
ulate interest  in  their  detailed  monographs  which  will  follow.  Needless 
to  say,  none  of  them  is  to  be  held  responsible  for  any  erroneous  or  un- 


INTRODUCTION  ix 


warranted  interpretations  which  I  may  have  placed  on  their  materials. 

I  wish  also  to  thank  in  this  place  those  persons  and  institutions  which 
have  permitted  me  to  reproduce  photographs  and  paintings.    Individual 
Credit  will  be  given  in  each  instance.    The  majority  of  the  photographs 
used  in  this  book,  however,  were  taken  by  the  author,  with  the  generous 
assistance  of  many  people.    These  include  especially  Miss  Marion  Black- 
well,  director  of  the  International  Institute  in  Boston,  and  her  assistant 
Miss  Olga  St.  Ivanyi;  Mr.  Arthur  Megerdichian;  Mr.  Phillip  Way  and 
Mr.  Merico  Petrolati,  of  the  Ludlow  Manufacturing  Company,  Ludlow, 
Mass. ;  Mr.  Bror  Tamm,  Mr.  H.  W.  Johnson,  and  the  owners  of  the  ship- 
building firm  of  George  Lawley  and  Son;  Mr.  Ian  Drysdale  of  the  A.  C, 
Lawrence  Leather  Company  of  Peabody,  Mass.;  Mr.  Michel  Abourjaily, 
of  Boston;  M.  Dumas,  of  the  Dumas  Bookshop,  Boston;  Mr.  Heinrich 
Wolff,  manager  of  Gundlachs  Hofbrauhaus  in  Boston;  Father  Jan  Kozit- 
sky;  Mr.  John  Brunswick  and  the  officers  of  the  Czechoslovakian  Club 
of  Boston;  Mr.  James  Stragunas;  and  numerous  others,  including  all 
whose  photographs  appear  in  the  plates  illustrating  racial  types. 

For  specific  advice  and  assistance,  I  have  especial  reason  to  be  grateful 
to  the  following:  Professor  Glover  Allen,  for  advice  concerning  fauna; 
Dr.  Gordon  T.  Bowles,  for  the  preparation  of  Map  16,  and  for  information 
concerning  the  peoples  of  Iran,  Afghanistan,  and  India;  Professor  Kirk 
Bryan,  for  information  concerning  Pleistocene  and  post-Pleistocene  cli- 
mate; Professor  V.  Gordon  Childe,  for  reading  the  manuscript  of  Chapters 

II  through  VII,  and  for  suggesting  many  important  changes;  Dr.  Vladi- 
mir J.  Fewkes,  for  preparing  Maps  2  and  3,  and  for  much  advice  upon 
the  European  archaeology  of  the  Neolithic,  Bronze,  and  Iron  Ages,  and 
for  data  and  advice  on  the  subject  of  Slavic  history;  Dr.  H.  O'Neill 
Mencken,  for  advice  concerning  the  archaeology  of  the  Iron  Age,  and  of 
the  British  Isles  in  particular;  to  Mr.  Gabriel  Lasker,  for  aid  in  preparing 
the  glossary;  Dr.  J.  R.  de  la  H.  Marett,  for  ideas  and  stimulation  on 
the  subject  of  human  evolution;  Professor  William  M.  McGovern,  for 
permitting  me  to  read  the  manuscript  of  his  "Early  Empires  of  Central 
Asia,"  and  for  advice  on  the  subject  of  Central  Asiatic  history;  Dr.  Hal- 
lam  L.  Movius,  for  assistance  in  the  preparation  of  Map  1  and  Figure  16, 
as  well  as  in  the  writing  of  Chapters  II  and  III;  Dr.  Robert  W.  Pfeiffer, 
for  data  on  early  Jewish  history;  Professor  J.  Dyneley  Prince,  for  expert 
opinion  on  the  question  of  Sumerian  linguistics;  Professor  George  Sarton, 
for  advice  on  the  handling  of  references;  Mr.  Vilhjalmur  Stefansson  and 
Mr.  Charles  Harding,  for  advice  and  data  on  the  subject  of  the  Norse- 
men; Mr.  Lauriston  Ward,  Mr.  James  Gaul,  and  Mr.  D.  W.  Lockard, 
for  supervision  and  assistance  on  the  subject  of  Near  Eastern  archaeology; 
Professor  Harry  Wolfson,  for  an  elucidation  of  Jewish  history  and  assist- 


INTRODUCTION 


ance  in  preparing  the  sections  on  the  Jews.  To  this  list  must  be  added  the 
names  of  Professor  M.  F.  Ashley- Montagu,  Professor  W.  M.  Krogman, 
and  Dr.  H.  L.  Shapiro,  who  read  the  book  in  galley  proof  and  are  re- 
sponsible for  many  necessary  changes,  deletions,  and  additions. 

As  the  reader  will  readily  perceive,  the  experts  listed  above,  most  of 
whom  are  already  renowned  as  illustrious  scholars,  have  had  no  small 
part  to  play  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume.  To  them  singly  and 
collectively  I  owe  a  debt  which  it  will  be  impossible  for  me  to  repay, 
and  to  them  I  offer  my  apologies  if  I  have  betrayed  their  generosity  and 
their  competence. 

To  Their  Majesties  the  Kings  of  Yemen  and  Albania,  and  to  His 
Highness  the  Sultan  of  Mukalla,  I  also  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  for 
permission  and  assistance  in  the  collection  of  data  which  are  here  pre- 
sented for  the  first  time. 

Finally,  to  the  officers  and  staff  of  The  Macmillan  Company,  I  am  deeply 
indebted  for  their  generosity,  cooperation,  and  forbearance. 

C.  S.  G. 

SUDBURY,  MASSACHUSETTS, 
February,  1939. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I.    INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  HISTORICAL  STUDY 
OF  THE  WHITE  RACE 

PAGES 

(1)  STATEMENT  OF  AIMS  AND  PROPOSALS 1-3 

(2)  THEORY  AND  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  CONCEPT  Race      .      .      .  3-12 

(3)  MATERIALS  AND  TECHNIQUES  OF  OSTEOLOGY     ....  12-15 

CHAPTER  II.     PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN 

(1)  INTRODUCING  Homo  Sapiens 16-18 

(2)  PLEISTOCENE  CLIMATE      .  •          19-20 

(3)  Sapiens  MEN  OF  THE  MIDDLE  PLEISTOCENE 20-23 

(4)  NoN~Sapiens  PLEISTOCENE  FOSSIL  MEN 23-25 

(5)  THE  NEANDERTHALOID  HYBRIDS  OF  PALESTINE       .      .      .  25-28 

(6)  UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC  MAN  IN  EUROPE,  THE  EVIDENCE  AS  A 

WHOLE 28-33 

(7)  CHRONOLOGICAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  DIFFERENTIATION  OF 

THE  EUROPEAN  AURIGNACIAN  GROUP 33-39 

(8)  UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC  HUNTERS  OF  NORTH  AFRICA      .      .  39-44 

(9)  AURIGNACIAN  MAN  IN  EAST  AFRICA 44-46 

(10)  THE  MAGDALENIANS 46-49 

(11)  UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC  MAN  IN  CHINA 49-50 

(12)  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 50-51 

CHAPTER   III.     THE   MESOLITHIC   PERIOD 

(1)  THE  HISTORICAL  SETTING 56-57 

(2)  MESOLITHIC  MAN  IN  AFRICA 57-61 

(3)  THE  NATUFIANS  OF  PALESTINE 61-62 

(4)  THE  MlDDEN-DWELLERS  OF  THE  TAGUS 63~64 

(5)  MESOLITHIC  MAN  IN  FRANCE 64-66 

(6)  THE  OFNET  HEAD  BURIALS 66-68 

(7)  MESOLITHIC  MAN  IN  THE  CRIMEA 68-69 

(8)  PALAEOLITHIC  SURVIVALS  IN  THE  NORTHWEST  ....  69-76 

(9)  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 76-77 

CHAPTER  IV.     THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS 

(1)  INTRODUCTION 78-82 

(2)  THE  NEOLITHIC  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RACE  .      .      .  82-86 

xi 


xii  CONTENTS 


PAGES 

(3)  IRAN  AND  IRAQ 86-91 

(4)  CIVILIZED  MEN  IN  EGYPT 91-98 

(5)  NEOLITHIC  NORTH  AFRICA 98-99 

(6)  THE  NEOLITHIC  IN  SPAIN  AND  PORTUGAL 99-100 

(7)  THE   EASTERN   SOURCE  AREAS:   SOUTH,   CENTRAL,   AND 

NORTH 101-104 

(8)  THE  DANUBIAN  CULTURE  BEARERS 104-107 

(9)  THE  CORDED  OR  BATTLE-AXE  PEOPLE 107-109 

(10)  THE  NEOLITHIC  IN  THE  BRITISH  ISLES 109-113 

(11)  WESTERN  EUROPE  AND  THE  ALPINE  RACE 113-120 

(12)  NEOLITHIC  SCANDINAVIA 120-125 

(13)  NEOLITHIC  INHABITANTS  OF  THE  NORTHERN  FORESTS  .      .  125-126 

(14)  CONCLUSIONS 126-130 

CHAPTER  V.     THE  BRONZE   AGE 

(1)  INTRODUCTION 131-135 

(2)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN  WESTERN  ASIA 135-140 

(3)  THE  MINOANS 140-142 

(4)  THE  GREEKS 142-146 

(5)  COPPER  AND  BRONZE  IN  THE  WESTERN  MEDITERRANEAN  .  146-152 

(6)  BASQUES,  PHOENICIANS,  AND  ETRUSCANS 152-154 

(7)  •  THE  COPPER  AGE  IN  EUROPE  NORTH  OF  THE  MEDITER- 

RANEAN   LANDS:    DANUBIAN    MOVEMENTS    AND    BELL 

BEAKERS 154-157 

(8)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN  BRITAIN 157-162 

(9)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN  CENTRAL  EUROPE 162-166 

(10)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN  THE  NORTH 166-168 

(11)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  ON  THE  EASTERN  PLAINS       ....  168-170 

(12)  THE  FINAL  BRONZE  AGE  AND  CREMATION 170-171 

(13)  SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 171-173 

CHAPTER  VI.     THE   IRON  AGE 

(1)  RACE,  LANGUAGE,  AND  EUROPEAN  PEOPLES      ....  174-182 

(2)  THE.  ILLYRIANS 182-186 

(3)  THE  KELTS 186-193 

(4)  THE  ROMANS 193-195 

(5)  THE  SCYTHIANS 195-201 

(6)  THE  GERMANIC  PEOPLES ...  201-216 

(7)  THE  SLAVS 216-220 

(8)  CONCLUSIONS 220-222 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  VII,     THE   IRON  AGE,   PART  II 

(Speakers  of  Uralic  and  Altaic)  PAOES 

(1)  THE  FINNO-UGRIANS 223-226 

(2)  THE  TURKS  AND  MONGOLS 226-236 

(3)  SPEAKERS  OF   URALIC  AND  ALTAIC,   AND   OLD  WORLD 

RACIAL  ORIGINS 236-240 

CHAPTER  VIII.     INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE 

LIVING 

(1)  MATERIALS  AND  TECHNIQUES 241-245 

(2)  THE  USE  OF  STATISTICS  IN  PHYSICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY  .      .  245-251 

(3)  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BODILY  CHARACTERS: 

(a)  STATURE  AND  BODILY  FORM 251-256 

(4)  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BODILY  CHARACTERS: 

(b)  HEAD  FORM,  HEAD  SIZE,  AND  OTHER  METRICAL 

CHARACTERS  OF  THE  HEAD  AND  FACE  .      .      .  256-268 

(5)  DISTRIBUTION  OF  BODILY  CHARACTERS: 

(c)  PIGMENTATION,  THE  PILOUS  SYSTEM,  AND  MOR- 

PHOLOGY OF  THE  SOFT  PARTS 269*279 

(6)  RACIAL  CLASSIFICATION  WITHIN  THE  WHITE  FAMILY    .      .  279-296 

CHAPTER  IX.     THE  NORTH 

(1)  INTRODUCTION 297-298 

(2)  THE  LAPPS 298-306 

(3)  THE  SAMOYEDS 306-307 

(4)  SCANDINAVIA;  NORWAY 307-323 

(5)  ICELAND 323-326 

(6)  SWEDEN 326-332 

(7)  DENMARK 332-337 

(8)  THE  FINNO-UGRIANS,  INTRODUCTION 337-342 

(9)  RACIAL  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  EASTERN  FINNS    ....  342-351 

(10)  THE  BALTIC  FINNS:  Livs  AND  ESTHS 351-355 

(11)  THE  BALTIC  FINNS:  FINLAND       .     ". 355-359 

(12)  THE  BALTIC-SPEAKING  PEOPLES 360-368 

(13)  CONCLUSIONS 368-369 

CHAPTER  X.    THE  BRITISH   ISLES 

(1)  RESUME  OF  SKELETAL  HISTORY 370-376 

(2)  IRELAND 376-384 

(3)  GREAT  BRITAIN,  GENERAL  SURVEY 384-398 

(4)  THE  BRITISH  ISLES,  SUMMARY 398-399 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  XI.     THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD 

PAGES 

(1)  INTRODUCTION 400-401 

(2)  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RAGE  IN  ARABIA 401-411 

(3)  IRAQ  AND  THE  COASTAL  REGIONS  OF  THE  PERSIAN  GULF     .  41 1-415 

(4)  THE  IRANO- AFGHAN  RAGE;  IRAN  AND  AFGHANISTAN    .      .  415-422 

(5)  THE  TURKS  AS  MEDITERRANEANS 422-425 

(6)  THE  VEDDOID  PERIPHERY,  HADHRAMAUT  TO  BALUCHISTAN  425-431 

(7)  PALESTINE,  JEWISH  ORIGINS,  AND  THE  EASTERN  JEWS  .      .  432-444 

(8)  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RACE  IN  EAST  AFRICA    ....  444-458 

(9)  THE  MODERN  EGYPTIANS 458-462 

(10)  NORTH  AFRICA,  INTRODUCTION 462-468 

(11)  THE  EASTERN  ARABO-BERBERS,  LIBYA  AND  THE  OASES      .  468-471 

(12)  THE  TUAREG 471-474 

(13)  EASTERN  BARBARY,  ALGERIA,  AND  TUNISIA       ....  474-479 

(14)  WESTERN  BARBARY;  MOROCCO  AND  THE  CANARY  ISLANDS  480-489 

(15)  THE  IBERIAN  PENINSULA 489-498 

(16)  THE  WESTERN  MEDITERRANEAN  ISLANDS 498-501 

(17)  THE  BASQUES 501-504 

(18)  THE  GYPSIES 504-507 

(19)  CONCLUSIONS 507-509 

CHAPTER  XII.     THE   CENTRAL  ZONE,   A  STUDY 
IN  REEMERGENCE 

(1)  INTRODUCTION 510-511 

(2)  FRANCE 511-522 

(3)  BELGIUM 522-529 

(4)  THE  NETHERLANDS  AND  FRISIA 529-535 

(5)  GERMANY 535-547 

(6)  SWITZERLAND  AND  AUSTRIA 547-554 

(7)  ITALY 554-559 

(8)  THE  LIVING  SLAVS: 

(a)  CZECHS  AND  WENDS 559-563 

(9)  THE  LIVING  SLAVS: 

(b)  POLAND  AND  RUSSIA 563-576 

(10)  TURKS,  TATARS,  AND  MONGOLS  OF  EUROPEAN  RUSSIA.      .  576-584 

(11)  THE  MAGYARS 584-586 

(12)  THE  LIVING  SLAVS: 

(c)  SERBS,  CROATS,  AND  SLOVENES 587-595 

(13)  ALBANIA  AND  THE  DINARIC  RACE 595-604 

(14)  THE  GREEKS 604-609 


CONTENTS 


(15)  BULGARIA 609-612 

(16)  RUMANIA  AND  THE  VLAGHS 612-617 

(17)  THE  OSMANLI  TURKS 617-622 

(18)  NEAR  EASTERN  BRACK YCEPHALS;  SYRIA,  ARMENIA,  AND 

THE  CAUCASUS 622-634 

(19)  TURKESTAN  AND  THE  TAJIKS 634-638 

(20)  THE  BRACHYCEPHALIZED  JEWS:  ASIA  AND  CENTRAL  EUROPE  638-646 

(21)  CONCLUSIONS 646-648 

CHAPTER  XIII.     CONCLUSION 

(1)  COMMENTS  AND  REFLECTIONS 649-650 

(2)  THE  WHITE  RACE  AND  THE  NEW  WORLD 650-652 

APPENDICES 

I.  MEANS  OF  PRINCIPAL  CRANIAL  SERIES  USED  IN  CHAP- 
TERS II-VII 655-665 

II.  GLOSSARY    ....  .      .  .  ....  666-683 

III.  LIST  OF  SERIALS  AND  THEIR  ABBREVIATIONS     ....  684-691 

IV.  LIST  OF  BOOKS 692-700 

INDEXES' 701-739 


LIST  OF  MAPS 

PAGES 

1.  MESOLITHIC  GEOGRAPHY  OF  N.  W.  EUROPE 71 

2.  NEOLITHIC  MOVEMENTS  AND  CHRONOLOGY 80-81 

3.  BRONZE  AGE  MOVEMENTS  AND  CHRONOLOGY      ....  132-133 

4.  IRON  AGE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE,  BEFORE  HUNS  AND  TURKS     .  176-177 

5.  STATURE 252-253 

6.  CEPHALIC  INDEX 258-259 

7.  HEAD  SIZE 262-263 

8.  PIGMENTATION  OF  HAIR  AND  EYES 270-271 

9.  RACIAL  DISTRIBUTION 294-295 

10.  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  URALIG  AND  ALTAIC  SPEECH  ON 

EUROPEAN  SOIL 338 

11.  COUNTY  DIVISIONS  IN  FINLAND 355 

12.  THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  IRANIAN  LANGUAGES 416 

13.  LINGUISTIC  MAP  OF  THE  EAST  AFRICAN  HAMITIC  AREA       .  446 

14.  LANGUAGES  OF  EAST-CENTRAL  EUROPE  AND  THE  BALKANS  .  561 

15.  TRIBAL  DIVISIONS  IN  NORTHERN  ALBANIA 596 

16.  PEOPLES  OF  THE  CAUCASUS 631 


Chapter  I 

INTRODUCTION  TO   THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY 
OF  THE  WHITE  RACE 

(1)   STATEMENT  OF  AIMS  AND  PROPOSALS 

The  present  book  is  a  textbook  designed  for  the  use  of  college  students 
who  have  had  or  are  taking  a  preliminary  course  in  anthropology.  Enough 
of  it  is,  however,  written  in  a  non-technical  way,  so  that  students  of  allied 
disciplines  may  use  it  for  reference.  The  subject  matter  to  be  studied  con- 
sists of  the  body  of  statistical  material  collected  by  the  world's  physical  an- 
thropologists which  concern  the  somatic  character  of  peoples  belonging  to 
the  white  race.  This  material  may  be  divided  into  (A),  skeletons;  and  (B), 
metrical  data  and  observations  on  the  living. 

By  the  use  of  this  material  we  propose  to  follow  the  history  of  the  white 
race  from  its  Pleistocene1  beginnings  to  the  present,  and  to  provide  a  classi- 
fication of  sub-races  which  will  be  fully  in  accord  with  the  facts  as  we  now 
know  them.  We  submit  the  thesis  that  man,  as  a  domestic  animal,  is 
extremely  variable;  and  that  he  has  subjected  himself,  in  his  wanderings, 
to  all  of  the  environments  of  the  earth,  and  hence  is  subject  to  environ- 
mental modification  in  a  way  unequalled  by  any  other  species.  We  further 
suggest  that  man,  through  his  development  of  human  cultures,  has  modi- 
fied his  bodily  form  by  his  own  devices. 

During  the  Pleistocene  period  there  were  several  species  of  primates 
which  had  attained  some  degree  of  human  culture,  by  the  acquisition  of 
stone  implements,  of  fire,  and  of  speech.  In  the  present  post-glacial  or 
interglacial  period,  in  conformity  with  the  general  reduction  in  faunal 
varieties,  man  has  been  reduced  to  a  single  species,  unique  in  a  single 
genus.  During  the  Pleistocene  one  species,  at  least,  had  developed  in  the 
manner  of  a  foetalized  terrestrial  ape,  and  it  is  that  species  which  carries 
today  the  main  stem  of  Homo  sapiens.  Other  species,  including  the  fossil 
men  of  Java,  of  Peking,  and  Homo  wander thalensis,  had  developed  at  the 
same  time  into  a  heavier,  hypermasculine  endocrine  form,  with  a  luxuri- 
ance of  jaws,  teeth,  and  bony  crests. 

We  propose  to  demonstrate  that  these  non-foetalized  species  did  not 
wholly  die  out,  but  that  at  least  one  of  them  was  absorbed  into  the  main 

1  The  term  Pleistocene  is  used  here  to  signify  the  time  span  which,  in  Europe,  began 
with  the  advance  of  the  first  Quatenary  glaciation  and  which  ended  with  the  retreat  of 
Wurai  II. 

1 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


human  stem,  at  some  time  during  the  Middle,  or  the  initial  part  of  the  Late, 
Pleistocene.  From  this  amalgamation  was  produced  the  large,  rugged, 
and  relatively  un-foetalized  group  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  men  in  Europe, 
North  Africa,  and  northern  Asia.  This  type  of  man  passed  over  Bering 
Straits  in  early  post-glacial  times,  if  not  earlier,  to  provide  the  basic  ge- 
netic stock  from  which  the  American  Indian  developed,  in  combination 
with  later  arrivals.  From  a  branch  of  this  hyperborean  group  there  evolved, 
in  northern  Asia,  the  ancestral  strain  of  the  entire  specialized  mongoloid 
family. 

We  suggest  that  the  ancestors  of  the  whites  in  their  major  form  developed 
during  pluvial  periods  of  the  Pleistocene  in  parts  of  what  is  now  the  arid 
zone  reaching  from  the  Sahara  to  northern  India;  that  in  post-glacial  times 
many  were  forced  out  of  these  homes  by  desiccation,  and  that  some  of 
them  originated  agriculture  and  animal  husbandry  in  northeastern  Africa 
and  southwestern  Asia.  From  these  centers  agricultural  pioneers  followed 
post-glacial  zones  of  climate  into  Europe,  gradually  encroaching  upon 
the  lands  formerly  glaciated.  In  most  of  the  regions  which  they  occupied 
they  greatly  outnumbered  the  descendants  of  the  hunters  and  fishers 
whose  ancestors  had  clung  on  since  glacial  times,  and  many  of  whom  had 
followed  the  retreating  ice  toward  its  last  melting  nuclei. 

The  occupation  of  all  arable  lands,  and  those  suitable  for  grazing,  was 
not  completed  in  a  century,  or  in  a  millennium;  the  process  was  a  gradual 
one,  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  into  environmentally 
protected  fastnesses  equally  gradual.  The  entry  of  food-producers  from 
Asia  and  Africa  did  not  take  a  single  route  or  involve  a  single  people;  it 
was  a  complex  sequence  of  migrations  through  several  ports  of  entry. 
The  various  strains  of  food-producers  mixed  with  the  food-gatherers 
whom  they  encountered,  and  with  each  other,  until,  in  our  own  time, 
not  a  single  group  of  complete  food-gatherers  has  remained  in  white  man's 
territory. 

The  food-producers  seem  to  have  been  variants  on  one  central  racial 
theme,  the  basic  Mediterranean.  This  basic  Mediterranean  stock  varied 
in  many  respects,  especially  in  stature  and  in  pigmentation,  but  in  its 
essential  qualities,  which  segregated  it  from  non- whites,  it  was  remarkably 
uniform.  We  do  not  know  that  the  survivors  of  the  food-gatherers  whom 
the  Mediterranean  food-producers  absorbed  were  white  in  soft-part 
morphology,  and  there  is  some  evidence  that  some  had  begun  to  evolve 
in  a  mongoloid,  others  perhaps  in  a  negroid,  direction.  Such  variations 
may  be  seen  within  the  present  composite  white  racial  amalgam. 

At  any  rate,  the  main  conclusion  of  this  study  will  be  that  the  present 
races  of  Europe  are  derived  from  a  blend  of  (A) ,  food-producing  peoples  from  Asia 
and  Africa,  of  basically  Mediterranean  racial  form,  with  (j5),  the  descendants  of 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION 


inter  glacial  and  glacial  food-gatherers,  produced  in  turn  by  a  blending  of  basic 
Homo  sapiens,  related  to  the  remote  ancestor  of  the  Mediterraneans,  with  some  «o«- 
sapiens  species  of  general  Neanderthaloid  form.  The  actions  and  interactions  of 
environment,  selection,  migration,  and  human  culture  upon  the  various  entities  within 
this  amalgam,  have  produced  the  white  race  in  its  present  complexity. 

In  view  of  these  circumstances,  the  exact  classification  of  living  whites 
into  sub-races,  such  as  Nordics,  Alpines,  Binaries,  and  so  on,  need  not  be 
made  at  this  point,  but  can  await  (A)  the  historical  study  of  the  white 
race  which  will  follow  in  Chapters  II  to  VII;  and  (B)  the  survey  of  the 
living  as  a  whole  which  will  be  made  in  Chapter  VIII.  In  Chapters  IX 
to  XII,  inclusive,  we  will  make  a  more  detailed  regional  survey  of  the 
living  peoples  of  Europe  to  supplement  the  preceding  sections. 

(2)   THEORY  AND   PRINCIPLES   OF   THE  CONCEPT  RACE 

Before  proceeding  to  a  detailed  historical  survey  or  to  technical  mat- 
ters, it  seems  advisable  to  state  at  greater  length  than  in  the  preceding 
section  some  of  the  principles  which  we  believe  to  govern  the  formation  of 
human  races.  First  of  all  the  question  arises,  "What  is  a  race?"  and  the 
problem  of  this  definition  must  be  squarely  faced.  In  the  course  of  the 
present  study  the  author  has  developed  a  definite  point  of  view  on  this 
subject,  which  may  be  expressed  as  follows:  The  concept  race  is  a  general 
one,  and  any  attempt  to  chain  it  down  to  a  more  specific  meaning  repre- 
sents a  too  rigid  attempt  at  taxonomy.  The  use,  under  strict  definition, 
of  such  convenient  words  as  sub-race,  stock,  variety,  local  type,  etc.,  im- 
plies a  Linnaean  classification  of  categories  which  is  foreign  to  the  facts 
of  human  biological  differentiation. 

One  may,  in  a  group  of  animals  such  as  man,  definitely  name  and 
classify  the  major  group  to  which  all  individuals  belong.  All  living  va- 
rieties of  human  beings  are  mutually  fertile,  and  there  is  no  other  animal 
with  which  man  may  be  crossed.  Although  the  fertility  test  is  not  neces- 
sarily a  diagnostic,  Homo  sapiens  in  the  living  sense  comprises,  without  ques- 
tion, a  species,  even  if  in  the  formation  of  the  living  human  group  more 
than  one  related  species,  now  extinct  in  the  pure  form,  was  absorbed.2 

So  much  for  the  larger  group.  Within  this  larger  group  there  are  many 
variations  of  superficially  great  importance.  There  are  pygmy  men  whose 
mean  stature  is  less  than  150  cm.  There  are  giant-like  men  whose  mean 
stature  is  over  180  cm.  At  the  same  time  there  are  black  men  and  white 
men;  men  with  kinky  hair,  men  with  straight  hair;  men  with  beards  and 
without;  and  so  on.  Their  variation  is  much  greater  than  that  found 
among  wolves,  or  among  tigers,  or  among  any  one  species  of  mice.  Yet 
it  is  not  as  great  as  the  variation  found  among  dogs,  who  again  form  a 

2  See  Chapter  II,  section  5. 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


single  species,  and  who  in  turn  may  include  a  blend  of  two — wolf  and 
jackal. 

Here  again,  we  must  repeat,  man  is  a  domestic  animal,  and  as  such  is 
subject  to  the  laws  which  govern  animals  in  domestication.  Being  less  de- 
pendent in  a  direct  sense  upon  a  given  environment  than  a  wild  animal, 
he  is  much  more  variable;  having  become  numerous  as  a  result  of  this 
partial  emancipation,  he  has  spread  into  many  environments,  so  that 
what  influences  these  environments  have  had  upon  him  have  been  ex- 
tremely varied.  At  the  same  time  the  laws  which  govern  his  mating  are 
different  from  those  which  govern  the  conjunction  of  wild  animals.  Fur- 
thermore there  has  been  some  degree  of  selection  in  this  mating,  but  less 
than  the  selection  which  has  so  profoundly  differentiated  the  dog. 

All  of  the  principles  mentioned  above  have  produced,  as  their  effect,  a 
prodigious  differentiation  within  the  human  species,  and  one  which  must 
at  times  have  proceeded  with  startling  rapidity.  At  the  same  time  there 
has  taken  place  an  almost  equally  great  mixing  and  blending  of  peoples, 
under  circumstances  that  could  hardly  occur  among  wild  animals.  For 
example,  the  mixture  between  whites  and  negroes  has  most  frequently  in- 
volved white  men  and  negro  women,  and  only  occasionally  the  reverse. 
Within  the  ranks  of  mixture,  there  has  often  been  a  selection  on  the  basis 
of  differential  social  values  attached  to  different  combinations  of  charac- 
ters. As  a  result  of  all  these  factors,  one  must  not  suppose  that  a  racial 
classification  of  man  into  a  simple  and  orderly  scheme  can  be  easy. 

We  have  already  recognized  the  concept  species  in  regard  to  man.  There 
is  one  other  concept,  wholly  theoretical  for  practical  reasons,  which  may 
be  recognized  with  equal  definition.  That  is  the  pure  strain,  the  result  of 
generations  of  inbreeding  and  selection  of  recessive  characters.  In  man, 
the  pure  strain  is  impossible  to  create  unless  our  social  system  radically 
changes.  In  rats,  guinea  pigs,  and  fruit  flies,  it  has  been  created.  From 
rats,  guinea  pigs,  and  fruit  flies,  biologists  slowly  and  painstakingly  dis- 
cover the  laws  which  govern  inheritance.  They  almost  unanimously  favor 
the  Mendelian  form,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  Mendelism  also 
applies  to  man.  But  man  is  a  genetically  complex  animal,  and  we  do  not, 
apparently,  measure  characters  which  are  Mendelian  units.  If  we  were 
to  measure  the  right  things,  we  would  theoretically  find  that  Mendel's  Law 
is  always  applicable.  The  principle  of  inheritance  through  blending,  by 

A  +  B 

which  is  derived  the  formula ,  depends  upon  a  multiplicity  of  com- 
pensating Mendelian  characters.  That  these  are  not  always  multiple,  or 
that  they  do  not  always  compensate,  is  shown  by  certain  instances  in 
which  blending  has  not  resulted  from  mixture. 

For  example,  the  height  of  the  cranial  vault  and  the  heights  of  the  face 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 


and  nose  often  fail  to  respond  in  the  expected  manner.  Negro-white 
hybrids  in  the  United  States  have  long  faces  and  noses,8  and  so  do  Ethio- 
pians.4 Pitcairn  Islanders  have  more  convex  noses  than  do  either  English 
or  Tahitians.5  Other  instances  have  been  found  in  which  human  inherit- 
ance has  failed  to  assume  the  character  of  a  blend.  These  serve  merely 
as  examples.  Mixture  alone,  however,  cannot  create  and  perpetuate  a 
new  racial  form,  although  it  can  produce  new  combinations.  Mixture 
when  combined  with  selection,  to  emphasize  the  new  and  eliminate  the 
old,  can,  however,  produce  a  decisive  change.6 

In  view  of  the  complexity  of  the  human  species,  as  a  result  of  its  cultural 
peculiarities  which  have  separated  it  from  the  rest  of  the  animal  world,  it 
is  not  easy  to  define  the  word  "race."  Since  man  is  the  oldest  domestic 
animal,  his  variation  and  selection  have  operated  over  an  immensely 
longer  span  of  time  than  those  of  the  other  species  for  whose  present  forms 
he  is  responsible.  Any  attempt  to  classify  him  by  a  rigid  scheme  is  im- 
mensely difficult,  and  the  scheme  must  be  elastic  if  it  is  to  work  at  all. 
Hence  the  term  "race"  must  also  be  elastic.  We  may  recognize,  if  we 
like,  certain  major  races  of  the  Old  World  such  as  the  Khoi-San  (Bush- 
man-Hottentot), the  Pygmy,  the  Australoid,  the  Negro,  the  Mongoloid, 
and  the  White.  Within  each  of  these  major  racial  groups  there  are,  or 
have  been,  smaller  entities  which  may  deserve  the  designation  of  race  in  a 
lesser  sense.  These  smaller  entities  consist,  for  the  most  part,  of  groups 
of  people  reasonably  isolated,  and  developing  into  local  physical  enclaves 
by  the  three  processes,  usually  linked,  of  amalgamation,  selection,  and  en- 
vironmental (in  the  total  sense,  including  cultural)  response.  At  what  border- 
line point  such  an  entity  becomes  a  major  race,  it  is  not  always  possible 
to  say. 

Let  us  consider  these  three  forces — amalgamation,  selection,  and  environ- 
mental response.  We  have  already  mentioned  the  first,  which  is  more  com- 
monly called  race  mixture.  We  have  already  observed  that  while  blending 
seems  to  be  the  usual  result,  in  some  criteria  there  is  evidence  of  simple 
Mendelism  or  the  heaping  of  dominants  or  recessives.  Amalgamation, 
furthermore,  can  produce  a  differential  dominance  based  on  age  grading; 
for  example,  the  dominance  of  hair  blondism  in  infancy,  coupled  with  the 
darkening  of  the  hair  in  adolescence  and  adult  life,  link  blondism  with 
infantile  characters.  The  same  is  not  true  of  eye  blondism,  which  grows 
slightly  more  pronounced  with  age.  At  the  same  time  mongoloid  morpho- 
logical characters  are  more  pronounced  in  infantile  hybrids  than  in  the 

8  Hooton,  E.  A.,  HAS,  vol.  X,  part  II,  1932,  pp.  42-107. 
4  Unpublished  data  in  author's  possession. 
6  Shapiro,  H.  L.,  The  Heritage  of  the  Bounty,  pp.  229-233. 
6  Baur,  Fischer,  and  Lenz,  Human  Heredity,  p.  176. 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


adults;  the  reverse  is  true  of  most  distinctively  white  features  in  combina- 
tion with  those  of  either  negroids  or  mongoloids.  This  differential  age 
dominance  is,  except  in  the  case  of  blondism,  an  heritable  endocrine 
function  connected  with  the  relative  degree  of  infantilism  associated  with 
each  of  the  major  racial  groups. 

Selection  is  a  difficult  force  to  study  in  man,  at  least  in  a  scientific  sense. 
But  it  is  without  question  one  of  great  importance.  Sexual  selection  prob- 
ably has  and  always  has  had  a  certain  application,  which  may  be  seen  in 
the  current  standards  of  beauty  in  different  countries.  The  standards  of 
one  group  may  be  shifted  through  the  cultural  medium  to  another.  But 
since  in  any  population  other  than  an  industrial,  civilized  one  there  are  few 
bachelors  and  few  spinsters,  sexual  selection  must  have  worked  slowly  in 
most  cases,  at  least  in  the  sense  of  an  eliminative  rather  than  a  segregative 
principle.  Warfare,  again,  kills  off  a  selected  group  of  males,  while  celibacy 
connected  with  the  assumption  of  religious  offices  may  render  genetically 
ineffective  a  selected  population  element. 

The  most  important  selection  is  probably  that  consequent  on  changes 
of  environment,  by  which  the  selective  factor  may  perhaps  be  a  physio- 
logical economy  in  response  to  new  types  of  mineral  deficiency.  This  type 
of  selection  may  have  been  of  profound  importance  in  the  evolution  of 
man  as  a  species,  as  well  as  of  different  races.7  Small,  foetalized,  relatively 
weak  races  may  be  more  efficient  and  hence  more  suitable  for  survival  in 
certain  environments  than  larger,  more  muscular,  and  less  infantile  ones. 
Small,  foetalized,  and  relatively  defenseless  mammals  develop  elaborate 
social  devices  by  which  the  solidarity  of  the  group  compensates  for  the 
deficiency  in  individual  aggressiveness;  man  on  the  whole  is  a  social  animal 
comparable  in  this  respect  to  the  Cebus  monkey.  The  type  of  environ- 
mental selection  postulated  by  Marett  may  have  been  of  profound  im- 
portance in  the  evolution  of  man  as  a  species,  as  well  as  of  different  races. 

Another  form  of  selection  is  intimately  concerned  with  the  complexity 
of  the  social  structure.  When  a  population  is  stratified  into  social  horizons, 
this  cultural  differentiation  is  often  the  result  of  the  conjunction  of  two  or 
more  social  and  hence  ethnic  groups,  from  two  or  more  geographical 
sources.  It  takes  time  for  cultures  to  blend  and  for  people  who  practice 
these  cultures  to  mix,  and  if  there  exists,  at  the  same  time,  the  idea  that 
one  group  is  superordinate  and  the  other  subordinate  in  social  values,  the 
social  mechanism  will  often  function  in  such  a  way  as  to  perpetuate  this 
cleavage.  Thus  the  mixing  process  will  be  retarded,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  difference  in  the  reproductive  rates  of  the  two  Facially  identified  social 
horizons  may  arise. 

As  a  rule,  at  least  in  modern  times,  the  group  which  is  considered  sub- 

7  Marett,  J.  R.  de  la  H.,  Race,  Sex,  and  Environment. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION  1 

ordinate  will  reproduce  with  greater  fecundity  than  will  the  superior  class. 
In  this  way  the  upper  class  will  gradually  disappear,  or  else  social  mobility 
will  gradually  replace  the  upper  from  the  ranks  of  the  lower,  and  the  social 
distinction  will  remain,  but  without  racial  significance.  Thus  a  differential 
reproductive  rate  has,  in  effect,  a  selective  value,  and  one  population  may 
quietly  replace  another.  Whether  or  not  the  replacement  is  complete,  the 
relative  numerical  importance  of  the  two  genetic  strains  will  have  been 
altered. 

Extreme  differences  in  skin  color,  in  body  odor,  and  in  face  form  are 
more  active  deterrents  to  such  mobility  than  are  differences  important  to 
the  anthropologist  but  not  to  the  public,  such  as  the  cephalic  index  and 
other  measures  of  head  form.  Differences  of  the  first  class  prevent  the 
American  Negro  from  complete  absorption  into  the  ranks  of  the  white,  for 
his  diagnostic  racial  characters,  unless  the  negroid  factor  in  the  individual 
inheritance  is  dilute,  are  easily  noticeable.  On  the  other  hand  differences 
in  head  form  are  not  usually  noticed,  and  a  brachycephalic  white  popula- 
tion may  replace  a  dolichocephalic  one  by  means  of  social  mobility. 

So  far  we  have  been  considering  selection  within  a  geographically  im- 
mobile group,  or  rather,  selection  at  the  geographical  point  under  con- 
sideration. But  there  is  still  another  type  of  selection  which  is  very  im- 
portant, and  that  is  mobile  selection,  operating  at  the  point  of  emigration, 
the  source  of  population  supply.  We  shall  see,  in  our  survey  of  prehistoric 
European  racial  movements,8  that  the  Danubian  agriculturalists  of  the 
Early  Neolithic  brought  a  food-producing  economy  into  central  Europe 
from  the  East.  They  perpetuated  in  the  new  European  setting  a  physical 
type  which  was  later  supplanted  in  their  original  home.  Several  centuries 
later  the  Corded  people,  in  the  same  way,  came  from  southern  Russia — 
but  there  we  first  find  them  intermingled  with  other  peoples,  and  the  cul- 
tural factors  which  we  think  of  as  distinctively  Corded  are  included  in  a 
larger  cultural  equipment.  The  Corded  people,  therefore,  who  left  south- 
ern Russia  and  moved  westward  into  central  and  northwestern  Europe, 
were  a  selected  group  of  people,  choseii  from  a  larger  and  more  hetero- 
geneous human  storehouse.  This  situation  clearly  involves  the  principle 
that  people  who  migrate  from  an  old  home  to  a  new  do  not  represent,  in  most  cases, 
the  total  or  typical  physical  form  of  the  home  land,  provided  that  the  new  home  is 
different  from  the  old;  but  they  represent  a  special  group  selected  on  the  basis  of  their 
suitability  and  opportunity  for  migrating.  This  principle  can  be  clearly  seen 
in  the  study  of  modern  migrating  peoples. 

The  Poles  who  came  to  the  United  States  during  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  early  decades  of  the  twentieth,  did  not  represent  a  cross- 
section  of  the  Polish  population,9  but  a  taller,  blonder,  longer-headed 

s  Chapter  IV.  *  Rosinski,  B.,  PAn,  voL  8,  1934,  pp.  42-44. 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


group  than  the  Poles  as  a  whole.  In  other  words,  there  was  a  definite 
selection  of  a  special  physical  type  which  influenced  some  Poles  to  come  to 
America  and  others  to  stay  at  home.  Dr.  Shapiro  has  found  that  the  Japa- 
nese who  migrated  to  the  Hawaiian  Islands  are  significantly  different  in 
many  metrical  and  morphological  characters  from  their  own  relatives 
who  remained  at  home.10  This  was  determined  not  by  a  study  of  repre- 
sentative samples,  but  by  the  actual  measurement  of  relatives,  in  Hawaii 
and  Japan. 

In  the  same  sense,  the  Americans  of  colonial  British  ancestry  are  not 
like  Englishmen  in  the  larger  sense  of  the  word.  The  English  who  went 
to  America  in  the  Colonial  period  were  a  definitely  selected  group — 
selected  on  the  basis  of  religion,  social  and  economic  position,  and  geo- 
graphical distribution.  Once  in  America,  under  new  conditions,  com- 
parative isolation,  and  the  intensive  cross-breeding  of  relatively  few  family 
lines,  this  differentiation  was  accentuated.  Once  the  arable  lands  of  New 
England  and  New  York  State  had  been  cleared  and  cultivated,  the  farmers 
who  moved  westward  into  the  fertile  Ohio  Valley,  and  on  successively  to 
Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Iowa,  were  not  typical  examples  of  the  total  popula- 
tion of  which  they  were  drawn.  The  selection  of  the  mountain  men  of  the 
Rockies,  and  of  the  early  cattle  rangers  of  the  Plains  was  even  more  no- 
ticeable. 

So  far  we  have  been  considering  selection  in  migration  in  reference  to 
the  new  country  settled  by  the  immigrants,  but  this  selection,  when  the 
migration  occurs  in  any  numbers,  has  an  equally  important  racial  effect 
upon  the  old  country.  The  depopulation  of  Ireland  and  Sweden  through 
emigration  to  America  must  have  affected  the  racial  constitutions  of  these 
countries,  just  as  the  mass  exodus  of  several  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
Germanic  tribesmen  in  the  Volkerwanderung  period  must  also  have  af- 
fected northern  Germany  and  Scandinavia. 

A  lesser  selection  in  scope,  but  equally  important  in  principle  and  in 
effect,  is  the  selection  of  urban  populations  from  rural  sources.  Numerous 
European  studies  have  made  it  clear  that  the  young  men  and  women 
who  leave  their  villages  to  seek  a  new  manner  of  living  in  the  cities  are 
racially  atypical  of  the  village  populations  as  a  whole,  and  that  the  drain- 
age of  these  people  from  the  fecund  rural  districts  into  the  relatively  in- 
fertile cities  has  a  selective  value  in  the  determination  of  the  physical 
nature  of  the  rural  population.11 

Selective  differences  in  emigration  and  immigration  exist  in  the  cul- 
tural as  well  as  in  the  racial  sense.  The  Corded  invaders  who  moved 
westward  into  Europe  did  not  carry  all  the  trappings  of  Asiatic  and  south 

10  Shapiro,  H.  L.,  SM,  vol.  45,  1937,  pp.  109-118;  also,  Migration  and  Environment. 
u  Rryn  and  Schreiner,  Somatologie  der  Nonveger,  pp.  342-344,  will  serve  as  an  example. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 


Russian  culture  with  them;  they  took  only  those  objects  which  they  would 
find  useful  in  their  new  environment,  and  easy  to  replace  from  local  ma- 
terials. In  the  same  way  the  early  American  plainsman  and  trapper  did 
not  fill  his  knapsack  with  lace  sleeves,  wine  glasses,  and  silver  shoe  buckles, 
but  carried  only  such  clothing,  weapons,  and  other  equipment  which  he 
knew  would  be  of  service  to  him.  Later  on,  after  he  had  settled  the  new  country, 
the  more  luxurious  trappings  of  the  old  culture  could  follow,  provided  that  he  had 
maintained  contact  with  his  original  home. 

This  last  principle  again  applies  to  race  as  much  as  to  culture.  The 
settlers  who  come  to  a  new  country  later,  after  the  ground  has  been  ex- 
plored, are  often  drawn  from  a  different  segment  of  the  original  society, 
and  may  represent  a  different  racial  entity,  with  different  cultural  associ- 
ations and  aptitudes  from  that  of  the  pioneers. 

Having  dealt  with  amalgamation  and  selection,  there  remains  the  prin- 
ciple of  environmental  response.  That  human  evolution  has  been  going  on  ever 
since  the  initial  acquisition  of  the  distinctive  human  traits,  such  as  speech, 
the  use  of  fire,  and  the  making  of  tools,  cannot  be  denied.  Man  did  not 
stop  evolving  once  he  became  a  man.  We  have  seen  that  Pleistocene  man, 
of  whatever  type,  was  more  primitive  in  some  respects  than  modern  civi- 
lized man.  The  reduction  of  face  size,  and  especially  of  the  masticatory 
apparatus,  is,  for  example,  one  of  the  most  marked  and  most  widespread 
active  human  evolutionary  trends.12 

There  are  other  responses,  however,  which  are  not  necessarily  evolu- 
tionary, but  which  must  be  considered  direct  reactions  to  environmental 
change,  in  a  broad  sense.  Changes  in  type  and  complexity  of  civilization, 
acting  presumably  through  nutritional  agencies,  may  serve  as  environ- 
mental stimuli  and  produce  somatic  effects.  These  responses,  as  observed 
in  modern  times,  take  the  form  of  sweeping  trends.  The  increase  in  stature 
which  has  affected  northern  and  western  Europe  and  much  of  the  New 
World  so  profoundly  within  the  last  century  is  just  such  a  trend.  That  it  is 
a  true  mass  response  and  not  merely  a  selective  process  is  shown  by  Bowles's 
studies  of  three  generations  of  Harvard  freshmen,  taking  only  actual  ge- 
netic lines  of  grandfathers,  fathers,  and  sons.18  That  it  is  culturally  moti- 
vated, whatever  the  mechanism,  cannot  be  denied,  for  it  is  found  only  in 
countries  which  have  been  modernized  progressively  and  thoroughly  dur- 
ing this  period. 

The  most  striking  modern  stature  increase  must  be  that  of  the  English 
colonists  in  Queensland,  for  which  there  is  ample  evidence  but  no  avail- 
able scientific  data.  The  Queenslanders  have  shot  up  to  an  immense 
height,  uniformly  and  with  few  exceptions,  and  have  acquired  a  lanky, 

u  Aahlcy-Montagu,  M.  F.,  QRB,  vol.  10, 1935,  pp.  32-59. 
"  Bowles,  Gordon  T.,  New  Types  of  Old  Americans  at  Harvard. 


10  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

leptosome  bodily  habitus.  Since  the  Queenslanders  are  essentially  pio- 
neers, living  largely  off  the  soil,  this  must  be  due  to  direct  environmental 
stimulation  in  the  geographical  sense. 

Stature  increases  may  be  matched  with  equally  marked  decreases.  Dur- 
ing the  Dark  Ages,  from  the  time  of  colonization  to  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  Icelanders,  originally  as  tall  as  their  Norwegian  ancestors,  shrank  in 
stature  to  the  size  of  southern  Italians.14  Climatologists  now  tell  us  that 
this  shrinking  accompanied  a  lowering  of  mean  annual  temperature,  and 
an  increased  dampness.16  Icelandic  history  adds  that  it  was  a  period  of 
near  starvation.  The  Greenlanders,  who  suffered  even  more  from  this 
climatic  change,  became  even  smaller  than  the  Icelanders  before  their 
extinction.16  Yet  the  Icelanders  who  survived  this  depression  grew  rapidly 
once  it  was  over,  until  at  present  they  comprise  one  of  the  tallest  groups  in 
Europe.  The  population  of  Iceland  has  not  been  materially  added  to  by 
migration  since  the  initial  settlement. 

One  of  the  best  examples  of  environmentally  conditioned  physical 
stunting  is  to  be  seen  in  the  misery  area  of  the  Limousin  hills  in  central 
France.17  Here  isolation,  poverty,  and  the  dependence  on  the  produce  of 
an  infertile  granitic  soil  seem  without  reasonable  doubt  to  have  been  the 
contributing  causes.  Mineral  deficiency,  in  the  sense  in  which  Marett  uses 
it,  may  be  invoked,  as  well  as  malnutrition.  Another  example  of  environ- 
mental conditioning  may  be  seen  in  the  common  level  of  short  stature,  for 
the  most  part  below  160  cm,,  which  extends  in  a  circumpolar  zone  around 
the  world. 

If  environment  can  so  demonstrably  affect  stature,  and  act  with  such 
rapidity  (the  New  Englanders  have  grown  7  cm.  in  100  years),  then  it  is 
more  than  likely  that  it  can  affect  other  racial  criteria,  including  head 
form.  The  excessive  brachycephalization  which  swept  over  central  Eu- 
rope in  the  Middle  Ages,  affecting  especially  southern  Germany  and 
Bohemia,  followed  the  same  pattern  as  the  stature  change.  Both  pro- 
ceeded as  orderly  increases  at  fixed  rates  of  speed.  Selection  may  have 
been  a  large  contributing  cause,  through  infiltration  and  differential  birth 
rates.  Simple  Mendelian  dominance  of  brachycephaly,  which  has  never 
been  demonstrated,  may  not  be  eliminated,  but  it  cannot  have  been  the 
only  factor  involved.  But  even  if  we  grant  infiltration  and  differential 
selection. and  direct  Mendelism,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  the  rise  in 
cephalic  index  in  the  south  German  and  Alpine  region  over  any  level 

14  Seltzer,  G.  C,,  unpublished  MS.  in  Peabody  Museum.  Author's  permission. 
"Brooks,  C.  E.  P.,  QRMS,  vol.  47,  1921,  pp.  173-190. 
*8Hansen,  Fr.  C.  C.,  MOG,  vol.  67,  1924,  pp.  291-547. 

"Ripley,  W.  Z.,  Races  of  Europe,  pp.  168-171,  after  Collignon,  R.,  MSAP,  ser.  3, 
vol.  1,  1894,  pp.  3-79. 

Collignon,  R.,  AG,  vol.  5,  1896,  pp.  156-166. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION  11 

which  it  had  attained  in  antiquity,  historic  or  prehistoric,  unless  we  place 
this  change  at  least  partly  on  the  basis  of  a  response  to  environmental 
stimuli.  The  food-gatherers  of  west-central  Europe  seem  to  have  re- 
sponded to  an  earlier  and  equally  extensive  brachycephalization  during 
the  Mesolithic,  a  period  of  profound  climatic  change;  and  the  parallel 
modification,  millennia  later,  among  civilized  food-producers,  may,  for 
reasons  as  yet  unknown,  have  followed  a  parallel  mechanism  of  change. 

All  of  this  leads  us  back  eventually  to  where  we  started,  when  we  began 
to  consider  the  meaning  of  the  word  race.  A  race  is,  in  view  of  this  discus- 
sion, a  group  of  people  who  possess  the  majority  of  their  physical  charac- 
teristics in  common.  A  pure  race,  if  the  term  need  be  used,  is  one  in  which 
the  several  contributing  elements  have  become  so  completely  blended  that 
correlations  fail  to  reveal  their  original  combinations.18  At  the  same  time 
the  processes  of  selection  and  of  response  to  environmental  influences  have 
given  the  resultant  blend  a  distinctive  character. 

The  longer  such  a  human  entity  remains  isolated,  the  more  distinctive 
it  may  become  in  the  racial  sense.  It  may  expand  numerically,  divide,  and 
become  a  major  human  stock,  while  others  once  much  more  numerous 
may  become  almost  extinct,  or  fully  so  through  absorption.  But  the  most 
important  fact  about  a  race  is  that  it  is  an  entity,  however  ill  defined,  which 
is  never  static,  but  always  in  process  of  change. 

If,  as  above,  we  define  race  as  a  group  of  people  reasonably  unified  in  the 
physical  sense  and  living  in  one  place,  difficulties  at  once  arise.  How  are 
we  to  draw  the  borderline  between  that  place  and  the  next?  Where  does 
one  race  leave  off  and  the  next  begin?  There  are  those  who  assert  that  a 
race  is  merely  an  artificially  assumed  point  on  the  smooth  and  glassy  sur- 
face of  a  geographical  continuum,19  for  what  may  be  the  concentration 
point  for  an  extreme  condition  in  one  criterion  will  be  an  intermediate 
point  in  others.  This  assertion  is,  to  a  certain  extent,  true.  If  we  view  the 
panorama  of  living  races  on  a  two  dimensional  map,  we  can  but  agree  that 
a  race  in  this  sense  is  merely  a  reasonably  homogeneous  group  of  people 
who  occupy  a  given  arbitrary  point  upon  a  terrestrial  continuum.  In 
regions  of  geographical  smoothness  one  condition  blends  broadly  and 
gently  into  another;  in  regions  cut  up  by  geographical  barriers,  such  as 
deserts  or  mountains,  the  contrasts  are  sharper  and  the  transitions  more 
rapid. 

As  long  as  we  confine  our  glance  to  the  surface,  we  will  continue  to  be 
faced  with  this  dilemma.  But  a  solution  comes  with  the  application  of  a 
third  dimension,  that  of  history.  By  means  of  an  historical  reconstruction, 
with  numerically  adequate  and  competently  documented  skeletal  material, 

»  Scheldt,  W.,  ZFMA,  vol.  27,  pp.  94-116. 

19 1  am  indebted  for  this  concept  to  Dr.  George  Woodbury. 


12  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

it  should  be  possible  to  determine  what  has  happened  in  most  regions 
occupied  by  the  white  race;  why  present  conditions  obtain;  and  what  is 
a  suitable  classification  of  existing  races,  built  upon  the  dual  basis  of  the 
past  and  present. 

This  classification  must,  of  course,  meet  existing  conditions  and  not 
be  an  expression  of  history  alone,  or  of  national  ideals.  By  means  of  such 
a  classification  we  may  hope  to  answer  the  continuum  objection,  and  show 
which  spots  on  the  map  do  actually  represent  centers  of  racial  dissemination 
and  which  have  functioned  more  characteristically  as  zones  of  inter- 
mediacy  and  blending,  in  accordance  with  principles  which  are  now  be- 
ginning to  be  understood.20 

But  we  must  remember,  at  the  same  time,  that  zones  of  intermediacy 
and  blending  may  change  their  function  without  warning  and  assume  the 
r61e  of  feeders  of  racial  material  to  other  regions.  The  interplay  of  these 
functions,  in  accordance  with  the  principles  already  detailed  in  this  chap- 
ter, has  produced  the  racial  complexity  which  characterizes  most  of  the 
earth,  and  especially  those  portions  occupied  by  the  more  active  and  vigor- 
ous and  numerous  branches  of  man,  the  Negroids,  the  Mongoloids,  and 
the  Whites. 

(3)   MATERIALS   AND  TECHNIQUES   OF   OSTEOLOGY** 

The  materials  used  in  the  racial  study  of  European  man  divide  them- 
selves naturally  into  two  classes:  (A)  skeletal  material,  including  crania, 
long  bones,  and  other  bones  such  as  vertebrae,  pelves,  tarsals,  etc.;  and 
(B)  measurements  and  observations  taken  on  the  living.  Both  are  subject 
to  statistical  treatment;  and  both  must  be  employed  if  we  are  to  succeed 
in  our  attempt  to  trace  the  racial  history  of  white  humanity.  In  the  next 
six  chapters,  we  will  deal  almost  exclusively  with  material  of  the  first  cate- 
gory. 

Museums  both  public  and  private,  in  almost  every  European  country 
as  well  as  in  America,  contain  thousands  of  crania  and  long  bones  which 
represent  the  osseous  remains  of  individuals  of  every  race.  Many  of  these, 
without  doubt  the  majority,  are  those  of  persons  of  white  racial  origin. 
For  the  purposes  of  the  present  study,  these  skeletal  remains  assume  vastly 
different  values,  depending  upon  a  number  of  circumstances.  In  the  first 
place,  only  those  which  have  been  measured,  described,  and  published 
were  of  any  use  to  the  present  author,  since  it  has  not  been  possible  for 

»Ketter,  F.,  ZFRK,  vol.  3,  1936,  pp.  40-46. 

21  For  an  exhaustive  study  of  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  standard  text 
in  physical  anthropology,  Rudolf  Martin's  Lekrbuch  der  Anthropologie,  3  vols.,  second 
edition.  The  present  section  is  intended  merely  as  a  brief  statement  concerning 
some  of  the  fundamental  uses  of  osteometric  techniques,  as  well  as  of  the  sources  and 
numbers  of  materials,  employed  in  the  present  study. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION  13 

him  to  travel  from  museum  to  museum  measuring  and  observing  the 
unpublished  material.  The  majority  of  collections  are  still  unpublished, 
and  hence  the  majority  of  data  is  as  useless  as  if  they  were  still  in  the 
ground.  To  make  such  a  measuring  trip  would  probably  take  the  best 
years  of  one  investigator's  lifetime. 

The  first  consideration  is,  then,  whether  or  not  the  material  has  been 
published.  The  second  is,  whether  or  not  it  is  properly  documented  as  to 
sex,  provenience,  and  cultural  association.  A  number  of  older  cranial 
series  has  been  published  without  regard  to  sex,  which  makes  measures 
of  variability  of  slight  value,  and  jeopardizes  the  use  of  means.  Others  in- 
clude skulls  from  different  localities,  vaguely  labelled  and  catalogued, 
which  should  never  have  been  put  together.  Still  others,  and  these  are 
many,  were  unearthed  at  a  time  when  the  archaeologists  had  not  yet  so 
perfected  their  techniques  that  the  cultural  and  chronological  associations 
of  these  remains  could  be  determined.  Still  others  were  brought  into 
museums  by  amateurs  who  paid  no  attention  to  archaeology. 

In  many  cases  it  is  possible  to  review  the  published  documents  as  to 
archaeological  settings,  and  to  revise  them  in  the  light  of  present  knowl- 
edge, especially  when  illustrations  are  given  identifying  the  grave  furniture 
and  types  of  sepulchre.  Therefore  the  number  of  crania  and  other  bones 
which  may  be  realigned  so  as  to  fit  into  geographical,  cultural,  and  chrono- 
logical pigeon-holes  is  not  as  small  as  it  might  be  if  this  material  were 
gathered  without  recourse  to  this  salvaging  process.  The  realignment 
mentioned  above  is  the  principle  upon  which  the  following  six  chapters 
have  been  constructed.  It  has  involved  abstracting  single  skulls  and  small 
series  of  crania,  with  or  without  accompanying  long  bones,  and  combining 
the  data  so  abstracted  into  statistical  series  based  on  an  identity  of  place, 
time,  and  cultural  milieu.  In  some  cases  earlier  investigators  had  already 
effected  this  process  of  compiling  and  combining  in  a  suitable  way,  so 
that  much  of  the  labor  involved  could  be  omitted. 

The  materials  upon  which  Chapters  II  to  VII  are  based  consist,  there- 
fore, of  a  number  of  series  of  crania,  in  some  cases  accompanied  by  other 
bones,  each  series  representing  a  cultural,  chronological,  and  geographical 
entity,  the  existence  of  which  seems  fully  justified  in  the  light  of  our  pres- 
ent knowledge  of  archaeology  and  of  history.  Published  materials  which 
cannot  be  reasonably  documented  in  all  of  the  respects  mentioned  have 
been  ignored,  or  used  with  caution. 

The  crania  which  meet  these  requirements  and  which  represent  an- 
cestral strains  of  the  white  race  are  numerous  enough  to  permit  a  reason- 
able reconstruction  of  the  racial  history  of  the  white  peoples;  but  they  are 
not  numerous  enough  to  permit  us  to  be  sure  that  our  reconstruction  is 
the  only  possible  one  in  every  place  and  instance.  We  therefore  present 


14  THE   RACES   OF   EUROPE 

with  some  confidence  the  main  thesis  of  our  reconstruction,  but  we  are 
not  confident  that  it  is  correct  in  every  period,  in  every  region,  and  in  every 
cultural  unit. 

The  entire  Palaeolithic  period  in  Europe,  for  example,  is  represented  by 
no  more  than  one  hundred  published  and  documented  skulls,  while  the 
Mesolithic  is  represented  by  a  no  greater  number.  Certain  Neolithic 
samples,  especially  in  Egypt,  consist  of  several  hundreds  of  crania,  and  the 
same  is  true  in  the  Bronze  and  Iron  Ages.  No  craniological  series  yet 
published  exceeds  one  thousand  adult  specimens  of  a  single  sex,  although 
several  closely  approach  that  figure. 

Skeletal  material  of  human  and  near-human  primates,  from  the  Lower 
and  Middle  Palaeolithic  cultural  levels,  is  derived  from  chance  finds  of 
unburied  fossil  bones.  In  Europe,  Neanderthal  man  first  buried  his  dead 
in  such  a  way  that  entire  skeletons  would  be  preserved  for  anthropologists 
of  the  future.  At  various  points  in  human  history  cremation  appeared,  to 
confuse  and  dismay  the  racial  historian;  the  chief  vogue  of  this  science- 
inhibiting  custom  began  during  the  late  Bronze  Age  in  Europe,  and  lasted 
well  into  the  Iron  Age. 

In  our  era  another  force  has  arisen  to  prevent  the  use  of  skeletal  ma- 
terial; this  is  the  practice  of  burying  bodies  in  Christian  and  Moslem 
cemeteries,  both  of  which  are  inviolate  on  religious  grounds.  Even  where 
they  are  not  inviolate,  the  absence  of  grave  furniture  in  the  tombs  of 
these  followers  of  revealed  religion  makes  looting  by  archaeologists  un- 
profitable. The  only  skeletal  collections  of  any  abundance  in  post- 
Christian  times  are  those  derived  from  mediaeval  charnel  houses  or  crypts, 
especially  in  South  Germany  and  Austria,  and  in  certain  English  cathe- 
drals. 

From  the  statistical  standpoint  our  skeletal  materials  stand  in  a  border- 
line position.  A  few  series  are  large  enough  to  permit  the  exercise  of  all 
of  the  statistical  constants  of  the  modern  biometric  school;  most,  however, 
are  so  restricted  in  numbers  that  a  simple  calculation  of  mqans,  a  simple 
determination  of  variability  and  homogeneity,  and  an  informal  compari- 
son and  discussion  are  the  only  techniques  which  seem  justified.22  Too 
great  a  mechanization  would  render  such  series  inflexible  and  destroy 
much  of  their  interpretive  value.  To  make  up  for  their  statistical  weakness, 
their  use  as  context  material  for  cultural  and  chronological  horizons  pro- 
vides a  certain  strengthening.  A  series,  however  small,  tells  us  what  is 
present,  but  does  not  tell  us  what  is  additionally  present,  or  what  is  absent. 
The  extent  to  which  small  series  may  be  employed  in  an  interpretative 
sense  must  depend  upon  the  circumstances. 

22  For  a  more  detailed  discussion  of  the  use  of  statistics  in  racial  studies,  see  Chap- 
ter VIII,  section  2. 


GENERAL   INTRODUCTION  15 

The  number  of  criteria  measured  upon  the  crania  used  in  this  survey 
range  from  one — almost  always  the  cranial  index — to  the  five  thousand  of 
von  Torok.  In  combining  and  reseriating  these  series  I  have  made  no  fast 
rule  as  to  what  criteria  to  admit  and  what  to  exclude,  but  have  employed 
what  seemed  to  be  a  reasonable  number,  with  especial  emphasis  upon 
those  which  find  parallels  on  the  living.  For  example,  I  have  usually  ac- 
cepted the  three  principal  dimensions  of  the  cranial  vault — glabello- 
occipital  length,  maximum  biparietal  breadth,  and  basion-bregma  height; 
the  usual  circumferences  and  arcs  of  the  cranial  vault;  the  minimum  and 
maximum  frontal  and  bizygomatic  diameters;  the  interorbital  and  bi- 
orbital  diameters,  and  the  height  and  width  of  the  orbits;  the  height  and 
breadth  of  the  osseous  nose,  the  diameters  of  the  palate,  and  of  the  fora- 
men magnum;  the  heights  of  the  face  from  nasion  to  men  ton,  and  nasion 
to  alveon;  the  principal  dimensions  of  tfce  mandible,  such  as  the  mental 
height,  the  breadth  of  the  ascending  ramus,  and  the  bicondylar  and  bi- 
gonial  diameters.  In  the  rest  of  the  skeleton,  I  have  used  almost  exclu- 
sively the  maximum  lengths  of  the  principal  long  bones,  such  as  the  femur, 
tibia,  fibula,  humerus,  radius,  and  ulna,  and  then  almost  entirely  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  reckoning  stature,  by  means  of  the  Pearson  formulae.23 

In  other  words,  I  have  used  what  I  could  find  in  such  a  way  as  to  de- 
rive the  maximum  useful  information  from  it;  I  have  not  concerned  my- 
self with  techniques  or  routines  which  had  little  bearing  on  my  problem. 
On  the  whole  I  have  worried  little  about  technical  discrepancies  due  to 
differences  in  measuring  methodology;  where  possible  I  have  followed  the 
techniques  approved  by  Morant,  and  where  possible  I  have  made  allow- 
ances for  such  differences  as  I  could  readily  detect.  I  do  not  feel,  however, 
that  technical  discrepancies  in  the  craniological  materials  are  important 
enough  to  make  any  perceptible  difference  in  my  conclusions,  either  de- 
tailed or  general.  The  treatment  of  the  material  has  been  done  in  such  a 
broad  manner  that  such  minutiae  are  of  little  importance.  Craniology  is 
a  more  accurate  science  than  is  the  anthropometry  of  the  living;  when 
we  come  to  the  later  chapters  we  may  concern  ourselves  with  the  question 
of  technique,  but  for  the  moment  it  is  relatively  unimportant. 

23  See  Martin,  Lehrbuch  der  Anthropologie,  second  edition,  vol.  2,  pp.  1020-1021. 


Chapter  II 
PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN 

(1)   INTRODUCING  HOMO  SAPIENS 

Man  as  we  know  him  from  the  study  of  modern  races  is  descended 
from  one  or  more  species  of  a  single  genus,  segregated  out  of  a  group  of 
related  Old  World  primate  genera  which  had  physically,  and  hence  cul- 
turally, taken  the  first  definite  steps  in  a  human  direction.  Members  of 
a  number  of  these  genera  found  that  they  could  cut  with  the  sharp,  glassy 
edge  which  is  formed  when  flint  is  fractured,  learned  the  use  of  fire,  and 
discussed  these  and  other  matters  with  their  fellows  by  means  of  speech. 
But  all  of  them,  including  those  destined  to  take  part  in  the  formation  of 
the  modern  species  Homo  sapiens,  remained,  like  less  human  primates  and 
other  animals,  dependent  on  the  natural  occurrences  of  foodstuffs  for 
their  continued  existence. 

Man  alone,  of  these  parallel  forms,  succeeded  in  breaking  loose  from 
the  natural  limitations  of  food  and  climate,  and  he  did  this  in  a  number 
of  different  ways.  One  of  these  was  the  invention  of  warm  clothing  which 
would  permit  him  to  hunt  in  comfort  the  numerous  arctic  and  temperate 
mammals,  whose  flesh  was  richer  in  fats  than  the  meat  of  his  tropical 
prey;  but  this  was  not  immediately  a  greater  advantage  than  the  develop- 
ment of  a  furry  coat  among  the  animals  which  he  hunted.  Another  was  the 
discovery  of  the  principles  of  reproduction  in  animals  and  plants,  and  the 
knowledge  of  how  to  control  this  reproduction.  This  second  step,  which 
Childe  calls  the  first  revolution,  produced  of  course  agriculture  and  ani- 
mal husbandry,  and  out  of  this  dual  economy  have  developed  the  civi- 
lizations of  the  ancient  and  modern  worlds. 

These  two  primary  steps,  which  were  in  no  sense  consecutive,  although 
the  first  was  undoubtedly  the  earlier,  and  which  had  no  necessary  relation- 
ship one  to  the  other,  brought  about  different  effects  of  far-reaching  con- 
sequence. The  first  of  them  permitted  the  utilization  by  man  of  lands 
which  could  not  otherwise  have  supported  primate  life,  and  also  the 
ability  to  pass  through  the  arctic  barrier  from  the  Old  World  into  Amer- 
ica; the  second,  the  intense  use  of  more  favored  regions,  suited  for  farming 
and  pasture,  and  the  increase  in  population  made  possible  by  the  conse- 
quent abundance  of  foodstuffs.  These  two  steps,  then,  permitted  the 
human  species  to  multiply  greatly,  and  to  occupy  all  of  the  principal  inter- 
connecting areas  of  the  earth,  not  covered  by  glaciers  or  waterless  deserts, 

16 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE   MEN  17 

and  not  separated  from  the  mainlands  of  the  two  hemispheres  by  wide 
expanses  of  sea. 

Long  before  either  of  these  two  steps  had  been  taken,  most  of  the  re- 
lated primate  genera  and  species,  which  had  participated  in  the  earlier 
discovery  and  utilization  of  speech,  flint,  and  fire,  had  dropped  out  of 
the  contest.  Perhaps  the  last  to  disappear  was  Homo  neanderthalensis,  who 
became  extinct  as  such  in  Europe,  if  not  elsewhere,  at  the  time  of  the  last 
glaciation. 

Homo  sapiens,  then,  as  we  now  know  him,  remained  alone  to  deal  with 
the  results  of  the  increasing  control  over  nature  which  he  himself  had  con- 
jured. But  all  branches  of  the  species  did  not  participate  in  these  results, 
while  tho'se  which  have  participated  have  not  shared  them  equally.  In 
the  far  peripheries  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  to  which  man  in  the 
earliest  stages  of  culture  could  retire  without  encountering  great  cold, 
naked  hunters  and  gatherers,  such  as  the  African  Bushmen,  the  Tasm'a- 
nians,  the  Australians,  and  the  Vedda,  have  been  able  to  survive  in  isola- 
tion until  recent  years.  While  only  one,  the  Tasmanian,  is  extinct  in  the 
unmixed  form,1  the  others  promise  soon  to  follow.  Thus  our  species  is 
repeating  within  its  own  ranks  the  selective  process  of  elimination  which 
effaced,  in  earlier  times,  its  non-human  competitors. 

There  is,  actually,  no  real  difference  between  these  two  cycles  of  ex- 
tinction. In  the  first,  although  separate  species  were  involved,  we  now 
know  that  at  least  one  of  those  which  disappeared  was  not  pruned  off 
the  stem  completely;  for,  as  in  the  second  cycle,  its  disappearance  was 
consummated  by  absorption  coincident  with  cultural  changes,  permit- 
ting the  submerged  genetic  strain  to  survive  in  solution.  Human  ge- 
netic strains,  however  ancient  and  however  primitive,  are  very  hard  if 
not  impossible  to  eradicate  completely,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
all  human  racial  stocks  are  mutually  fertile,  and  men  of  all  races  are 
human. 

Nevertheless  these  racial  stocks  possess,  under  varying  conditions,  very 
different  rates  of  procreative  value.  It  is  a  constant  phenomenon  of 
human  history  that  a  small  group  of  people  in  a  restricted  area  will, 
through  some  stimulus  which  is  probably  both  environmental  and  cul- 
tural, increase  rapidly,  expand  its  boundaries,  and  inundate  new  seg- 
ments of  the  earth's  surface  with  its  progeny.  For  example,  the  numerical 
size  of  the  white  race  has,  since  the  time  of  the  industrial  revolution,  in- 
creased vastly.  The  countries  in  which  the  new  regime  was  initiated  grew 
much  more  rapidly  in  population  than  did  those  yet  to  acquire  these  cul- 
tural innovations.  In  this  manner,  emigrants  from  Europe  spread  out 

1 A  few  mixed  survivors  live  on  the  islands  between  Australia  and  Tasmania,  and  in 
reservations  on  the  Australian  mainland. 


18  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

into  other  continents,  previously  occupied  by  less  economical 2  popula- 
tions, until  they  and  their  descendants  had  filled  most  of  the  available 
space  suited  to  their  powers  of  utilization.  After  this,  their  rate  of  increase 
fell.  New  conditions  and  new  stimuli,  provided  that  they  are  favorable, 
produce  great  increases  in  a  species.  Unfavorable  ones  produce  absorption 
and  extinction. 

This  phenomenon  is  not  confined  to  human  beings,  but  is  a  basic  prin- 
ciple of  biology,  by  which  has  been  accomplished  the  spread  of  all  plant 
and  animal  forms.  Man,  whose  ancestors  were  a  handful  of  precocious 
and  biologically  successful  primates,  has  multiplied  until  his  numbers  are 
now  reckoned  in  billions.  The  present  numerical  proportions  of  races 
and  of  nationalities  has  no  reference  to  the  former  numbers  of  previously 
existing  groups  of  people,  to  the  importance  of  these  various  groups  in  the 
history  of  human  racial  development,  nor  furthermore,  to  their  relative 
numerical  values  in  the  future.  In  the  subsequent  pages  outlining  the 
racial  history  of  the  white  segment  of  mankind,  this  principle  must  not 
be  forgotten. 

This  history  is,  on  the  basis  of  present  knowledge,  entirely  confined  to 
Pleistocene  and  Recent  geological  time.  It  is  with  the  earlier  of  these  two 
segments  of  the  Genozoic  3  that  the  present  chapter  is  concerned.  In  it, 
as  in  subsequent  chapters,  some  attempt  will  be  made  to  place  the  skeletal 
remains  studied  in  their  proper  chronological  horizons.  With  the  Pleisto- 
cene specimens,  this  dating  must  be  done  primarily  by  geological  means. 

Since  the  primary  diffusion  of  a  zoological  species  is  almost  instanta- 
neous, palaeontologists  base  their  dating  of  geological  horizons  on  the 
initial  appearance  of  fossil  genera  and  species.  By  this  means  they  have 
divided  the  Pleistocene  period  into  lower,  middle,  and  upper  levels.4 
Glacial  geologists,  limited  to  the  relatively  small  portion  of  the  earth's 
surface  which  was  covered  by  one  or  more  of  the  Pleistocene  ice  sheets, 
divide  it  by  reference  to  the  four  or  five  successive  glacial  advances.  Un- 
glaciated  regions  were  subjected,  during  the  Pleistocene,  to  alternations 
of  wet  and  dry  climate,  probably  correlated  with  the  vacillations  of  the 
ice.  The  pluvial  and  interpluvial  periods  so  determined  form  a  third 
means  of  dating  Pleistocene  remains.  At  the  moment,  a  complete  har- 
mony between  these  three  systems  has  not  been  achieved.  Hence  the 
relative  dating  of  fossil  human  beings  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world 
is  not,  as  yet,  wholly  possible.  For  that  reason  we  must  proceed  with 
reserve  and  caution. 

2  In  the  sense  of  maximum  utilization  of  the  soil.  No  qualitative  inference  is  intended. 

3  The  division  between  Pleistocene  and  Recent  is  here  maintained  purely  for  the 
sake  of  clarity.    The  possibility  that  we  are  now  living  in  a  Pleistocene  interglacial  is 
not,  by  the  use  of  this  terminology,  implicitly  denied. 

*  Hopwood,  A.  T.,  PGA,  vol.  46,  1935,  pp.  1,  46-60. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  19 

(2)   PLEISTOCENE   CLIMATE 

It  is  not  easy  to  overemphasize  the  importance  of  climate  in  human 
history,  particularly  in  the  earliest  times  when  man  was  merely  a  numer- 
ically unimportant  parasite  in  the  total  fauna.  With  changes  in  climate, 
he  was  forced  to  migrate  with  the  animals  and  plants  on  which  he  lived, 
and  at  the  hunting  and  gathering  of  which  he  was  adept.  The  only 
alternative  was  to  stay  on  and  adapt  his  culture  to  a  new  food  supply, 
which  would  need  new  implements  and  new  methods.  On  the  whole, 
it  was  easier  to  move,  even  if  some  of  the  oscillations  were,  like  those  in 
recent  times,  rather  rapid. 

The  ponderous  ebb  and  flow  of  the  glaciers  caused  climatic  changes 
which  affected  the  entire  world.  With  the  gathering  of  vast  quantities  of 
ice  near  the  poles,  zones  of  climate  shrank  inward,  converging  on  the 
equator.  At  times  of  maximum  glaciation,  wide  belts  of  land  bordering 
the  glaciers  became  treeless,  frozen  tundras,  like  the  northern  rims  of 
Siberia  and  North  America  today.  During  the  last  glaciation,  such  a  zone 
included  the  whole  of  Europe  north  of  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  and  much 
of  Siberia.  Below  this  stretched  temperate  forests,  with  zones  of  willow 
and  birch,  of  pine,  and  of  hardwood,  and  beyond  these,  temperate,  grassy 
plains,  watered  by  cyclonic  rain  belts.  Still  farther  away,  near  the  equator, 
stood  tropical  forests.  The  present  deserts  had  shrunk  to  narrow  patches 
between  the  grasslands  or  had  disappeared. 

As  the  glaciers  retreated,  the  zones  of  tundra  followed,  constantly 
shrinking  as  the  ice  cap  thinned.  The  forest  encroached  on  the  tundra 
belt,  and  the  grasslands  likewise  moved  inward;  at  the  same  time  the 
tropical  forest  shrank,  and  the  land  in  between  two  belts  of  grassland 
became  desert.  What  had  once  been  the  optimum  home  for  food  gather- 
ing man  now  became  bare  and  sterile,  and  remained  virtually  unoccupied 
until  the  rise  of  pastoral  nomadism,  with  ass  and  camel,  once  more  made 
it  habitable. 

The  centers  of  Pleistocene  glaciation  were  not  located  exactly  on  the 
poles.  In  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  center  was  in  the  north  Atlantic, 
with  land  nuclei  in  Scandinavia,  northern  Britain,  and  Greenland,  so 
that  northwestern  Europe  and  northeastern  America  were  covered,  while 
territories  of  higher  latitudes,  in  eastern  Europe  and  Siberia,  and  in 
western  North  America,  were  left  bare.  In  Europe,  the  ice  covered,  at 
its  maximum,  all  of  the  British  Isles  but  the  southwestern  tip  of  Great 
Britain;  most  of  Belgium,  Holland,  northern  Germany,  the  Baltic  States, 
and  Finland,  as  well,  of  course,  as  Scandinavia.  Secondary  centers  of 
glaciation,  based  on  altitude  rather  than  latitude,  lay  in  the  Alps,  Pyre- 
nees, and  Caucasus,  in  the  Himalayas  and  Pamirs,  in  the  mountain  skele- 
ton of  Siberia,  and  in  the  Atlas  mountains  of  North  Africa. 


20  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

These  ice  caps,  and  the  surrounding  zones  of  cold,  acted  as  barriers  to 
the  naked  hunters  of  the  Early  and  Middle  Pleistocene.  In  Europe,  no 
sure  instance  has  been  established  of  a  Lower  or  Middle  Palaeolithic  find 
in  a  glacial  context;  before  the  first  Wurm  glaciation,  human  beings  and 
related  primates  gave  the  ice  a  wide  berth. 

During  the  entire  span  of  the  Pleistocene  up  to  the  fourth  or  Wurm 
glaciation,  bands  of  human  beings,  probably  including  both  sapiens  and 
non-sapiens  forms,  shifted  slowly  from  continent  to  continent  with  the 
changes  of  climate.  During  the  fourth  glaciation,  the  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia  immediately  south  of  the  ice  sheet,  and  in  the  tundra  belt,  were 
for  the  first  time,  under  such  conditions,  inhabited.  This  was  by  Neander- 
thal man,  who  lived  in  caves,  warmed  himself  over  fires,  and  could, 
judging  by  his  tool  kit,  dress  skins,  although,  in  default  of  needles,  he  was 
probably  a  poor  tailor.  The  European  branch  of  this  species  was  a  mar- 
ginal, primitive  form,  and  barely  survived  the  'fourth  ice.  During  the 
Laufen  interglacial,  Neanderthal  was  replaced  in  Europe  by  pure  and 
mixed  sapiens  men  coming  from  the  east  in  several  waves.  With  the  last 
major  ice  advance,  Wurm  II,  sapiens  man  stayed  on,  for  by  now  he  had 
developed  the  knowledge  and  skill  to  make  warm  clothing,  as  numerous 
skin-working  tools  and  fine  bone  needles  attest. 

In  the  meanwhile,  other  sapiens  men  must  have  lived  in  more  favorable 
climates,  as  much  on  vegetable  food  as  on  meat.  Some  of  these  developed 
the  microlithic  cultural  technique,  which  involved  striking  off  small 
blades  for  composite  instruments,  and  this  spread  to  Europe  north  of  the 
Pyrenees  only  after  the  retreat  of  the  last  ice.  These  sapiens  men  were, 
as  we  shall  see,  quite  different  from  those  in  the  North.  The  post-glacial 
movements  of  human  groups  completely  changed  the  racial  complexion 
of  much  of  the  habitable  earth. 

(3)  SAPIENS  MEN  OF  THE   MIDDLE   PLEISTOCENE 

The  first  appearance  of  fully  or  incipiently  sapiens  men  in  the  Old 
World  can  now  be  definitely  placed  in  the  Middle  Pleistocene,  in  Europe 
the  time  of  the  second,  or  great,  interglacial.  The  specimen  which  has 
made  this  allocation  possible  is  Swanscombe  man,  consisting  of  a  parietal 
and  the  occipital  bone  of  one  individual  from  a  glacially  sealed  Middle 
Acheulean  deposit  on  the  second  terrace  of  the  Thames  Valley  in  England.6 
These  fragments  are  said  to  resemble  the  cranial  vault  of  Piltdown,  which 
is  also  probably  sapiens  in  the  same  sense,  and  may  be  of  no  greater  antiq- 
uity.6 

8  Swanscombe  Committee  of  the  RAIf  JRAI,  vol.  68,  1938,  pp.  17-98. 
See  especially  Morant,  G.  M.,  ibid.,  pp.  67-96. 

8  It  is  becoming  increasingly  unlikely  that  the  Piltdown  mandible  is  a  part  of  the  same 
specimen  as  the  vault  fragments. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  21 

Other  remains  comparable  to  those  from  Swanscombe,  and  also  asso- 
ciated with  the  Acheulean  cultural  horizon,  have  been  found  in  various 
sites  in  western  and  southern  Europe,  but  have  so  far  failed  to  receive  full 
scientific  recognition.  The  best  known  of  these  is  the  famous  Galley  Hill 
skeleton,  found  in  the  second  or  hundred-foot  terrace  of  the  Thames 
Valley.  Others  include  the  Moulin  Quignon  mandible,  the  Clichy  skele- 
ton, and  the  Olmo  skullcap.  Of  these,  the  most  nearly  complete,7  and  the 
strongest  claimant  for  authenticity,  is  the  Galley  Hill  skeleton,  unearthed 
in  1888.8  Although  the  skeleton  was  removed  from  near  the  bottom  of  an 
undisturbed  gravel  layer,  by  persons  fully  aware  of  the  importance  of  its 
position,  most  modern  writers  of  'the  pre- Swanscombe  era  have  refused 
to  accept  its  authenticity,  although  the  chances  of  its  being  later  than  the 
gravel  from  which  it  was  taken  were  at  most  extremely  slight.  In  view  of 
the  Swanscombe  evidence  the  Galley  Hill  specimen  may  now  be  granted 
the  recognition  which  it  has  long  merited. 

The  Galley  Hill  man  was  of  short  stature,  about  160  cm.  His  long  bones, 
which  include  a  humerus  as  well  as  a  femur  and  tibia,  although  robust, 
were  not  heavy.  The  length  of  the  tibia  is  77  per  cent  of  that  of  the  femur, 
and  this  proportion  is  modern  and  European,  unlike  those  of  many  of  the 
later  peoples  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  and  Neolithic.  From  the  muscu- 
lar markings  on  their  surfaces,  it  is  apparent  that  he  was  a  man  of  con- 
siderable bodily  strength,  but  at  the  same  time  of  fairly  light  build.  The 
section  profiles  of  the  long  bones,  the  positions  of  the  condyles,  and  the 
facets,  all  bear  witness  to  a  life  in  open  country,  and  to  the  habit  of  squat- 
ting. 

The  skull,  which  is  reminiscent  in  a  general  way  of  some  living  varieties 
of  European  man,  is  extremely  dolichocephalic,  with  a  cranial  index  of 
69;  although  warped  by  earth  pressure,  it  has  not  changed  its  basic  form. 
The  length  of  the  vault  is  very  long,  204  mm.  as  reconstructed  by  Keith, 
and  the  breadth  correspondingly  narrow.  The  vault  height,  known  only 
from  the  auricular  projection  since  the  Ipasal  portion  of  the  skull  is  missing, 
is  on  the  low  side  of  medium.  This  skull  has  an  extremely  protuberant 
occiput  with  the  greatest  length  well  to  the  bottom;  a  well-developed 
frontal  region,  and  a  moderately  sloping  forehead.  At  the  same  time  the 
forehead  is  very  broad,  making  the  parietal  walls  nearly  parallel.  The 
browridges  are  of  moderately  strong  development.  The  face,  unfor- 
tunately, is  missing  in  Galley  Hill  as  in  all  similar  specimens.  Yet  the 
temporal  segment  of  the  right  zygomatic  arch  remains,  and  this,  although 
thin,  shows  that  the  arch  as  a  whole  was  well  curved. 

Fortunately,  more  than  half  of  the  mandible  has  been  preserved,  and 

7  The  Clichy  skeleton  may  be  more  complete,  but  has  not  been  satisfactorily  published. 

8  Keith,  Sir  A.,  The  Antiquity  of  Man,  pp.  178-193. 


22  THE  RACES  OF   EUROPE 

its  conformation  makes  it  certain  that  there  was  no  prognathism.  The 
body  of  this  mandible  is  rather  narrow  and  of  only  moderate  symphysial 
height;  the  chin  of  medium  prominence  judged  by  modern  standards. 
The  ascending  ramus  is  wide,  and  the  sigmoid  notch  shallow.  The  teeth, 
while  fully  human,  retain  some  primitive  features  in  the  development  of 
the  pulp  cavities,  in  the  length-breadth  proportions  of  the  molars,  and  in 
their  relative  size,  for  the  third  molar  is  the  largest. 

Besides  these  dental  peculiarities  and  the  absence  of  a  marked  sigmoid 
notch,  the  skull  itself  possesses  certain  primitive  features.  It  is  thick,  and 
the  browridges,  although  no  greater  than  in  many  modern  examples, 
form  a  continuous  ridge.  The  mastoids  are  small,  and  the  area  of  tem- 
poral muscle  attachment  large. 

Galley  Hill  man  was,  without  reasonable  doubt,  an  extremely  gen- 
eralized form  of  ancestral  white  man.  His  skull  and  body  bones  preserve 
just  that  degree  of  generalization  needed  to  make  him  the  logical  ancestor 
of  the  Mediterranean  race  and  of  all  the  sub-races  related  to  it. 

Although  more  specimens  of  this  type  have  so  far  been  found  in  Europe 
than  elsewhere,  it  is  not  possible  to  suppose  that  the  Galley  Hill  type  of 
man  evolved  on  European  soil.  He  must  have  been  a  transient  in  Europe, 
coming  in  with  the  retreat  of  one  glacier,  and  going  out  again  with  the 
advance  of  the  next.  When  his  descendants  next  appear  in  Europe,  it  will 
be  from  some  other  source  to  which  their  ancestors  had  retreated. 

Outside  of  Europe,  the  earliest  known  human  anatomical  specimen 
is  the  Kanam  mandible  from  East  Africa.  This  was  attributed  by  its 
finder,  Leakey,9  to  the  Lower  Pleistocene,  which  would  probably  make  it 
older  than  any  of  the  other  known  fossil  men  of  Africa,  Asia,  or  of  Europe. 
The  Kanam  mandible  is  definitely  human;  it  possesses  a  chin  and  its 
teeth  are  essentially  human  in  form,  although  primitive  in  a  number  of 
ways,10  like  those  of  Galley  Hill.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  with  any 
accuracy  the  racial  type  represented  by  this  fragment  of  jaw;  especially 
since,  if  it  possesses  the  age  attributed  to  it,  races  in  the  modern  sense 
cannot  have  developed  very  far.  However,  it  could,  like  Galley  Hill,  have 
belonged  without  difficulty  to  a  generalized  ancestral  white  man,  since 
it  lacks  prognathism  and  is  modern  in  shape  and  size. 

Younger  than  the  Kanam  mandible,  and  apparently  belonging  to  the 
Middle  Pleistocene,  are  four  fragmentary  skull  caps  found,  likewise  by 
Leakey,  in  East  Africa  at  the  site  of  Kanjera.  These,  like  the  Kanam  jaw, 
have  been  subjected  to  the  investigation  of  a  British  Committee  which  is 
not  satisfied  as  to  the  exact  location  from  which  they  came.  However,  as 
Hopwood  has  pointed  out,  the  fossils  from  both  the  Kanam  and  Kanjera 

•  Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  The  Fossil  Races  of  Kenya. 
"Adloff,  P.,  ZFRK,  vol.  3,  1936,  pp.  10-26. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  23 

deposits  belong  to  the  periods  which  Leakey  stated;  namely,  the  Lower 
and  Middle  Pleistocene. 

Despite  the  uncertainty  of  this  situation,  in  view  of  their  great  impor- 
tance, and  the  fact  that  their  alleged  age  has  not  been  disproved,  it  would  be 
unwise  to  ignore  these  East  African  specimens  in  a  theoretical  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  history  of  Homo  sapiens.  It  is  much  more  reasonable  to  give  them 
full  consideration  and  to  label  the  sequence  of  reconstruction  as  tentative. 

These  four  fragmentary  skull  caps  found  at  Kanjera  are  in  such  poor 
condition  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  accurate  measurements  or  other 
details  which  would  fully  define  the  types  which  they  represent.  Yet 
enough  pieces  have  been  preserved  to  make  a  general  estimate.  Kanjera 
man  was  extremely  dolichocephalic,  with  cranial  indices  under  70;  the 
skull  walls,  although  thick  in  three  out  of  four  cases,  are  not  covered  with 
heavy  muscular  markings,  as  in  the  case  of  non-sapiens  types  of  fossil  man. 

The  foreheads  are  prominent;  the  frontal  lobes  of  the  brain  well  de- 
veloped, as  in  any  modern  group;  the  whole  occipital  region  is  extremely 
protruding,  and  the  occipital  lobes  strongly  developed  and  very  sym- 
metrical. This  fact,  along  with  other  features  of  the  brain  deduced  from  a 
study  of  the  endocranial  casts,11  leads  one  to  the  conclusion  that  these 
specimens  belonged  to  a  very  long-headed  form  of  Homo  sapiens,  very 
similar  to  Galley  Hill,  and  like  the  latter  could  without  difficulty  have  been 
ancestral  to  at  least  one  part  of  the  present  white  racial  stock.  One  small 
piece  of  malar  bone  is  all  that  remains  of  the  faces  of  these  four  individuals. 
This  fragment  includes  a  well-developed  canine  fossa,  which  again  is  cer- 
tain proof  of  its  human  character.  A  small  piece  of  femur  with  a  strongly 
developed  pilaster  is  also  fully  human,  but  cannot  serve  to  designate  any 
single  racial  group. 

(4)    NON-SAPIENS  PLEISTOCENE   FOSSIL   MEN 

Not  demonstrably  older  than  the  Pleistocene  fossil  men  discussed  in  the 
last  section  are  the  remains  of  an  increasingly  large  number  of  non-sapiens 
specimens  from  all  three  continents  of  the  Old  World.12  These  include 
two  separate  genera,  Pithecanthropus  and  Sinanthropus,  and  four  species  of 
Homo — soloensis,  heidelbergensis,  neanderthalensis,  and  rhodesiensis.  The  exact 
relationships  between  these  groups  is  in  dispute,  but  it  is  apparent  that 
they  may  be  grouped  in  at  least  two  evolutionary  levels,  with  Pithecan- 
thropus and  Sinanthropus  in  the  lower  bracket.  Despite  their  allocation  to 
separate  genera,  these  two  are,  in  many  respects,  very  much  alike.  Fur- 
thermore Rhodesiensis  and  Soloensis  resemble  each  other,  and  together 

»  Elliot-Smith,  Sir  G.,  The  Stone  Age  Races  of  Kenya,  Appendix  B. 
11  The  extensive  literature  on  these  fossil  groups  need  not  be  cited  here.  Except  in  the 
case  of  Neanderthal,  they  have  little  bearing  on  the  subject  of  this  book. 


24  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

are  not  very  different  from  the  numerous  and  variable  Neanderthaloid 
group. 

These  fossils,  whatever  their  internal  classification,  may  be  considered  a 
separate  class  of  highly  evolved,  humanoid  primates.  Within  this  class 
there  are  differences  of  evolutionary  status,  and  differences  in  type  of 
specialization.  As  a  whole,  however,  they  differ  from  both  early  and 


Fio.  1.  NEANDERTHAL  MAN  IN  MODERN  DRESS. 

MacGregor's  restoration  of  La  Chapelle  aux  Saints,  provided  with  hat,  hair,  and 
clothing  by  the  artist.  Although  we  do  not  know  that  the  reconstruction  of  the  soft 
parts  is  accurate,  nevertheless  the  facial  features  were  probably  essentially  human.  This 
picture  serves  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  our  impressions  of  racial  differences  between 
groups  of  mankind  are  often  largely  influenced  by  modes  of  hair  dressing,  the  presence 
or  absence  of  a  beard  and  clothing. 

modern  sapiens  man  in  the  possession  of  a  flattened,  gorilloid  skull  vault, 
with  a  strong  supraorbital  torus,  an  extremely  sloping  forehead  associated 
with  a  low  vault  height,  and  a  strongly  girded  brain  case,  in  which,  in  the 
more  primitive  species,  the  maximum  cranial  length  passes  from  glabella 
to  an  occipital  torus,  while  the  maximum  breadth  lies  between  the  mastoid 
crests.  Even  in  the  more  evolved  species  in  which  the  brain  size  equals  or 
exceeds  that  of  modern  men,  the  same  gorilloid  structure  to  a  large  extent 
persists.  The  faces  of  the  few  specimens  which  still  possess  them  are  of 
extreme  length  and  breadth,  and  the  subnasal  portions  excessively  large 
in  comparison  to  the  brain  case;  these  faces  are  flat,  and  that  distinctive 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  25 

human  feature,  the  canine  fossa,  is  lacking.  In  the  case  of  most  known 
Neanderthals,  the  molar  teeth  have  fused  roots  and  enlarged  pulp  cavities, 
while  the  dental  borders  are  even,  and  the  canines  not  interlocking.18 

The  dating  of  the  various  fossils  mentioned  above  is  in  most  cases  under 
dispute,  but  there  is  no  valid  evidence  that  any  of  them  are  earlier  than 
the  Middle  Pleistocene.  Only  Homo  neanderthalensis  in  some  of  his  more 
highly  evolved  forms  is  known,  however,  to  have  extended  into  the  Late 
Pleistocene.  Aside  from  all  biological  considerations,  the  time  element  is 
sufficient  to  destroy  the  hypothesis  that  members  of  this  heavy  brow- 
ridged  group  could  have  evolved  directly  into  the  earliest  known  form  of 
Homo  sapiens.  It  is  possible  that  these  species  represent  a  survival  of  an 
ancestral  stage  through  which  Homo  sapiens  had  in  earlier  times  passed, 
and  that  they  were,  during  the  Pleistocene,  themselves  passing  through 
a  tardy  process  of  evolving,  but  this  explanation  is  not  the  only  one  that 
may  be  presented.  The  sexual  differentiation  and  luxuriance  of  gorilloid 
characters  which  these  species  possess  may  conceivably  never  have  been 
found  in  the  direct  ancestor  of  sapiens  man. 

(5)   THE   NEANDERTHALOID   HYBRIDS   OF   PALESTINE 

In  western  Europe,  Neanderthaloid  skeletal  material  begins  to  appear 
in  the  second  interglacial,  with  the  Heidelberg  jaw,14  and  is  followed,  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  Riss  retreat,  by  the  Steinheim  and  Ehringsdorf 
crania.  The  whole  of  the  third  interglacial,  and  the  advance  of  Wurrn  I, 
belonged  to  Neanderthal  men,  and  not  a  single  sapiens  skull  has  been 
found,  in  Europe,  dating  from  this  long  time  expanse. 

The  Neanderthal  group  was  extremely  variable,  and  showed  within  its 
ranks  clear  evidence  of  evolutionary  change  in  a  human  direction.  On 
the  whole,  the  western  European  specimens  formed  a  marginal,  and  rela- 
tively primitive,  geographical  sub-group  of  the  species.  The  center  of  its 
dispersion  probably  lay  farther  east,  as  did,  one  may  suppose,  that  of 
the  Mousterian  flake  culture  with  which  the  Neanderthal  species  seems 
to  be  basically  associated. 

In  Palestine,  which  falls  on  a  periphery  of  this  cultural  range,  excavations 
in  caves  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and  Mount  Carmel  have  revealed  a  num- 
ber of  Neanderthaloid  skeletons  which  are  different  from  those  in  Europe, 

18  The  condition  known  as  taurodontism  is  not  as  uncommon  as  has  been  supposed, 
and  can  no  longer  be  cited  as  an  impediment  to  the  relationship  of  Neanderthal  with 
other  types  of  man.  For  a  discussion  and  bibliography  on  the  subject  of  taurodontism, 
see  Galloway,  A.,  The  Skeletal  Remains  of  Mapungubwe,  pp.  127-174,  in  Fouch6,  L., 
Mapungubwe. 

14  Current  scientific  opinion  in  Germany  tends  to  place  Heidelberg  in  the  first  inter- 
glacial. 


26  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  others  which  are,  in  fact,  only  partly  Neandefthaloid.16  The  materials 
from  the  Mountain  Carmel  caves,  situated  in  a  late  Middle  Pleistocene 
setting,  corresponding  to  the  latter  part  of  the  third  interglacial  in  Europe, 
were  found  imbedded  in  a  breccia  thick  with  Levalloiso-Mousterian  imple- 
ments. It  is  with  these  late  Mousterians,  who  showed  atypical  racial 
features,  that  we  are  at  present  concerned. 

In  one  of  the  Mount  Carmel  caves,  that  of  Tabun,  was  found  the  skele- 
ton of  a  small  woman,  fully  Neanderthaloid,  and  associated  with  it  was  a 
male  mandible  equal  in  size  to  that  of  Heidelberg,  but  possessed  of  that 
human  feature,  a  chin.  In  a  nearby  grotto,  the  Mugharet  es-Skhul,  were 
the  remains  of  a  number  of  individuals,  including  three  male  crania  suffi- 
ciently complete  for  reconstruction  and  measurement.  A  preliminary 
publication  16  of  three  of  these  skulls,  and  of  the  long  bones  of  the  same 
and  other  individuals,  gives  us  a  reasonably  accurate  idea  of  their  posi- 
tion in  the  human  family  tree.  Originally  considered  members  of  the 
Neanderthaloid  species,  they  are  now  known  to  be  fully  human,  although 
preserving  a  number  of  unmistakable  Neanderthaloid  characteristics. 

The  leg  bones  of  the  Skhul  people  are  long  and  slender,  the  femora 
heavily  pilastered,  in  contrast  to  the  Neanderthaloid  form.  The  feet  are 
fully  human,  but  lack  the  reduction  found  in  the  middle  phalanges  of 
modern  races,  while  the  heels  are  short.  The  humeri  arc  likewise  long 
and  slender,  the  radii  and  ulnae  straight,  instead  of  being  bowed  as  with 
Neanderthal  man,  including  the  Tabun  female.  The  hands  of  Skhul  men 
were  broad  and  large. 

In  the  Skhul  pelves,  definite  Neanderthaloid  features  appear;  the  entire 
structure  is  lower  and  narrower  than  those  of  most  modern  men.  The 
Tabun  woman's  pelvis,  on  the  other  hand,  is  quite  different  from  other 
Neanderthaloids,  in  the  possession  of  a  long,  plate-like  pubis,  which  is  an 
ape-like  character.  The  vertebral  column  of  the  Skhul  men,  while  human, 
and  possessing  a  lumbar  curve  of  sapiens  character,  is  short  in  the  cervical 
region.  The  total  height  of  the  cervical  vertebrae  is  only  55.7  mm.,  as 
contrasted  with  a  mean  of  68.4  mm.  for  modern  man.  Thus  the  Skhul 
men  were  short-necked,  and  in  this  respect  possessed  a  Neanderthaloid 
trait.  In  comparison  with  Neanderthal  man,  the  Skhul  thorax  was  flat, 
while  that  of  the  Tabun  woman  retained  the  barrel-like  earlier  form. 
The  ribs  of  the  Skhul  men  are  variable  in  cross-section;  some  are  flat  and 
ribbon-like,  as  in  modern  man,  others  are  thick  and  rounded,  as  with 

15  Keith,  Sir  A.,  "A  Report  on  the  Galilee  Skull,'*  in  Turville-Petre,  F.,  Researches  in 
Prehistoric  Galilee. 

Keith,  Sir  A.,  and  McGown,  T.  W.,  BASF,  #13,  1937,  pp.  5-15;  also  "Mount  Carmel 
Man,"  etc,,  Early  Mant  Phila.,  1937,  pp.  41-52.  (Other  notices  superseded  by  the  last 
two  mentioned.) 

»  Keith,  Sir  A.,  and  McCown,  T.  W,,  BASF,  #13,  1937,  pp.  5-15. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  27 

Neanderthal.  The  latter  form  is  also  associated  with  the  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic European  men,17  whose  relationship  to  the  Skhul  people  will  be 
treated  later.  The  stature  of  the  Skhul  males  was  tall,  ranging  from  173 
to  179  cm.,  while  that  of  the  females,  estimated  from  long  bones,  was 
short,  158  cm.  The  sex  differentiation  thus  revealed  is  great. 

In  the  skull,  Skhul  man  is  definitely  intermediate  between  the  Neander- 
thal sCnd  sapiens  groups,  but  much  closer  to  the  latter,  so  that  its  inclusion 
in  the  living  species  cannot  be  denied.  The  skulls  of  the  three  males  are 
extremely  large.  In  length,  they  equal  Galley  Hill,  but  far  exceed  it  in 
breadth;  the  vault  height  of  two  specimens,  #5  and  #9,  measured  from 
the  ear  holes,  is  equal  to  that  of  Galley  Hill,  but  the  third,  #4,  is  as  low 
as  with  true  Neanderthals,  while  the  extreme  breadth  of  this  specimen 
acts  as  a  compensation,  permitting  a  greater  capacity  than  with  the  other 
two.  In  vault  form,  then,  two  are  mainly  sapiens,  while  one  appears, 
from  the  measurements,  to  be  largely  Neanderthaloid.  The  capacities  of 
these  three  skulls  are  1588,  1600,  and  1616  cc.,  respectively,  much  greater 
than  those  of  Galley  Hill  or  others  of  his  type,  and  greater  than  those  of 
most  living  men.  At  the  same  time,  they  exceed  most  Neanderthal  figures. 
In  brain  size  as  in  stature,  Skhul  man  exceeded  either  Neanderthal  or 
Homo  sapiens  as  previously  known. 

The  best  preserved  and  most  complete  specimen,  #5,  is  a  heavy,  thick 
skull,  with  heavy  browridges,  which  do  not,  however,  attain  a  maximum 
Neanderthaloid  development.  The  greatest  length  falls  higher,  in  the 
rear,  than  with  the  Neanderthals;  although  the  occiput  is  protruding,  it 
is  not  conical  in  form,  as  with  many  Neanderthal  specimens.  The  vault 
is  well-arched,  the  lambdoid  region  slightly  flattened,  and  the  forehead 
no  more  sloping  than  in  many  modern  sapiens  crania. 

The  face,  while  large,  fails  to  attain  the  gorilla-like  proportions  of 
Neanderthal,  and  falls  within  the  modern  range  in  height  and  breadth. 
The  interorbital  distance  is,  comparatively  speaking,  great;  the  upper 
bonders  of  the  orbits  straight.  Both  tjie  maxillae  and  mandible  are  of 
great  size  and  robusticity,  exceeding  most  modern  specimens,  and  the 
alveolar  prognathism  is  excessive.  The  mandible  has,  however,  a  fully 
human  chin,  and  the  teeth  are,  like  those  of  the  Tabun  specimens,  not 
taurodont.  The  palate,  viewed  from  below,  while  large,  is  long  in  pro- 
portion to  its  breadth,  unlike  Neanderthal  in  which  the  breadth  exceeds 
the  length.  The  foramen  magnum,  like  that  of  Neanderthal,  is  long  and 
narrow. 

Although  the  anthropornetric  position  of  the  Skhul  crania  will  be  dis- 
cussed later  in  more  detail,  it  is  worth  noting  at  the  moment  that  in  most 
characters  capable  of  measurement  the  #5  specimen  falls  between  Homo 

w  Aichel,  O.,  Derdeutsche  Mensch,  p.  30. 


28  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

sapiens,  as  exemplified  by  Galley  Hill  and  later  examples  of  the  same  type, 
and  Neanderthal,  as  known  from  the  totality  of  that  species. 18 

Keith  and  McCown  have  demonstrated,  beyond  serious  doubt,  that  the 
Skhul  skeletons  are  intermediate  between  Homo  neanderthalensis  and  Homo 
sapiens,  and  that  Neanderthal  must  therefore  be  included  among  the  an- 
cestors of  modern  races.  Thus  the  opinions  of  Hrdlifcka,  Aichel,1®  and 
others,  expressed  earlier  on  the  basis  of  equally  valid  but  less  striking  evi- 
dence, are  at  last,  in  one  sense  or  another,  substantiated.  We  now  know 
that  the  Neanderthal  strain  did  not  become  extinct,  but  passed  over  into 
the  genetic  stock  of  modern  man.  If  this  occurred  once,  it  could  have 
occurred  a  number  of  times.  The  field  is  now  open  to  discover  survivals 
of  non-sapiens  accretions  in  modern  races  in  other  parts  of  the  earth.  This 
privilege  must,  however,  be  used  with  caution. 

(6)   UPPER   PALAEOLITHIC   MAN   IN   EUROPE, 
THE   EVIDENCE   AS  A  WHOLE 

The  next  step  is  to  examine  the  evidence  which  reveals  the  racial  com- 
position of  Upper  Palaeolithic  man  in  Europe.  Until  the  discovery  of  the 
Swanscombe  fragments,  these  were  the  earliest  sapiens  remains  which  were 
definitely  datable  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  interested  scientists,  and  im- 
mune to  the  doubts  which  had  thrown  all  supposedly  earlier  finds  into 
the  shade. 

The  first  Upper  Palaeolithic  people,  the  bearers  of  the  earliest  phase  of 
the  Aurignacian  culture,  arrived  in  Europe  during  the  middle  of  the 
Laufen  interglacial,  between  the  retreat  of  Wurm  I  and  the  advance  of 
Wurm  II.  On  the  basis  of  accurate  Scandinavian  chronology,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  set  the  end  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  in  western  Europe  with  more 
accuracy;  11,800  B.C.  seems  to  mark  a  turning  point,  with  the  migration 
of  the  reindeer  northward,  and  the  first  introduction  of  Mesolithic  culture. 
In  view  of  the  present  differences  of  opinions  between  geologists,  it  seems 
unwise  to  set  even  a  tentative  date  for  its  inception.  In  any  case,  the  time 
that  elapsed  during  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  must  have  provided  ample 
room  for  change  in  some  of  the  more  fluid  physical  characters  of  a  people, 
especially  if  they  have  been  subjected  to  rigorous  climatic  conditions  and 
specialized  diets. 

We  must  not  place  too  much  importance  on  fine  differences  in  stature 
as  a  means  of  determining  genetic  affinity  or  distance,  especially  over 
periods  of  tens  of  thousands  of  years.  Head  form,  too,  although  it  changes 
with  much  less  speed  than  stature,  for  it  is  not  directly  concerned  with 

18  Figures  for  the  latter  obtained  from  Morant,  G.  M.,  AE,  vol.  2,  1927,  pp.  376-377. 
"  Hrdliftka,  A.,  The  Skeletal  Remains  of  Early  Man,  MCSI,  vol.  83,  1930. 
Aichel,  O.,  Der  deutsche  Mtnsch. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  29 

gross  size,  nevertheless  responds  to  the  stimuli  which  control  it,  and  we 
must  not  be  surprised  if  long  heads  have  in  some  instances  become  round 
heads  during  the  course  of  hundreds  of  generations. 

In  studying  the  remains  of  Pleistocene  and  of  post- Pleistocene  man, 
therefore,  we  must  be  careful  not  to  confuse  characters  which  are  of  racial 
importance  with  progressive  modifications  which  may  occur,  in  response 
to  cultural  changes,  within  any  group.  Such  modifications  are  especially 
concerned  with  the  jaws  and  teeth.  Among  the  more  primitive  white 
peoples,  such  as  Berbers  and  Albanian  mountaineers,  the  incisors  of  the 
two  jaws  meet  edge  to  edge,  as  they  did  among  most  of  the  mediaeval  in- 
habitants of  western  Europe.  Under  modern  conditions  this  changes 
rapidly  to  an  overbite,  and  is  frequently  accompanied  by  a  narrowing  of 
the  palate  and  crowding  of  the  teeth,  making  modern  orthodontia  profit- 
able. This  shifting  of  the  bite  affects  also  the  position  of  the  lips  and 
changes  the  entire  facial  expression. 

Another  modification  which  seems  to  proceed  with  some  rapidity  is  the 
enlargement  of  the  masticatory  muscles  under  sub-arctic  conditions.  As 
these  muscles  enlarge,  the  angles  of  the  lower  jaw  become  everted,  the 
zygomatic  arches  expand  laterally,  and  often  the  brain  case  becomes 
keeled  in  response  to  an  increase  in  temporal  muscular  attachment.  At 
the  same  time  both  the  mandible  and  the  palate  develop  tori.  These 
correlated  changes  act  without  regard  to  race  since  they  are  apparently 
functional  adaptations.  They  also  act  with  some  rapidity,  for  the  mediae- 
val Icelanders  acquired  them  in  less  than  four  centuries.30  These  occur 
in  varying  degree  among  some  of  the  later  Upper  Palaeolithic  European 
skulls,  as  well  as  among  Eskimos  and  modern  Siberians. 

We  must  be  particularly  careful,  therefore,  in  studying  the  remains  of 
Upper  Palaeolithic  man,  to  remember  that  his  time  span  was  unques- 
tionably greater  than  the  totality  of  time  which  has  elapsed  since  it  ended. 
We  must  also  remember  that  the  men  who  conquered  the  cold  lived  under 
new  and  rigorous  climatic  and  dietary  conditions,  and  that  these  condi- 
tions must  have  exerted  a  strong  influence  upon  the  more  plastic  elements 
of  their  bodily  form.  Therefore,  metrical  and  morphological  differences 
in  physical  type  which  appear,  during  the  course  of  these  millennia,  may 
imply,  in  some  instances,  a  response  to  environment  rather  than  a  diver- 
sity of  origin. 

From  all  of  the  regions  in  Europe  which  we  know  to  have  been  inhab- 
ited during  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  period,  over  one  hundred  skulls  which 
have  been  disinterred  at  one  time  or  another,  during  the  last  century, 
have  been  called  to  the  attention  of  persons  competent  to  determine  their 
age.  Of  these  hundred  or  more  skulls,  however,  only  sixty  odd  have  been 

»  Hooton,  E.  A.,  AJPA,  vol.  1,  1918,  pp.  53-76. 


30  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

measured  and  published.  We  have,  in  this  group,  a  large  enough  series 
to  merit  treatment  by  biometric  methods,  in  contrast  to  the  remains  of 
earlier  non-human  species,  which  consist  for  the  most  part  of  single  speci- 
mens, and  may,  therefore,  be  approached  from  a  morphological  and 
anatomical  standpoint  alone. 

Unfortunately,  these  crania  have  not  been  drawn  in  equal  proportions 
from  all  the  countries  in  which  Upper  Palaeolithic  cultures  are  repre- 
sented. By  far  the  largest  number  come  from  France,  where  they  were 
preserved  in  caves,  and  where  archaeological  interest,  over  an  entire  cen- 
tury, has  been  greater  tnan  in  any  other  European  country.  A  smaller 
number  come  from  England,  Spain,  northern  Italy,  Germany,  Czecho- 
slovakia, Poland,  and  Russia.  In  studying  this  group  of  skulls  as  a  whole, 
we  must  remember  that  the  western  European  element  is  over- weighted. 

Morant,  the  present  leader  of  the  English  biometric  school,  has  con- 
tributed a  valuable  statistical  study  of  these  skulls.21  (See  Appendix  I, 
col.  1.)  To  twenty-seven,  which  he  personally  remeasured,  he  adds 
twenty-five  measured  by  other  investigators.  These  fifty-two  skulls,  of 
unquestioned  geological  age,  form  the  nucleus  of  his  study.  Of  these 
skulls,  seventy  per  cent  come  from  the  first,  or  Aurignacian  period. 

Although  in  the  later  sections  of  this  chapter  we  shall  examine  the  posi- 
tion of  these  skulls  singly  by  regions  and  by  periods  of  time,  it  will  be 
profitable,  for  the  moment,  to  follow  Morant  in  treating  this  group  of 
crania  as  a  single  unit.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  Europeans  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  were  probably  the  product  of  more  than  one  invasion,  and 
despite  the  fact  that  they  lived  through  a  long  period  of  time,  and  covered 
a  geographical  range  which  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  continent, 
the  first  of  several  striking  results  of  Morant's  study  is  the  discovery  that 
this  composite  sample  is  little  more  variable  in  the  totality  of  its  features 
than  one  would  find  in  any  large  cranial  collection  of  post-glacial  men, 
unified  in  space  and  in  time.  Von  Bonin,  working  with  the  long  bones 
and  extremities,  obtained  exactly  the  same  result.22 

It  is  amazing  to  find  that  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  men  were  less  variable, 
on  the  whole,  than  the  inhabitants  of  London  who  were  buried  in  plague 
pits  during  the  seventeenth  century.  They  were  less  variable  than  the 
modern  rural  population  of  a  small  section  of  Carinthia,  and  only  a  little 
more  so  than  the  skulls  of  the  extremely  isolated  Greenland  Eskimo, 
whose  time  span  covered  at  most  a  few  centuries,  or  the  Egyptians  who 
were  buried  at  Gizeh  between  the  twenty-sixth  and  thirtieth  dynasties. 

The  great  complexity  of  race  in  modern  Europe  fs  largely  due  to  post- 
Pleistocene  migrations  from  other  continents,  and  the  retention  of  local 

81  Morant,  G.  M.,  AE,  vol.  4, 1930-31,  pp.  109-214. 
22  Bonin,  G.,  von,  HB,  vol.  7,  1935,  pp.  196-221. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  31 

types  in  modern  populations  reflects  the  greater  isolability  in  small  regions 
of  farmers  than  of  hunters.  But  the  Upper  Pleistocene  people  were  by  no 
means  completely  homogeneous,  as  will  be  shown  later  by  an  examination 
of  individual  crania,  in  their  chronological  and  geographical  contexts. 

Since,  as  Morant  has  shown,  this  total  Upper  Palaeolithic  group  is 
unified  enough  to  be  considered  a  single  population,28  we  may  proceed  to 
generalize  about  the  traits  which  most  of  the  members  of  this  group  pos- 
sess in  common.  The  first  and  most  notable  of  these  is  the  extremely  large 
size  of  the  brain  case,  larger  in  most  cases  than  Galley  Hill  or  most  modern 
men,  and  comparable  in  size  to  Skhul.  This  is  found  in  all  but  a  few  of  the 
skulls,  whatever  the  actual  dimensions  and  forms.  The  cranial  indices, 
however,  are  very  variable,  ranging  from  sixty-five  to  eighty-five,  and  this 
variability  is  too  great  to  imply  a  single  homogeneous  type. 

In  these  skulls  the  males  are  easily  distinguished  from  the  females,  for 
there  is  a  greater  difference  between  the  sexes  than  is  usual  among  more 
recent  groups  of  man.  The  same  is  true  of  long  bones  and  stature.24  This 
implies,  of  course,  a  stronger  development  of  secondary  sexual  charac- 
teristics. In  the  male  skulls  the  bony  markings  are  all  pronounced,  the 
browridges  are  as  a  rule  heavy,  the  faces  are  excessively  broad,  with  flar- 
ing zygomata.  The  upper  face  height  is  variable — medium  to  short  in 
most  individuals,  but  in  others  quite  long. 

One  of  the  most  distinctive  characteristics  of  most  (but  not  all)  of  these 
skulls  is  that  the  orbits  are  very  broad  and  very  low.  The  nasal  skeleton 
is  almost  always  prominent.25  The  nasal  root,  although  deeply  overhung 
by  glabella,  is  still  high,  and  the  osseous  nasal  profile  is  as  a  rule  straight 
or  convex.  The  nasal  spine  is  sharp  and  the  lower  border  well  marked. 
The  nose,  on  the  whole,  is  leptorrhine  to  mesorrhine. 

The  lower  jaw  presents  just  as  marked  an  individuality  as  does  the 
cranium.  This  bone  is  deep,  wide,  and  heavy,  with  flaring  gonial  angles 
and  a  prominent  chin.  The  palate  is  rather  wider  than  those  of  most 
living  men,  although  the  teeth  are  not<of  excessive  size.  If  one  judges  the 
face  form  from  the  calvarium  alone,  the  great  breadth  of  the  face,  coupled 
with  a  variable  length,  yields  in  most  cases  a  low  upper  facial  index,  plac- 
ing these  skulls  in  the  euryene  category.  If,  however,  one  calculates  a 
total  facial  index,  many  of  these  skulls  are  leptoprospic,  for  the  great 
height  of  the  mandibular  symphysis  compensates  for  the  shortness  from 
nasion  to  alveolar  point.  This  condition,  in  which  the  lower  part  of  the 

23  By  the  word  population  we  do  not,  necessarily,  mean  a  human  aggregation  of 
single  racial  origin.  What  we  mean  here  is  a  group  of  people,  unified  by  interbreeding 
and  forming  a  geographical  and  social  unit.    Such  a  population,  of  course,  may  have 
a  multiple  origin. 

24  Bonin,  G.,  von,  op.  cit. 

26  The  Grimaldi  "negroids"  form  an  exception. 


32  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

face  is  exaggerated,  is  one  of  the  chief  diagnostic  features  of  this  type  of 
man,  and  a  suggestion  of  it  may  still  be  seen  among  some  of  the  living 
peoples  of  northern  Europe. 

In  the  totality  of  facial  features,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  Upper  Pa- 
laeolithic people  may  be  said  to  have  resembled  modern  white  men. 
Some,  however,  probably  looked  like  a  certain  type  of  American  Indian, 
notably  that  of  the  North  American  Plains,  and  of  the  OnaS  and  Tehuelche 
of  southernmost  South  America.  This  comparison,  we  must  remember, 
is  wholly  morphological,  since  we  do  not  know  Upper  Palaeolithic  man's 
pigmentation,  hair  form,  or  hair  distribution. 

The  skeletons  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  people  vary  in  size  by  sub- 
periods,  as  will  be  shortly  demonstrated,  but  as  a  whole  the  group  was 
tall,  long-limbed,  and  slender,  with  narrow  hips,  broad  shoulders,  and 
large  hands  and  feet.  On  the  whole,  the  limb  bones  were  not  excessively 
robust,  and  the  limb  ratios,  determining  the  relative  lengths  of  arm  and 
leg  segments,  and  of  arms  to  legs,  were  unstable. 

The  mean  stature  of  the  males  was  about  173  cm.,  of  the  females  1 55  cm. 
The  men  were  taller  than  the  means  of  any  modern  European  countries, 
with  the  exception  of  Iceland  and  Montenegro,  but  not  taller  than  mod- 
ern Americans.  The  women,  on  the  other  hand,  were  actually  small. 
The  equivalents  of  these  mean  statures  are,  in  feet  and  inches,  but  five 
feet  nine,  and  five  feet  one  and  a  half.  Galley  Hill  man,  by  comparison, 
was  only  five  feet  two. 

Morant,  in  his  statistical  study,  compared  his  Upper  Palaeolithic  sample 
with  a  long  list  of  post-Pleistocene  cranial  series.  He  found  that  the  early 
group  exceeded  all  of  the  later  ones  by  a  wide  margin  in  seven  measure- 
ments,28 while  it  reached  the  limit  of  recent  human  means  in  six  others.27 
This  mass  deviation  would,  in  Morant's  opinion,  place  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic European  man  at  one  end  of  the  scale  and  the  rest  of  humanity, 
white  and  otherwise,  all  of  lesser  antiquity,  at  the  other. 

It  is  possible  to  quibble  with  Morant,  and  to  discover  small  series  or 
subseries  which  contradict  this  finding.  For  example,  the  Ona  skulls  from 
Tierra  del  Fuego,28  a  series  of  Bronze  Age  crania  from  Esthonia,29  and  of 

M  Horizontal  circumference,  glabcllooccipital  length,  sagittal  arc  from  glabella  to 
opisthion,  nasio-bregmatic  arc,  internal  biorbital  diameter,  bizygomatic  diameter,  and 
length  of  the  foramen  magnum. 

**  Transverse  circumference,  brcgma-lambda  arc,  biasterionic  breadth,  bimaxillary 
breadth,  orbital  breadth.  These  five,  according  to  Morant,  fall  within  1  mm.  of  the 
greatest  post-Pleistocene  means.  Orbital  height,  he  finds,  is  .7  mm.  shorter  than  the 
lowest  comparative  mean. 

28  Morant,  in  his  group  "Fuegians,  pooled,"  mixed  Ona  skulls  with  those  of  the 
smaller  and  quite  different  Yaghans.  If  one  abstracts  the  Ona  crania  from  Lebzeltcr's 
original  tables,  he  will  find  that  the  European  Upper  Palaeolithic  means  of  Morant  are 
essentially  duplicated.  w  Friedenthal,  A.,  ZFE,  vol.  63,  1931,  pp.  1-39. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  33 

Iron  Age  ones  from  the  Norwegian  coast,80  are  equally  large  in  facial  as 
well  as  cranial  dimensions.  But  these  exceptions  in  no  way  invalidate  his 
discovery,  that  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  people,  despite  their  generalized 
European  facial  appearance,  were  separate  in  many  metrical  characters 
from  most  of  living,  or  for  that  matter  pre-Aurignacian,  sapiens  men.  The 
reason  for  this  deviation  is  not  difficult  to  discover,  but  we  must  approach 
the  obvious  conclusion  slowly,  in  order  to  make  sure  of  an  accurate  recon- 
struction of  prehistoric  events. 

(7)     CHRONOLOGICAL   AND   GEOGRAPHICAL   DIFFERENTIATION 
OF   THE   EUROPEAN   AURIGNACIAN   GROUP 

The  Aurignacian  flake  culture,31  with  which  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
period  in  Europe  began,  was  not  a  single  unit  throughout  its  time  span, 
but  seems  to  have  been  composed  of  several  separate  entities  derived  from 
more  than  one  non-European  source. 

The  first  Aurignacian  level  in  Europe,  the  Chatelperronian,  is  repre- 
sented by  three  skeletons  only.  These  include  the  two  "negroids"  from 
the  Grotte  dcs  Enfants,  Grimaldi,  near  Mentone,  and  Combe  Capelle. 
Of  the  three,  the  Grimaldi  pair  may  have  been  the  older.  Except  that 
they  belonged  to  the  earliest  Aurignacian  period,  a  more  exact  estimate 
of  their  age  is  not  possible.32  These  were  the  remains  of  an  adult  female 
and  an  adolescent  male.  Disregarding  for  the  moment  their  racial  affin- 
ities, we  may  be  sure  that  they  were  fully  sapiens,  and  that  they  resembled 
Galley  Hill  in  stature  and  in  gross  cranial  vault  form.  The  vault  dimen- 
sions, however,  are  smaller.  They  thus  show  nothing  whatever  of  the 
great  size  and  robusticity  of  the  crania  belonging  to  the  total  Upper 
Palaeolithic  group,  and  nothing  of  the  latter's  exuberance  of  bodily 
growth. 

In  other  respects  they  were  apparently  somewhat  negroid,  in  the  sense 
that  they  possessed  features  divergent  from  the  modern  white  standard 
in  a  modern  negroid  direction.38  These  include  the  virtual  absence  of 
browridges,  a  sharp  bowing  of  the  frontal  bone,  low,  broad  nasal  bones, 
a  guttered  lower  border  of  the  nasal  opening,  alveolar  prognathism,  a 
large  palate,  and  large  teeth.  The  orbits,  furthermore,  are  relatively 
narrow,  the  face  both  absolutely  short  and  narrow.  The  long  bones  show 
a  difference,  however,  in  limb  proportions  between  these  people  and 

wSchreiner,  K.  E.,  SNVO,  II,  #11,  1927,  pp.  1-32. 

«  Garrod,  Miss  D.  A.  E.,  RBAA,  Pres.  Ad.,  Sect.  H.,  1936,  pp.  155-172. 

M  Hopwood,  A.  T.,  op.  cit. 

M  Verneau,  R.,  "Anthropologie,"  in  Les  GrotUs  de  Grimaldi,  vol.  2,  fasc.  1. 

Keith  (Antiquity  of  Man,  p.  67)  and  Morant  (AE,  vol.  4, 1930,  pp.  116-119)  deny  this 
negroid  character  completely,  Morant  on  the  grounds  of  faulty  restoration,  which  exag- 
gerated the  prognathism  of  the  adolescent  male. 


34  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Galley  Hill,  for  the  distal  segments  are  relatively  long,  and  the  arms  long 
in  relation  to  the  legs.34  In  this  as  in  the  possession  of  long  heels 36  the 
Grimaldi  specimens  are  truly  negroid,  and  again  upset  the  unity  of  the 
total  Upper  Palaeolithic  sample. 

There  is  no  type  of  man  more  completely  sapiens  36  than  a  negro.  The 
two  Grimaldi  specimens,  in  being  partially  negroid  variants  or  relatives 
of  the  Galley  Hill  group,  are  entirely  divorced  from  the  line  or  evolution 
which  produced  either  the  Palestinian  Skhul  people  or  the  later  European 
Aurignacians.  In  this  respect  the  argument  as  to  how  much  or  how  little 
negroid  they  actually  were,  is  of  no  importance. 

Whence  they  came  to  Europe,  in  the  van  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
migrations,  is  likewise  not,  at  the  moment,  worthy  of  extensive  argument. 
They  must  have  come  from  Africa  or  southwestern  Asia,  but  until  others 
of  the  same  type  have  been  found,  the  problem  will  remain  open.  They 
may  represent  an  early  negro-white  mixture,  or  a  generalized  proto- 
negroid  in  the  process  of  specialization.37  They  are  probably  too  late, 
however,  in  time,  to  have  been  contemporary  members  of  the  generalized 
stock  which  may  have  been  mutually  ancestral  to  the  negroes  and  whites. 

The  study  of  the  third  specimen,  the  male  skeleton  of  Combe  Capelle, 
is  more  pertinent  to  our  present  problem.  Like  the  two  Grimaldi  negroids, 
it  deviates  completely  from  the  body  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  crania  and 
long  bones  in  the  distinctive  features  of  the  main  group.  Although  as 
long  as  the  mean  for  the  total  series,  the  cranial  vault  is  considerably 
narrower,  somewhat  higher,  and  smaller  in  capacity.  In  the  details  of 
vault  form,  it  is  essentially  similar  to  Galley  Hill,  but  is  actually  narrower 
even  than  Galley  Hill  itself. 

The  Combe  Capelle  face  is  the  earliest  which  can  be  definitely  asso- 
ciated with  a  Galley  Hill  type  of  vault.  Here  it  differs  again  from  the 
middle  Aurignacians  to  follow,  for  the  bizygomatic  and  bigonial  diame- 
ters are  as  small  as  those  of  most  modern  long-headed  white  men,  and  the 
face,  orbits,  and  mandible  are  narrow.  The  nasal  opening  is  wider  than 
those  of  most  later  Upper  Palaeolithic  European  crania  but  the  nasal  bones 
are  European  in  form.  There  is  no  prognathisrn  and  the  subnasal  seg- 
ment of  the  face  is  not  exceptionally  large.  Like  Galley  Hill,  Combe 
Capelle  man  was  short,  with  a  stature  of  160-162  cm. 

It  will  be  necessary,  in  studying  the  crania  of  the  remainder  of  the 
Aurignacian,  to  combine  all  sub-periods,  since  no  distinction  has  been 
made  in  the  majority  of  cases.  Furthermore,  the  crania  which  might 

34  Bonin,  G.,  von,  op.  cit.9  p.  205. 

»/««/.,  p.  215. 

38  As  opposed  to  Neanderthaloid. 

»  Montandon,  G.,  RA,  vols.  4-6,  1936,  pp.  105-139. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN 


35 


have  been  Solutrean  are  also  included.  The  present  survey,  then,  in- 
cludes the  famous  Cr6-Magnons  of  France,  and  the  Moravian  mammoth 
hunters,  who  lived  in  the  open  and  buried  their  dead  in  sepulchres  built 
of  mammoth  jaws  and  shoulder  blades. 

Despite  the  general  homogeneity  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  man,  these  two 
groups,  the  western  and  eastern,  may  be  shown  to  have  differed  from  each 
other  in  certain  well-defined  ways.  Both  were  tall,  with  statures  well 

RECONSTRUCTIONS   FROM   PALAEOLITHIC   CRANIA 


FIG.  2.  NEANDERTHAL  MAN.  FIG.  3.  CRO-MAGNON  MAN. 

(LA  CHAPELLE.)  (THE  OLD  MAN  OF  CRO-MAGNON.) 

Reconstructions,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  V.   Lebzelter;  Fig.   13  by  Herr 
Fahrwickel,  Fig.  14  by  Herr  E.  Grenzer.  MAGW,  vol.  65,  pp.  [4],  [26]. 

over  170  cm.,  and  in  this  likeness  of  growth  they  segregate  themselves 
from  the  few  early  Aurignacian  representatives  which  we  have  studied. 

Both  the  western  and  the  eastern  type  possess  the  special  characteristics 
of  Upper  Palaeolithic  man  which  have  been  described  earlier.  But  there 
is  one  principal  feature  which  .separates  them — the  cranial  index.  The 
Cr6~Magnons,  who  were  concentrated  in  France,  range  in  this  ratio  from 
69  to  85,  whereas  the  eastern  group,  including  the  Russian  skulls,  ranges 
from  64  to  76.  The  mean  index  for  the  French  skulls  equals  76,  while  that 
of  the  eastern  group,  representing  the  same  period  of  time,  is  71.  In  other 
words,  the  eastern  Aurignacian  type,  like  Galley  Hill  and  Combe  Capelle, 
was  purely  dolichocephalic,  while  the  Middle  and  Late  Aurignacians  of 
France  include  among  their  numbers  a  brachycephalic  element,  which 
reaches  the  high  limit  of  85  in  the  male  skull,  Solutr6  #2. 


36  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  western  group  has  been  named  Cro-Magnon  after  a  senile  male 
skull  which  is  .usually  taken  as  the  standard  example  of  this  type,  and 
which  possesses  the  most  specialized  Upper  Palaeolithic  features  in  an 
exaggerated  manner.  Skulls  of  this  type  have  a  rather  flat  vault,  the 
lowest  and  broadest  orbits  in  the  entire  series,  and  short,  extremely  wide 
faces.  Their  nasal  apertures  are  of  medium  width,  and  their  nasal  bones 
highly  curved  and  projecting. 

The  most  brachycephalic  skull  shows,  of  course,  quite  a  different  con- 
formation of  the  cranial  vault.  It  belongs  to  the  curvoccipital  type,  with 
a  gently  rounded  rear  profile.  This  Solutr£  #2  specimen  is  a  large  skull, 
and  belonged  to  a  tall  man.  Its  face,  however,  shows  the  typical  Cr6- 
Magnon  features  of  flaring  zygomata  and  wide  jaw,  combined  with 
extremely  low  orbits.  The  Cr6-Magnon  character  of  this  face,  while 
marked,  is  not  as  clearly  shown  as  in  the  dolichocephalic  examples,  for  the 
fuller  bulge  of  the  temporals  obscures  it.  The  Cr6-Magnon  type,  in  the 
widest  sense,  therefore,  includes  both  long-headed  and  round-headed  ex- 
amples with  transitions  in  between,  and  the  features  which  differentiate 
it  are  just  as  pronounced  in  the  roundest  skulls  as  in  the  more  numerous 
narrower  ones. 

Let  us  turn  to  central  and  eastern  Europe,  and  study  the  purely  long- 
headed examples  from  this  part  of  the  continent.  In  general,  they  re- 
semble an  exaggerated  and  leptorrhine  Combe  Capelle,  with  the  low 
orbits,  wide  faces,  and  heavy  jaws  found  in  excess  further  west.  A  few 
skulls  deviate  in  various  ways  from  the  standard,  however;  of  these  three 
are  notable,  Briinn  #1,  Lautsch,  and  Predmost  #3. 

Briinn  #1 ,  which  lacks  a  face,  but  possesses  a  mandible,  is,  in  vault  form 
and  size,  and  in  the  lower  jaw,  the  duplicate  of  Combe  Capelle.  Lautsch, 
which  has  a  face,  belongs  partly  to  the  same  general  class,  but  is  broader. 
Its  face,  however,  is  narrow,  and  in  this  conforms  to  the  Combe  Capelle 
type.  On  the  whole,  the  eastern  skulls,  while  subjected  to  the  same  in- 
fluence which  brought  about  an  increase  in  gross  size  and  osseous  extrav- 
agance in  the  Cr6-Magnons,  nevertheless  cling  closer  to  the  older  Galley 
Hill  form,  and  were  not  affected  by  whatever  factor  caused  the  brachy- 
cephaly  in  some  of  the  western  specimens. 

The  third  of  the  not  fully  typical  eastern  crania,  Predmost  #3,88  is  of 
great  value,  for  it  reveals  in  a  certain  manner  the  reason  for  the 
general-  peculiarities  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  series  as  a  whole,  and  for 
their  separation,  shown  by  Morant,  from  the  bulk  of  living  humanity. 
This  reason  is  simply  that  P?edmost  #3  resembles  Skhul  #5  very  closely, 
both  morphologically  and  metrically,  while  neither  of  these  two  speci- 
mens deviates  notably  from  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  metrical  means. 

88  This  may  even  have  been  associated  with  a  Solutrean  culture. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  37 

On  the  whole,  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  group,  including  Predmost  #3, 
is  intermediate  between  the  Galley  Hill-Combe  Capelle  type  and  the 
Neanderthals,  as  known  to  us  from  the  European  Neanderthaloid  group.39 
In  the  first  place,  the  horizontal  circumference,  taken  above  the  brow- 
ridges,  ranges  from  538  to  563  mm.  in  male  Neanderthals.  The  Upper 
Palaeolithic  means  is  549.1  mm.,  the  individual  figure  of  Pfedmost  #3  is 
556,  that  of  Combe  Capelle,  527  mm.,  which  would  be  nearer  a  modern 
dolichocephalic  mean.  In  face  breadth,  the  Neanderthal  figure  is  repre- 
sented by  La  Chapelle  aux  Saints  with  152  mm.,  and  the  Le  Moustier 
adolescent  with  148  mm.  The  Upper  Palaeolithic  mean  is  142.8  mm., 
Pfedmost  #3  is  144  mm.,  and  Combe  Capelle  137  mm.  Again,  Combe 
Capelle  represents  modern  European  man,  and  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
group  takes  an  intermediate  position. 

The  same  intermediate  position  is  found  in  a  number  of  other  charac- 
ters, including  the  vault  breadth  and  height,  the  minimum  frontal  diam- 
eter, the  widths  of  the  orbits,  and  the  distance  between  the  orbits.  In  in- 
dividual cases,  such  as  Pfedmost  #3,  the  upper  face  height  is  intermediate 
also,  but  in  the  group  as  a  whole  it  is  not,  for  the  shorter  dimension  pre- 
vails. The  same  is  true  of  the  nasal  dimensions  in  which  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic man  is  not  perceptibly  Neanderthaloid.  The  cranial  lengths  of  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  group  are  no  greater  than  those  of  Combe  Capelle  and 
Galley  Hill;  in  fact,  frequently  shorter.  The  reason  for  this  may  be  that  the 
equivalent  Neanderthaloid  diameter  includes  the  browridges,  which,  when 
eliminated,  make  the  brain  length  somewhat  less  than  that  of  Galley  Hill. 

The  stature  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  group  equals  that  of  Skhul;  the 
sex  differentiation  in  size  is  the  same;  the  pelves  are  similar,  and  so  is 
the  rib  section.  The  hands  and  feet  are  likewise  large. 

If  the  European  group,  with  the  exception  of  P?edmost  #3,  is  less 
Neanderthaloid  looking  than  Skhul,  this  is  not  surprising.  The  distance 
in  time  between  the  two  was  probably  as  great  as  or  greater  than  that 
between  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Aurignacian  and  the  present.  Fur- 
thermore, we  have  been  comparing  European  Upper  Palaeolithic  skele- 
tons with  those  of  European  Neanderthals.  While  the  Aurignacian  hunters 
of  Europe  may  possibly  have  absorbed  some  of  the  local  Neanderthal 
survivors,  it  is  likely  that  the  main  accretion  of  this  element  took  place 
farther  east,40  and  we  do  not  know  that  those  so  accreted  were  as  spe- 
cialized in  a  non-sapiens  direction  as  the  European  examples. 

89  Measurements  from  Morant's  tables  in  AE,  vol.  2,  1927,  pp,  376-377. 

40  The  Aurignacian  culture  does  not  seem  to  have  absorbed  the  local  Mousterian  of 
western  Europe,  except  in  a  few  doubtful  instances.  See  Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  Stone  Age 
Africat  pp.  185-186.  On  the  whole,  the  theory  that  European  Neanderthals  had  become 
extinct,  or  had  departed  before  the  arrival  of  the  Aurignacians,  is  not  invalidated  by  the 
discovery  of  the  Neanderthaloid  characters  of  Middle  and  Late  Aurignacian  man* 


38  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

In  admitting  the  partially  Neanderthaloid  character  of  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic man  (which  is  no  new  theory),  we  must  accept  at  the  same  time 
some  genetic  principles  which  apply  to  modern  primary  crosses  between 
distant  races,41  as  well  as  to  these  ancient  interspecific  mixtures.  Although 
blending  is  the  rule  in  most  characters,  simple  dominance  appears  in  a 
few;  while  major  changes  in  size  appear  through  this  mixing.  The  stature 
of  the  hybrids  far  exceeds  that  of  their  parents,  and  through  the  general 
genetic  upset,  the  brain  size  becomes  greater  than  that  of  the  earlier  purely 
sapiens  stock. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is  an  alternative  interpretation  of  the 
Neanderthaloid  traits  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  man.  That  is  that  he  repre- 
sents a  stage  in  the  evolution  of  Neanderthal  in  a  sapiens  direction;  that 
different  branches  of  the  Neanderthaloid  stock  evolved  into  sapiens  men 
at  different  times;  and  that  the  Swanscombe — Galley  Hill — Kanam — 
Kanjera  stock  went  through  this  process  at  a  much  earlier  date  than 
did  the  group  under  consideration. 

For  the  purposes  of  the  present  study,  it  makes  no  difference  whether 
the  early  sapiens  stock,  fully  evolved  by  the  Mid-Pleistocene,  had  passed 
through  a  Neanderthaloid  stage  in  its  previous  history,  or  had  evolved 
directly  from  some  less  gerontomorphic  and  more  gibbonoid  ancestor. 
The  question  which  is  at  the  moment  pertinent  is,  are  the  Skhul — Upper 
Palaeolithic  peoples  to  be  considered  Neanderthaloid-^aj&zVn^  hybrids,  or 
simply  evolved  Neanderthaloids,  in  which  case  the  hybridization  con- 
necting the  Upper  Palaeolithic  people  with  modern  Europeans  would 
have  occurred  later?  All  of  the  existing  evidence,  of  somatology  as  of 
archaeology,  points  to  the  former  hypothesis,  which  we  have  accepted,  in 
lieu  of  further  information,  as  one  of  the  main  theses  in  our  reconstruction 
of  European  racial  history. 

Returning  to  the  specific  consideration  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  Euro- 
pean group,  we  find  that  the  difference  between  the  eastern  and  the 
western  Aurignacians,  which  consists,  most  demonstrably,  of  the  brachy- 
cephalic  tendency  in  the  latter,  has  not  been  explained.  It  might,  how- 
ever, have  been  due  to  a  differential  mixture  between  sapiens  and  more 
than  one  Neanderthaloid  strain.  The  Neanderthaloids  in  Europe,  who 
lived  in  the  western  part  of  the  continent,  varied  in  cranial  index  from  67 
(Gibraltar)  to  77  (La  Quina),  and  were  not  far  from  the  French  Upper 
Palaeolithic  mean  of  76. 

When  measured  from  ophyron,  a  point  on  the  frontal  bone  behind  the 
browridges,  the  crania  of  these  Neanderthals  have  the  following  lengths: 
three  males,  193,  186,  187;  three  females,  185,  183,  186  mm.  These  are 

"Shapiro,  H.  L.,  MBM,  vol.  11,  1929,  pp.  1-106;  The  Heritage  of  the  Bounty, 
pp.  217-233. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  39 

shorter  than  the  French  Upper  Palaeolithic  means,  taken  from  the  same 
point,  of  195.6  mm.  for  males,  and  188.6  mm.  for  females.  The  cranial 
indices  calculated  from  these  lengths  are,  in  five  out  of  eight  Neanderthal 
cases,  above  80.0.  Thus  there  was,  in  the  Neanderthal  group  as  we  know 
it,  a  brachyencranial,  or  brachycerebral,  tendency  in  brain  form  which, 
with  a  reduction  of  browridges,  might,  in  mixture,  have  caused  brachy- 
cephaly  in  some  of  the  hybrids.  That  it  may  have  done  so  in  the  case  of  the 
French  brachycephals,  notably  Solutre*  #2,  which  has  a  cranial  length  of 
182.5  mm.,  is  by  no  means  more  than  a  suggestion. 

As  the  reader  will  have  gathered  from  the  preceding  pages,  the  study  of 
race  in  Europe  during  the  advance  of  the  last  ice  is  not  a  simple  matter,  nor 
one  to  be  solved  lightly.  It  will  be  of  help  to  study  parallel  developments 
in  other  quarters,  especially  in  Africa. 

(8)   UPPER   PALAEOLITHIC  HUNTERS   OF  NORTH  AFRICA 

During  the  Late  Pleistocene,  at  the  time  of  the  Wurm  glaciations  in 
Europe,  northern  Africa,  including  the  present  Morocco,  Algeria,  and 
Tunisia,  enjoyed  a  cool  climate  and  an  abundant  plant  life;  making  an 
admirable  home  for  human  beings.  Fortunately,  many  Late  Pleistocene 
skeletons  from  these  countries  have  been  studied,  and  we  are  able  to  sup- 
plement our  information  from  Europe  very  greatly  by  comparison. 

During  the  Upper  Palaeolithic,  there  were  three  cultures  in  North  Africa 
which  existed  contemporaneously  as  geographical  units;  the  Capsian, 
covering  a  restricted  range  in  Tunisia  and  eastern  Algeria;  the  Oranian, 
a  related  culture  extending  over  the  provinces  of  Alger  and  Constantine, 
and  into  Morocco;  and  the  Aterian,  along  the  Moroccan  seaboard. 

The  Capsian  and  Oranian  were  cultures  basically  related  to  the  Aurig- 
nacian  of  Europe,  but  which  contained  throughout  their  history  a  micro- 
lithic  blade  element  which  was  destined  to  move  northward,  after  the  end 
of  the  glacial  period,  and  to  invade  Europe  as  the  Tardenoisian.  The  Cap- 
sian had  probably  moved  westward  along  the  southern  Mediterranean 
shore  from  the  East;  the  Oranian  was  nothing  but  a  western  extension  of 
the  Capsian;  while  the  Aterian  was  a  protracted  survivor  of  the  Mouste- 
rian,  which  developed  its  own  peculiarities  as  time  went  on,  and  was  grad- 
ually crowded  to  the  Atlantic  seaboard  by  the  Oranian. 

It  is  at  present  believed  that  North  Africa,  during  the  Late  Pleistocene, 
was  a  marginal  area  of  refuge,  and  not  a  highway  of  cultures.  Gibraltar 
served  less  as  a  bridge  than  as  a  barrier.  Nothing  can  better  attest  the 
passive  cultural  r61e  of  North  Africa  during  this  period  than  the  fact  that 
the  Aterian,  a  Mid-Pleistocene  culture,  was  allowed  to  elaborate  its  own 
special  technique  long  after  the  Mousterian,  from  which  it  sprang,  had 
passed  out  of  existence  elsewhere. 


40  THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 

That  the  earlier  phases  of  the  Capsian  and  Oranian,  coming  directly 
after  the  Mousterian,  were  comparable  in  time  to  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
cultures  of  Europe,  such  experts  as  Menghin,  Obermaier,  and  Leakey  are 
unanimous,42  while  Miss  Garrod,  on  the  basis  of  Vaufrey's  work,  would 
make  them  later.43 

We  can  only,  at  this  point,  agree  with  Menghin  that  while  the  exact 
time  correlation  of  North  African  and  western  European  Late  Pleistocene 
industries  is  still  floating,  they  may  be  considered  roughly  parallel.  At 
present,  the  general  agreement  is  that  the  essential  elements  of  both 
European  and  North  African  Upper  Palaeolithic  cultures  came  from  the 
east,  and  had,  at  least  in  part,  a  common  origin. 

So  far,  all  of  the  human  remains  of  the  Late  Pleistocene  from  North 
Africa  come  from  the  Province  of  Gonstantine,  where  most  of  the  archaeo- 
logical work  has  been  done.  The  total  of  these  skeletons  probably  reaches 
one  hundred,  but,  unfortunately,  less  than  half  of  them  have  been  fully 
preserved  or  competently  studied.44  They  come  for  the  most  part  from  two 
great  sites,  Afalou  bou  Rummel,  and  Mechta  el  'Arbi.  The  former  is 
Oranian,  the  latter  Capsian. 

Afalou  bou  Rummel  is  an  Early  Oranian  site.  Within  this  early  horizon, 
Arambourg  distinguishes  two  levels,  a  lower^and  an  upper.  The  lower 
may  be  correlated  with  the  Early  Aurignacian  of  Europe,  by  one  system, 
or  with  Middle  and  Late  Aurignacian,  according  to  another. 

The  lower  level  is  represented  by  the  skeleton  of  a  single  adult  male,  to 
whom  we  shall  refer  by  his  catalogue  number,  #28.  Number  28  was  a 
short  man,  about  161.5  cm.  tall,  equivalent  in  stature  to  Galley  Hill, 
Combe  Capelle,  and  the  male  negroid  from  Grimaldi.  His  skull  differs 
greatly  from  the  others  taken  from  the  upper  level  of  the  same  site.  It  is 
ovoid  in  shape,  hyperdolichocephalic,  and  low  vaulted;  it  possesses  a  slop- 
ing forehead,  a  large  U-shaped  palate,  and  high  orbits.  It  is  only  moder- 
ately massive,  and  is  about  equal  in  this  respect  to  Combe  Capelle.  This 
skull  is  that  of  a  generalized  white  type,  and  can  be  placed  without  much 
difficulty  into  the  general  class  of  Galley  Hill  and  Combe  Capelle.  Like 
the  latter,  its  nasal  aperture  is  wide,  its  index  chamaerrhine. 

Forty-nine  other  crania  have  been  taken  from  the  upper  lenses  of  the 
Early  Oranian  culture  level  at  Afalou  bou  Rummel.  These  correspond 

42  Menghin,  O.,  Weltgeschichte  der  Stein&it,  pp.  34-35. 

Obermaier,  H.,  AAnz,  vol.  7,  1931,  pp.  259-265. 

Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  Stone  Age  Africa,  pp.  105-111. 

48  Garrod,  Miss  D.  A.  E.,  RBAA,  Pres.  Ad.,  Sect.  H. 

Vaufrey,  R.,  Anth,  vol.  43,  1933,  pp.  457-483. 

44  But  two  satisfactory  accounts  have  been  published : 

Part  II  of  Les  Grottes  Palaeolithiques  de  Bern  Seghoual,  by  Boule,  Vallois,  and  Verneau. 

Cole,  Fay-Cooper,  LMB  #1,  1928,  Section  on  skeletal  material. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  41 

closely  in  physical  type  to  Middle  and  Late  Aurignacian  man  in  western 
Europe,  but  the  two  groups  are  not  identical.  Like  Cr6-Magnon,  all  of  the 
Afalou  skeletons  studied  were  tall,  with  an  estimated  male  mean  falling 
between  171  and  175  cm.,  according  to  different  methods.  Their  limb 
proportions,  with  long  distal  segments,  are  like  those  of  many  of  the 
Cro-Magnon  group;  while  their  hands  and  feet,  similarly,  are  both  longer 
and  broader  than  those  of  most  Europeans.  The  combined  height  of  the 
vertebrae  show  that  their  bodies,  as  well  as  their  legs,  were  long,  and 
the  total  bulk  of  a  typical  male,  in  good  condition,  must  have  been  great, 

A  high  ratio  between  the  length  of  the  collarbone  and  that  of  the  upper 
arm  (clavico-humeral  index)  reveals  that  they  had  broader  shoulders  than 
those  of  most  modern  white  men,  a  feature  which  has  been  also  noticed 
on  the  Chancelade  and  Obercassel  skeletons,  and  perhaps  is  equally  true  of 
the  European  group  as  a  whole.  The  pelves  are  high  and  have  narrow 
openings;  the  feet  are  highly  arched,  with  well-developed  heels;  and  the 
size  and  muscular  markings  of  the  long  bones  differentiate  the  males 
from  the  females  clearly.  All  of  the  bodily  traits  of  these  men  are  shared 
by  Cr6-Magnon,  and  all  are,  in  a  general  sense,  European. 

The  Afalou  crania  have  been  exhaustively  described  and  thoroughly 
illustrated.  In  general,  they  are  very  large,  low-orbitted  skulls,  thick-boned, 
and  marked  in  high  relief  for  muscular  attachment.  The  browridges  form 
a  heavy  jut,  even  greater  in  most  instances  than  those  of  the  Gr6-Magnons. 
Behind  a  salient  glabella  the  forehead  slopes  in  all  instances.  Vertical 
foreheads,  frequent  among  modern  whites,  especially  females,  and  present 
in  some  Cr6-Magnon  individuals,  do  not  occur  here.  The  union  of  the 
parietal  and  occipital  bones  is  always  marked  by  a  lambdoidal  depression, 
or  flattening,46  while  below  this  depression  the  occiput  is  usually  bun- 
shaped  and  projecting.  The  mastoids  are  strongly  developed,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  vault  is  greater  than  that  of  modern  man,  but  no  greater 
than  with  Gr6-Magnon. 

Metrically,  the  male  skulls  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  3)  are  practically 
identical  with  those  of  the  'total  European  series,  except  that  they  are 
slightly  shorter  and  higher  in  vault  dimensions,  while  the  upper  face  is  a 
little  shorter.  In  these  divergences  from  the  total  European  group,  they 
resemble  the  western  branch,  or  Cr6-Magnons.  The  cranial  indices  of  23 
males  range  from  70  to  80,  with  a  mean  of  74.8;  while  the  female  figures 
are:  range  70  to  84;  and  mean  75.7.  Both  in  range  and  in  means  of 
head  form,  the  Afalou  series  equals  that  of  Cr6-Magnon. 

The  nose  of  the  Afalou  type  is  perfectly  European  in  bony  conformation. 

45  This  feature  is  extremely  common  among  living  North  African  tribesmen,  and 
among  crania  from  the  Canary  Islands.   See  Coon,  C.  S.,  Tribes  of  the  Rif,  p.  312. 
Hooton,  E.  A.,  The  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands,  p.  134. 


42  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  paired  nasal  bones  unite  at  a  sharp  angle,  without  trace  of  flatten- 
ing, while  the  bridges  are  high  and  mostly  convex.  The  nasal  spine  is 
strong  and  projects  far  forward.  The  nasal  index,  which  lies  just  over  the 
border  of  chamaerrhiny,46  furnishes  a  real  metrical  difference  between 
Afalou  and  Cr6-Magnon.  The  elevation  of  the  index  is  due  to  a  shorter 
height  as  well  as  to  a  greater  width.  Not  one  of  the  Afalou  skulls  is  actually 
leptorrhine.  This  feature,  combined  with  the  sloping  forehead  and  heavy 
browridges,  serves  to  differentiate  the  types  in  the  two  continents.  The 
Afalou  mandible,  furthermore,  is  extremely  broad,  deep,  and  heavy.  In 
the  possession  of  a  pronounced  chin  greater  than  those  commonly  found 
among  the  living,  it  is  clearly  opposed  to  any  known  Neanderthal  form. 
However,  it  resembles  the  Neanderthaloids  in  one  feature;  the  bigonial 
breadth  is  frequently  greater  than  the  mandibular  length,  a  condition 
rare  in  Homo  sapiens,  and  not  even  found  in  Skhul. 

In  the  Cr6-Magnon  series,  the  combination  of  a  short,  broad  upper  face 
with  a  long  cranial  vault  has  often  been  called  "disharmonic,"  and  it  has 
been  asserted  that  this  condition  is  the  result  of  mixture  between  a  longer, 
narrower-faced  dolichocephal  and  a  shorter,  wider-faced  brachycephal.47 
In  the  European  series,  although  both  long  and  round  skull  forms  occur, 
there  are  not  enough  crania  which  still  possess  facial  bones  to  make  a 
statistical  analysis  of  this  point  valid.  But  in  the  Afalou  series,  where  the 
same  set  of  conditions  is  duplicated,  such  an  analysis  is  possible.48  Out  of 
nine  dolichocranial  skulls,  four  have  upper  facial  indices  in  the  broad  cate- 
gory, while  fourteen  out  of  eighteen  of  the  rounder-headed  examples  are 
broad  faced.  The  tendency  toward  a  broad  upper  face  form,  then,  is 
borne  predominantly  by  the  meso-  and  brachycranial  element  in  the  group. 
If  this  is  true  for  the  Afalou  series,  it  is  probably  equally  valid  in  the  Cr6- 
Magnon  group. 

Two  of  the  Afalou  skulls,  however,  present  the  "disharmonic"  combina- 
tion of  a  hypereuryene  face  with  a  long  skull  form.  In  explaining  this 
anomaly  we  must  remember  that  an  extreme  width  of  the  face  is  sex- 
linked  in  both  the  Cr6-Magnon  and  Afalou  series;  it  is  a  manifestation  of 
the  extreme  ruggedness  and  luxuriance  of  muscularity  which  the  males  of 
both  series  manifest,  and  is  lacking,  as  a  rule,  among  the  females. 

One  other  peculiarity  which  is  common  to  both  the  European  and  the 
North  African  Upper  Palaeolithic  peoples  is  a  very  low  orbital  index.  This 
again  lends  itself  in  the  second  series  to  statistical  analysis.  Only  three  out 
of  eleven  dolichocranial  skulls  are  chamaeconch,  while  fourteen  out  of 

n 

«•  Mean  for  21  males— 53.1;  Nose  Ht.  =  52.7  mm.;  Nose  Br.^28.4  mm. 

47  Hooton,  E.  A.,  Canary  Islands,  pp.  204-207. 

48  The  coefficient  of  mean  square  contingency  between  the  cranial  index  and  the  up- 
per facial  index,,  calculated  with  nine  boxes,  equals  .53. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE   MEN  43 

eighteen  of  those  with  higher  cranial  indices  fall  into  this  low-or bitted 
category.49 

Hence  we  may  deduce  that  the  two  parallel  series,  Cro-Magnon  and 
Afalou,  consist  in  each  case  of  a  Galley  Hill-Neanderthal  mixture  as  a  base, 
with  which  is  associated  a  variant  tendency  to  round-headedness.  To  this 
is  linked  an  extremely  short,  broad  upper  facial  form,  with  a  heavy  lower 
jaw,  and  wide,  low  orbits.  At  the  same  time,  certain  differences,  such  as 
the  nose  form,  definitely  prevent  the  assumption  that  the  two  are  identical, 
and  make  it  extremely  unlikely  that  the  two  met,  after  their  initial  separa- 
tion, during  the  entire  span  of  the  Late  Pleistocene. 

Other  facts  strengthen  this  conclusion.50  The  Afalou  people  knocked 
out  one  to  four  incisor  teeth  from  the  jaws  of  each  person  of  either  sex,  be- 
tween the  ages  of  fourteen  and  sixteen,  apparently  as  a  puberty  rite.  Tooth 
knocking  is  unknown  in  Europe  before  the  Mesolithic,51  although  finger- 
chopping,  during  the  Upper  Palaeolithic,  is  indicated  by  the  outlines  of 
mutilated  hands  on  the  walls  of  the  caves.  Therefore,  if  the  Cr6-Magnon 
people  observed  bloody  puberty  ceremonies,  as  is  quite  possible,  they  must 
have  removed  some  less  tell-tale  part  of  the  anatomy  than  the  teeth.  While 
this  bit  of  cultural  evidence  renders  the  theory  of  physical  contact  between 
the  two  groups  unlikely,  it  does  not  necessarily  affect  the  problem  of  rela- 
tive age.  We  still  do  not  know  whether  the  Afalou  men,  whose  sequence  of 
types  parallels  that  in  western  Europe,  were  contemporaneous  with  their 
kinsmen  to  the  north,  or  later  than  them  to  arrive. 

From  a  study  of  these  presumably  Pleistocene  Algerians,  we  are  able  to 
confirm  the  conclusions  reached  in  the  preceding  section,  and  to  amplify 
them.  A  fully  sapiens  individual,  comparable  to  Combe  Capelle  in  every 
important  respect,  preceded,  in  time,  a  group  of  overgrown,  large-headed 
and  wide-faced  Neanderthal-sapiens  hybrids.  This  latter  type,  like  Cr6- 
Magnon  and  unlike  the  people  in  central  and  eastern  Europe,  bore  a 
tendency  to  brachycephaly.  That  Cr6-Magnon  and  Afalou  men  were  the 
parallel  termini  of  similar  movements,  and  not  way  stations  on  a  single 
line  of  migration,  is  probable.  In  view  of  the  earlier  evidence  of  a  similar 
mixture  in  Palestine,  and  of  the  general  center  of  Aurignacian  activity  in 
that  neighborhood,  it  may  be  considered  likely  that  the  second  pair  of 
parallel  movements  proceeded  westward  from  that  general  quarter.  The 
earlier  waves  which  brought  Combe  Capelle  and  Afalou  #28  must  have 

49  C  sa  .47.   In  this  contingency  table,  of  6  boxes,  the  progression  is  constant,  and  of 
undoubted  significance. 

50  It  was  at  one  time  thought  that  the  presence  of  caries  in  a  small  percentage  in  the 
Afalou  teeth  made  them  later  in  age  than  the  Europeans.  However,  the  two  Solutrean  or 
Magdalenian  skulls  from  Le  Roc,  Charente,  were  also  carious. 

Boule,  M.,  and  Vallois,  H.,  BIPH,  #18,  1937. 
61  See  Chapter  III,  p.  68,  footnote  27  (Ofnet). 


44  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

come  from  a  different  center.  Whether  the  Cr6~Magnon  and  Afalou 
people  derived  their  brachycephalic  tendencies  from  parallel  mixtures  at 
the  terminal  points  of  invasion  or  brought  them  with  them  in  the  first 
place,  cannot  be  determined  without  further  evidence. 

(9)  AURIGNACIAN  MAN  IN  EAST  AFRICA 

The  Aurignacian  culture,  the  racial  connotations  of  which  we  have  just 
reviewed  in  Europe,  Palestine,  and,  in  the  guise  of  Capsian  and  Oranian, 
in  North  Africa,  also  extended  southward  to  East  Africa.62  Here,  as  in 
Algeria,  microliths  were  present  in  the  midst  of  other  forms  more  typical  of 
Europe  and  western  Asia.53  While  the  correlation  of  the  pluvial  periods 
of  East  Africa  with  the  glacial  phases  farther  north  is  still  under  discussion, 
it  is  probably  safe  to  conclude  that  the  Kenya  and  Tanganyika  Lower 
Aurignacian  was  roughly  equivalent  in  time  to  Upper  Palaeolithic  hori- 
zons elsewhere,  although  the  Upper  Aurignacian  may  have  lasted  much 
later,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  East  Africa  was  a  racial  and  cultural  frontier 
and  a  marginal  area. 

The  remains  of  six  Upper  Aurignacian  men  have  been  discovered  in  the 
two  colonies  named.  Five  of  these  were  exhumed  by  Leakey  at  Gamble's 
Cave,  Elementitia, B4  and  the  sixth  is  the  famous  Oldoway  skull  discovered 
by  Reck  in  1914.56  Two  of  the  Gamble's  Cave  specimens,  and  Oldoway, 
which  are  all  masculine,  consist  of  nearly  complete  skulls  and  long  bones. 
The  others  from  Gamble's  Cave  are  too  fragmentary  to  be  of  much  value. 

In  general,  these  specimens  belong  in  the  purely  sapiens  category,  as 
represented  by  Galley  Hill,  Kanjera,  Grimaldi,  Combe  Capelle,  and 
Afalou  #28.  At  the  same  time,  however,  they  differ  from  all  named  in  one 
important  respect — they  are  extremely  tall,  with  statures  of  177,  179,  and 
180  cm.,  which  even  exceeds  the  Cr6-Magnon  and  later  Afalou  figures,  but 
the  great  stature  is  unaccompanied  by  the  broad  shoulders  and  bodily 
bulk  of  the  hybrid  Europeans  and  North  Africans.  The  long  bones  are 
very  slender,  and  the  hands  and  feet  small  and  narrow. 

The  same  principle  of  attenuation  applies  to  the  faces.  In  all  of  them, 
and  especially  in  Oldoway,  the  faces  are  extremely  narrow,  and  very  long, 
especially  in  the  upper  segments.  The  browridges  are  weak,  the  zygomatic 
arches  feebly  developed,  the  mandibles  light  and  slender,  with  narrow  bi- 
gonial  diameters,  and  weak,  although  positive,  chins.  The  orbits  are  high 
and  narrow,  and  the  noses  likewise.  The  Gamble's  Cave  skulls  are  lep- 

68  Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  Stone  Age  Africa,  pp.  38-74. 

«  Garrod,  Miss  D.  A.  E.,  RBAA,  Pres.  Ad.,  Sect.  H. 

M  Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  The  Stone  Age  Races  of  Kenya,  pp.  47-56;  Stone  Age  Africa,  p.  172. 

56  Reck,  H.,  Oldoway,  die  Schlucht  des  Urmenschcn,  Leipzig,  1933. 

Mollison,  T.,  and  Gieseler,  W.,  VGPA,  vol.  3,  1929,  pp.  50-59,  60-67. 

Boule,  M.,  and  Vallois,  H.,  UHommejomle  d*A$$dar,  AIPH,  Mem.  9,  pp.  60-64. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  45 

torrhine,  leptene,  and  leptoprosopic;  Oldoway  is  mesorrhine,  and  hyper- 
leptoprosopic.  The  two  Gamble's  Gave  skulls  are  orthognathous,  but 
Oldoway  possesses  considerable  alveolar  prognathism. 

In  vault  size,  these  crania  resemble  Combe  Gapelle  and  Afalou  #28, 
rather  than  the  European  and  North  African  crania  of  later  Aurignacian 
and  Oranian  date.  Oldoway  and  Gamble's  Cave  #4  are  higher  and  nar- 
rower than  the  European  Upper  Palaeolithic  mean;  Gamble's  Cave  #5, 
which  is  the  skull  of  an  adolescent,  is  shorter,  higher,  and  nearly  as  broad. 
The  foreheads  are  gently  sloping  and  rounded;  the  occiputs  projecting,  but 
without  the  lambdoidal  flattening  which  characterizes  the  European 
crania.  The  total  impression  is  one  of  thinness  and  delicacy. 

In  the  morphology  of  the  head  and  face,  these  three  specimens  are  not 
exactly  alike.  Gamble's  Cave  #5,  which  has  a  cranial  index  of  74,  is  nearest 
to  the  European  standard;  while  the  two  others,  Gamble's  #4,  with  an 
index  of  71,  and  Oldoway,  with  64.5,  are  decreasingly  so.  But  they  are 
closer  in  many  ways  to  modern  European  racial  types  than  are  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  skulls.  They  seem,  however,  to  have  been  subjected  to  some 
influence  which  has  made  all  extremities,  including  both  limbs  and  face, 
extremely  long  and  thin.  One  may  compare  this  with  the  modern  changes 
in  the  English  stock  settled  in  Queensland.66 

Both  of  the  Gamble's  Cave  skulls  seem  to  be  fully  or  nearly  "white"  in 
the  skeletal  sense,  but  Oldoway  is,  in  a  way  difficult  to  analyze,  per- 
ceptibly negroid.  Many  modern  tribes  of  East  Africa,  including  the 
Somalis  and  Masai,  and  the  upper  classes  of  others  such  as  the  Bahimas, 
show  today  the  same  general  features  which  are  found  in  these  pluvial 
period  skulls,  particularly  in  Oldoway.  These  modern  Hamites  have  long 
spindly  legs,  thin  hands,  and  narrow  wrists,  while  their  bodies  are  cor- 
respondingly thin  and  attenuated.  Their  skulls  are  universally  long, 
smoothly  contoured,  and  lacking  in  strong  muscular  markings.  Their 
noses  are  narrow  and  often  highly  arched,  their  jaws  light  and  narrow, 
their  faces  long  and  thin.  All  of  these  modern  East  African  Hamites  show 
a  certain  amount  of  negroid  admixture,  'but  their  skulls  are  considerably 
smaller  than  the  three  from  the  pluvial  period. 

On  the  basis  of  head  size,  if  for  no  other  reason,  these  skulls  cannot  be 
dismissed  as  intrusive  burials  from  later  periods.  Mollison,  who  has 
studied  the  Oldoway  skull,  is  convinced  that  it  is  as  fully  fossilized  as  the 
bones  of  the  other  fauna  of  the  period  to  which  it  is  now  attributed.67 

M  I  can  find  no  adequate  references  to  this  phenomenon,  but  common  observation 
attests  its  existence. 

*T  And  not  of  the  Lower  Palaeolithic  horizon  to  which  it  was  first  ascribed,  Boule,  M., 
and  Vallois,  H.,  AIPH,  Mem.  13, 1934,  pp.  60-64. 

Mollison,  T.,  and  Gieseler,  W.,  VGPA,  vol.  3,  1929,  pp.  60-67. 

Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  Stone  Age  Africa,  pp.  172-173. 


46  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  only  reasonable  conclusion  is  that  the  modern  Hamite  is  ancient  in 
East  Africa,  and  is  at  least  partially  descended  from  this  ancestral,  purely 
sapiens,  form.  At  the  same  time  we  may  be  equally  sure  that  modern  post- 
glacial Europeans  of  Mediterranean  type  did  not  come  from  this  particular 
corner  of  Africa;  that  whatever  the  date  of  these  specimens  in  years,  East 
Africa  was  not,  in  Upper  Palaeolithic  times,  the  center  of  Mediterranean 
racial  evolution. 

Neither,  it  would  appear,  was  the  Sahara;  so  far  the  archaeologists  have 
not  found  evidences  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  Capsian  culture  in  the  cen- 
tral zone  of  the  desert  itself,  where  there  is  at  present  a  gap  between  the 
Levalloisian  and  what  appears  to  be  an  early,  arrow-chipping  Neolithic 
in  Capsian  tradition.  The  Capsian  apparently  came  to  North  Africa  from 
the  east,  and  the  mid-Sahara  may  have  served  even  during  Pleistocene 
times  as  a  dividing  line  between  white  and  negroid  humanity,  just  as  it 
does  today.  At  the  same  time  it  is  likely  that  the  Empty  Quarter  of  south- 
ern Arabia  even  in  those  days  functioned  as  a  barrier  between  Mediter- 
raneans and  Veddoids.88  Although  what  are  now  the  edges  of  deserts  may 
have  been  breeding  grounds  of  white  humanity  during  the  Pleistocene, 
the  great  deserts  themselves  have  always  been  racial  frontiers. 

(10)   THE   MAGDALENIANS 

In  concluding  our  survey  of  human  racial  types  and  racial  movements 
during  the  Pleistocene,  it  will  be  well  to  return  from  Africa  to  study  that 
group  of  Late  Palaeolithic  cultures  found  in  Europe  and  northern  Asia, 
and  collectively  known  as  Magdalenian.59 

The  Magdalenian  was  the  longest  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  cultural  divi- 
sions in  time  span,  lasting  in  western  Europe  from  the  peak  of  Wurm  II  until 
about  11,800  B.C.,  while  in  parts  of  eastern  Europe  where  it  is  found  it  may 
have  been  even  older.  It  marks  the  culmination  and  decline  of  the  second 
Wurm  advance,  and  is  the  first  instance,  except  for  that  of  the  geograph- 
ically limited  Solutrean  culture,  in  which  we  are  sure  that  sapiens  man 
was  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  a  glacial  climate.  During  the  Magdalenian 
as  during  the  Solutrean,  the  great  abundance  of  fine  needles  and  other 
tailoring  implements  in  archaeological  deposits  attests  the  close  cultural 
adaptation  of  these  people  to  the  cold  conditions  under  which  they  hunted. 

During  the  Magdalenian  there  must  have  been  numerous  population 
shifts  and  migrations  with  the  changing  climate,  as  the  men  followed  the 

68  See  Chapter  XI,  section  6,  for  a  discussion  of  the  Veddoids  in  southern  Arabia. 

69  A  separate  study  of  race  during  the  Solutrean  has  been  omitted,  since  there  are  no 
skulls  which  all  authorities  accept  as  definitely  belonging  to  that  short  and  far  from 
widespread  cultural  phase.    Those  of  Pfedmost,  including  jf3,  might  well  be  Aurig- 
nacian;  those  of  Le  Roc  fit  more  easily,  from  the  craniological  standpoint,  into  a  Mag- 
dalenian category. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  47 

herds  of  reindeer  which  formed  their  chief  article  of  diet.  We  know  that 
at  one  time  reindeer  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  wandered  into  Spain,  where 
the  Magdalenian  hunters  followed  them.  In  general,  however,  Spain,  like 
Italy,  was  a  marginal  area,  relatively  sheltered,  in  which  local  cultures  of 
Aurignacian  origin  persisted,  with  the  addition  of  microlithic  elements, 
presumably  from  Africa.60  These  southern  inroads  were,  however,  but 
minor  Magdalenian  incidents.  It  was  a  sub-glacial  tundra  culture,  and 
stretched  eastward  across  Siberia,  where  numerous  sites  have  recently 
been  discovered. 

Despite  its  great  time  expanse,  the  Magdalenian  is  represented  by  fewer 
skeletal  remains  than  is  the  Aurignacian.  The  finds  seem  to  be  limited 
entirely  to  the  west 61 — to  France,  England,  western  Germany,  and 
Spain.62  Moving  eastward  from  Germany,  we  find  no  more  human  re- 
mains until  we  arrive  in  northern  China. 

The  number  of  fully  authenticated  Magdalenian  skulls,  about  twenty- 
five,  might  be  large  enough  to  warrant  separate  statistical  study  if  all  of 
them  were  well  documented.  As  matters  stand,  we  are  able  to  discuss  but 
a  few  of  them  in  any  detail.  In  general,  they  are  as  variable  in  the  cranial 
index  as  those  of  the  Middle  and  Late  Aurignacian,  although  in  western 
Europe  the  head  form  in  this  later  period  seems  to  run  somewhat  longer. 

Some  of  the  skulls,  as  typified  by  the  famous  Ghancelade  and  by  the 
male  from  Obercassel,  show,  however,  something  new — a  so-called  Eski- 
moid  modification  of  the  masticatory  apparatus.  This  consists  of  an 
even  greater  widening  of  the  zygomatic  arches  than  had  been  previously 
known;  a  flattening  of  the  parietals,  an  enlargement  of  the  area  of  tem- 
poral muscle  attachment,  and  a  keeling  of  the  cranial  vault.  These  fea- 
tures are  accompanied,  most  markedly  in  the  Chancelade  specimen,  by 

60  It  is  the  modern  tendency  to  deny  African  influences  in  the  Spanish  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic. Vaufrey  (Anth,  vol.  43, 1933,  pp.  457-483)  shows  that  the  Capsian  did  not  enter 
Spain,  nor  did  it  extend  westward  of  Central  Algeria.  The  Oranian  was  formerly  called 
Ibero-Marusian  until  it  was  determined  that  this,  too,  was  absent  from  Spain.  Never- 
theless Spain  was  influenced,  during  the  Upper,  Palaeolithic,  by  some  microlithic  indus- 
try, which  must  have  come  from  points  south  and  east,  of  the  same  general  type  as  that 
which  went  to  Kenya  as  Wilton,  to  Egypt  as  Sebilian,  to  Palestine  as  Natufian,  and  to 
North  Africa  as  Capsian  and  Oranian. 

81  Two  Russian  skulls  from  Undori  may  be  Magdalenian  and  not  Aurignacian. 
Talko-Hryncewicz,  PAn,  vol.  1,  1926,  p.  208. 

Field,  H.,  AA,  vol.  38, 1936,  p.  277. 

Pavlow,  A.,  AnthPr,  vol.  3,  1925. 

62  The  Spanish  material  is  particularly  unsatisfactory.  Dr.  Obermaier  in  1924  re- 
jected all  previously  studied  finds  except  for  two  cranial  vaults  which  had  been  cut  down 
to  serve  as  drinking  bowls,  a  femur,  and  a  few  teeth.  (Obermaier,  H.,  Fossil  Man  in 
Spain,  pp.  288—290.)  Two  large  series  from  Segovia,  published  by  Dr.  de  las  Barras  de 
Aragon  (AMSE,  vol  12,  1933,  pp.  90-123)  as  Magdalenian  or  Mesolithic,  include  one 
trephined  skull.  Our  earliest  positive  case  of  trephination  in  Europe  dates  from  the  Late 
Neolithic.  Furthermore,  one  of  the  sites  contained  pottery. 


48  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

a  great  eversion  of  the  genial  angles,  a  prominence  of  the  malars,  and  a 
consequent  flattening  of  part  of  the  facial  plane. 

This  new  adaptation,  common  among  living  Eskimos  and  Siberians, 
has  been  interpreted  by  a  number  of  authors  63  to  mean  that  the  Mag- 
dalenians  as  exemplified  by  Chancelade  were  the  ancestors  of  the  living 
Eskimo,  whose  forebears  moved  northeastward  as  the  ice  retreated,  and 
eventually  crossed  Behring  Straits.  But  several  objections  have  been 
raised  to  this  identification.  The  nasal  bones  of  Chancelade,  in  the  first 
place,  which  were  broken  off  and  lost  soon  after  the  skull  had  been  dis- 
covered, were  very  highly  arched,  projecting,  and  even  hawk-like.64 
They  were  thus  extremely  European  in  form,  and  not  typically  Eskimoid 
or  mongoloid  in  the  modern  sense. 

On  cultural  grounds,  Birket-Smith  and  Matthiassen  have  postulated 
that  the  Eskimos  are  not  the  product  of  a  simple  eastward  migration  from 
Asia,  but  that  their  origin  is  linked  with  that  of  the  American  Indian.65 
It  may  be  true  that  the  similarities  between  Eskimo  and  Magdalenian 
culture  are  due  to  convergence,  although  this  thesis  has  by  no  means 
been  finally  established,  On  physical  grounds  as  well,  evidence  has  been 
adduced  to  show  that  the  Eskimo  is  really  close  to  the  American  Indian.66 

The  question  of  Magdalenian-Eskimo  relationships,  in  any  case,  is  part 
of  the  general  problem  of  those  between  Upper  Palaeolithic  man  of  the 
entire  northern  zone,  and  the  origin  of  the  American  aborigines  as  a  whole. 
It  is  too  early  at  present  to  settle  either. 

Returning  to  Ghancelade,  we  see  that  this  individual  differed  in  many 
ways  from  the  standard  Upper  Palaeolithic  mean.  His  face  was  very  long, 
like  that  of  Predmost;  his  orbits  were  high,  and,  like  those  of  Combe 
Capelle,  narrow.  None  of  the  other  Magdalenian  skulls  which  simulate 
him  in  " Eskimoid'5  character  diverge  so  completely  from  the  total  group, 
and  hence  Chancelade  had  been  set  apart  by  many  as  a  separate  race. 
Unlike  the  Late  Aurignacians,  he  was  a  short  man,  about  160  cm.  high, 
and  his  stature  would  be  usual  among  most  of  the  present  inhabitants  of 
the  Arctic  circle.  His  extremities,  with  his  short  heel  bones,  would  also 
not  be  alien  to  the  latter.67 

Besides  Chancelade  and  other  individuals  which  approximate  his  type 
in  varying  degrees,  the  true  Cr6-Magnon  of  Aurignacian  tradition  sur- 
vived unchanged  into  the  Magdalenian.  The  Laugerie  Basse  cranium 

•»  Morant,  G.  M.,  AE,  vol.  1, 1926,  pp.  257-276,  is  the  latest  and  most  exhaustive  ex- 
position of  this  view. 

w  We  must  thank  Sir  Arthur  Keith  for  this  discovery.  An  old  and  rare  photograph, 
reproduced  on  page  395  of  New  Discoveries,  establishes  tfiis  point  definitely. 

«  Birket-Smith,  K.,  PICA,  1930,  pp.  470-475. 

M  Shapiro,  H.  L.,  PSC,  1934,  pp.  2723-2732;  APAM,  vol.  31,  1931,  pp.  345-384. 

Seltzer,  O.  C,,  HB,  vol.  5,  1935,  pp.  313-370. 

87  Bonin,  Gt»  von,  op.  cit. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  49 

could  well  fit  into  such  a  series.  Others,  such  as  the  Le  Placard  cranium 
and  skull  C  from  Aveline's  Hole  in  England,68  represent  an  unreduced  sur- 
vival of  the  brachycephalic  eleiftent  in  the  Cr6-Magnon  complex.  Still 
other  skulls  are  smaller  than  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  standard,  show  a 
reduction  in  browridges  and  in  malars,  and  anticipate  the  general  reduc- 
tion in  size  and  in  ruggedness  which  was  to  alter  profoundly  some  branches 
of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  stock  in  Europe  and  Asia  after  the  close  of  the 
Pleistocene.  It  is  important  to  learn  that  this  reduction  had  already  begun 
as  early  as  the  Magdalenian,  and  that  at  that  time  there  was  no  geograph- 
ical difference  between  those  which  were  and  were  not  affected  by  this 
incipient  tendency. 

During  the  Magdalenian,  then,  the  internal  diversity  of  Upper  Pa- 
laeolithic European  man  became  more  noticeable  than  before.  Some  of 
the  examples  which  are  left  to  us  represent  a  continuation  of  pre-existing 
Aurignacian  forms,  others  show  a  modification  found  among  living  peoples 
of  the  Arctic,  while  still  others  anticipate  the  size  reduction  of  the  Mes- 
olithic.  We  may,  if  we  like,  attribute  these  differences  to  local  segrega- 
tions and  modifications,  but  since  our  knowledge  of  race  in  Magdalenian 
Europe  covers  so  small  a  portion  of  the  area  in  which  that  culture  existed, 
it  is  perhaps  more  reasonable  to  postulate  new  movements  as  well  as  local 
survivals  and  changes. 

(11)    UPPER   PALAEOLITHIC   MAN   IN   CHINA 

Our  knowledge  of  the  eastern  distribution  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  man 
during  the  height  of  glaciation  has  been  enormously  extended  by  recent 
discoveries  made  by  Dr.  Pei,  by  the  late  Dr.  Davidson  Black,  by  P&re 
Dr.  Teilhard  de  Ghardin,  and  by  Dr.  Franz  Weidenreich,  who  have  es- 
tablished the  presence  of  several  varieties  of  Late  Pleistocene  sapiens  man, 
including  the  European  type,  in  China  and  Mongolia.69 

At  Chou  Kou  Tien,  close  to  Peiping,  the  discoverers  of  Sinanthropus  have 
also  found  three  well-preserved  skulls,  with  one  mandible  and  most  of  the 
accompanying  long  bones,  in  limestone  pockets  of  late  glacial  debris, 
which  includes  Upper  Palaeolithic  implements  analogous  to  European 
types.  The  preliminary  descriptions  of  the  cultural  remains  would  suggest 
late  rather  than  early  Upper  Pleistocene  age.  One  of  these  skulls,  the 
one  with  the  mandible,  seems,  upon  preliminary  examination,  to  resemble 

68  The  skulls  from  Aveline's  Hole,  Kent's  Cavern,  and  Cough's  Cave,  were  described 
by  Keith,  who  considered  them  to  be  of  Mesolithic  age  (Antiquity  of  Man,  p.  407;  New 
Discoveries,  pp.  406-421);  but  Clark,  an  outstanding  authority  on  the  Mesolithic  in 
northwestern  Europe,  indentifies  them  as  Magdalenian  (Clark,  J.  G.  D.,  The  Mesolithic 
Age  in  Britain,  p.  107). 

69  The  first  discovery  of  this  nature  was  of  a  sapiens  tooth  from  the  Sjara-osso-gol 
Deposits  in  Mongolia.  Black,  D.,  BGSC,  vol.  5, 1927,  p.  285. 

Also,  Keith,  Sir  A.,  New  Discoveries,  pp.  250-251. 


50  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

the  European  Upper  Palaeolithic  group  very  closely,  and  especially  the 
male  of  Qbercassel;  it  has  also  been  compared  to  Ainu  crania.  A  second 
skull  greatly  resembles  that  of  a  modern  Eskimo,  while  a  third  may  be 
compared  to  the  racial  type  which  invaded  Japan  during  Neolithic  times.70 
The  importance  of  these  skulls  cannot  be  overemphasized.  They  indi- 
cate that  in  eastern  Asia  as  well  as  in  Europe,  the  Late  Palaeolithic  group 
was  already  racially  complex;  that  peoples  of  European  type  stretched 
across  the  entire  width  of  the  northern  half  of  the  Eurasiatic  continent; 
and  that  the  mongoloid  family  of  races  had  already  begun  its  character- 
istic development.  By  means  of  this  knowledge  we  may  explain,  at  least 
in  part,  the  enigma  of  the  Ainu,  a  large-headed,  broad-faced  white  group 
living  on  the  outer  periphery  of  eastern  Asia.  At  the  same  time  fresh  light 
is  thrown  upon  the  human  materials  which  may  have  taken  part  in  the 
early  peopling  of  America. 

(12)   SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSIONS 

Although  the  Pleistocene  men  are  long  dead,  and  factory  workers  scurry 
to  their  labors  where  the  Magdalenian  hunters  once  impounded  reindeer, 
the  problems  of  human  racial  origins,  and  of  human  development  during 
the  PleistQcene,  are  still  of  great  importance.  On  the  foundations  of  our 
knowledge  of  Pleistocene  man,  in  Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa,  must  be 
built  the  interpretation  of  later  and  more  complicated  racial  movements, 
racial  survivals,  genetic  continuities  and  genetic  changes.  For  this  reason 
it  seems  better  advised  to  state  without  trepidation  the  reconstruction  of 
Pleistocene  racial  events  which  the  facts  themselves  suggest,  than  to  defer 
to  more  cautious  and  perhaps  wiser  opinions. 

These  conclusions,  which  are  by  no  means  novel,71  maybe  stated  briefly: 

(1)  Homo  sapiens  was  fully  evolved  as  early  as  the  mid-Pleistocene,  if 
not  earlier. 

(2)  The  earliest  Homo  sapiens  known,  as  represented  by  several  examples 
from  Europe  and  Africa,  was  an  ancestral  long-headed  white  man  of 
short  stature  and  moderately  great  brain  size. 

(3)  The  negro  group  probably  evolved  parallel  to  this  white  strain, 

to  I  am  indebted  for  this  information  to  Dr.  Franz  Weidenreich,  who  has  given  me 
permission  to  publish  this  preliminary  notice.  These  comparisons  are  tentative  and  the 
reader  must  await  Dr.  Weidenreich's  definitive  publication  for  more  detailed  and  more 
exact  information. 

71  Aichel,  Marett,  and  most  recently  Krogman,  take  stands  essentially  similar  to  the 
following. 

Aichel,  O.s  Der  deutsche  Mensch,  pp.  12-36. 

Marett,  J,  R.  de  la  H.,  Race,  Sex,  arid  Environment, 

Krogman,  W.  M.,  "Cranial  Types  from  Alishar  Hiiyttk,"  in  H.  H.  von  der  Osten, 
The  Alishar  Hiiyiik,  Oriental  Institute  Publication  #30,  part  IV,  pp.  213-293. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  51 

from  a  related  sapiens  ancestor.  At  what  point  the  ancestors  of  negroes  and 
whites  diverged  is  not  known. 

(4)  During  the  Middle  Pleistocene,  if  not  at  other  times  as  well,  a  mix- 
ture took  place  between  early  white  dolichocephals  and  one  or  more  non- 
sapiens  hominid  species,  including  Homo  neanderthalensis. 

(5)  The  result  of  this  mixture  was  the  development  of  a  reasonably 
stable  hybrid  race,  which  was  characterized  by  an  excess  of  size,  both  of 
brain  case  and  of  bodily  bulk.    Although  differing  metrically  from  the 
rest  of  Homo  sapiens  as  a  whole,  its  character  was  nevertheless  mainly 
sapiens,  and  only  to  a  small  extent  Neanderthaloid  or  non-sapiens.   Within 
the  sapiens  species,  its  relationship  was  with  the  whites. 

(6)  This  predominantly  sapiens  character  may  have  been  partly  the 
result  of  convergent  evolutionary  tendencies  on  the  part  of  the  non-sapiens 
ancestor. 

(7)  Modern  white  men  must  include  both  individuals  and  racial  en- 
tities which  respectively  possess  and  lack  this  non-sapiens  strain,  since  all 
branches  of  the  white  stock  did  not  mix  with  it. 

(8)  On  the  basis  of  Palaeolithic  cultural  phenomena,  one  cannot  assume 
that  the  non-sapiens  element  absorbed  through  mixture  was  less  intelligent, 
or,  in  the  social  and  intellectual  sense,  less  human,  than  the  original 
sapiens  species.   Modern  European  races  which  possess  the  former  element 
show  no  signs  of  intellectual  inferiority,  or  of  any  other  discernible  mental 
differences. 

(9)  Most  if  not  all  of  the  basic  variations  of  bodily  and  cranial  form, 
including  brachycephaly,  which  occur  among  white  men,  already  existed 
during  the  Late  Pleistocene.     The  materials  for  the  differentiation  of 
white  races  and  sub-races  in  post-glacial  times  were  all  present. 


52 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


SAPIENS   MEN,   FROM  THE  SECOND   INTERGLACIAL 
T(3  THE   POST-GLACIAL  MESOLITHIC 


FIG.  4.  GALLEY  HILL.   AGHEULEAN.    (FACE  RECONSTRUCTED.) 


FIG.  5.  COMBE  CAPELLE.   AURIGNACIAN. 


FIG.  6.  TEVIEC  #11,  BRITTANY.   LATE  MESOLITHIC. 

Redrawn  to  scale:  Fig.  4,  from  Keith,  Sir  A.,  The  Antiquity  of  Man,  Fig.  63,  p.  188. 
Fig.  5,  from  Aichel,  O.,  Der  deutsche  Mensch,  Plate  2.  Fig.  6,  from  Boule,  M.,  and 
Vallois,  H.,  AIPH,  Mem.  18,  1937,  Plate  14. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  53 

NEANDERTHAL   AND   NEANDERTHALOID   DERIVATIVES 


FIG,  7.  NEANDERTHAL.    LEVALLOISIO-MOUSTERIAN,    (LA  CHAPELLE  AUX  SAINTS, 

SLIGHTLY  RESTORED.) 


FIG.  8.  SKHUL  #5.   PALESTINE.   LEVALLOISIO-MOUSTERIAN. 


FIG.  9.  PREDMOST  $3.   AURIGNACIAN  OR  SOLUTREAN. 
Redrawn  to  scale:  Fig.  7,  from  cast  by  J.  H.  McGregor,  1919.    Fig.  8,  from  Keith, 
Sir  A.,   and  McCown,  T.  W.,   BASF,  Bull.   13,   1937,   Plates  5  and  6.     Fig.  9, 
from  Aichel,  O.,  Der  deutsche  Mensch,  Plate  4. 


54  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

BROAD-HEADED  CRANIA  OF  NEANDERTHALOID   INSPIRATION 


FIG.  10.  AFALOU  #12.   AFALOU  BOU  RUMMEL,  ALGERIA.    EARLY  »ORANIAN. 


FIG.  11.  HVELLINGE  #1.   SWEDEN  MESOLITHIC. 


FIG.  12.  FJELKINOE,  SKANE,  SWEDEN.   NEOLITHIC. 

Redrawn  to  scale:  Fig.  10,  from  Boule,  M.,  Vallois,  H.,  and  Vemeau,  R.,  AIPH, 
Mem.  13, 1934,  Plate  13.  Fig.  11,  from  Aichel,  O.,  Der  deutsche  Mewch,  Plate  17;  also 
Kossinna,  G,,  Urspntng  und  Verbreitung  der  Indogermanen,  Fig.  134,  p.  123.  Fig.  12, 
from  Retzius  G.,  Crania  Suecica  Antiqua,  Plates  39-40. 


PLEISTOCENE  WHITE  MEN  55 

MESOLITHIC  AND  NEOLITHIC  CRANIA  OF  MEDITERRANEAN  TYPES 


FIG.  13.  MUGE,  PORTUGAL.   LATE  MESOLITHIC  OR  EARLIEST  NEOLITHIC. 


FIG.  14.  LONG  BARROW,  BRITISH  NEOLITHIC. 


FIG.  15.  CORDED  FROM  GOTLAND,  NEOLITHIC. 

Redrawn  to  scale:  Fig.  13,  from  Vallois,  H.,  Anth,  vol.  40,  1930,  Fig.  2,  p.  344. 
Fig.  14,  from  Crania  Britannica,  vol.  2,  Plate  59.  Fig.  15,  from  Kossinna,  G.,  Ursprung 
und  Verbreltung  der  Indogermanen,  Fig.  102,  p.  90. 


Chapter  III 
THE   MESOLITHIG   PERIOD 

(1)   THE   HISTORICAL   SETTING 

The  Mesolithic  cultural  period,  which  follows  the  final  Palaeolithic  in 
Europe,  is  wholly  post-Pleistocene  in  that  continent,  and  extends  roughly 
from  immediately  post-glacial  time  to  3000  B.C.  and  later. 

The  Mesolithic  manner  of  living  was  primarily  similar  to  that  of  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic.  People  still  relied  on  hunting  and  the  gathering  of 
wild  vegetable  products  for  food,  and  the  population  must  have  remained 
as  sparse  as  ever.  Man  had  acquired  but  one  domestic  animal — the  dog, 
which  may  have  helped  in  hunting,  but  which  was  not  bred  for  eating, 
and  hence  served  as  only  an  indirect  source  of  food.  The  Mesolithic  econ- 
omy was,  therefore,  a  prolongation  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  system  into 
relatively  recent  times;  in  the  technical  sense,  however,  there  were  certain 
improvements;  with  the  introduction  of  microliths  composite  weapons 
were  made;  dugout  canoes  furnished  good  water  transportation,  and  tree- 
felling  axes  must  have  made  the  building  of  adequate  houses  possible. 
The  forerunners  of  the  textile  arts  were  probably  developed  to  permit  the 
manufacture  and  use  of  fish  nets,  good  basketry,  and  matting. 

The  cultures  of  the  Mesolithic  period  in  Europe  may  be  divided  into 
two  elements  of  different  origins,  which  in  many  regions  met  and  blended. 
One  was  the  intrusive  Tardenoisian  with  its  advanced  microlithic  tech- 
nique, which  came  in  from  the  south  across  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  and 
perhaps  around  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean.1  These  migrations 
into  Europe  from  the  south  were  caused  by  climatic  shifts  incident  upon 
the  final  glacial  retreat.  As  the  glacier  moved  northward  to  take  up  its 
last  stand  in  the  high  Scandinavian  land-mass,  the  erstwhile  well-watered 
and  temperate  belts  of  North  Africa  and  the  Near  East  suffered  a  gradual 
desiccation.  As  the  rain-belt  moved  northward,  zones  of  temperate  and 
sub-tropical  climate  shifted  from  Africa  to  southern  and  central  Europe, 
and  the  climate  of  Europe  became  warmer  in  early  post-glacial  times  than 
it  is  at  present.  The  people  who  brought  the  elements  of  the  Tardenoisian 
complex  northward  had  been  accustomed  to  hunting  on  open  grasslands 
before  their  arrival  in  Europe,  and  they,  therefore,  settled  in  sandy  regions 

1  Clarke  mentions  this  second  route  as  a  possibility.  Clarke,  J.  G.  D.,  The  Mesolithic 
Settlement  of  Northern  Europe,  pp.  xiv— xv. 

56 


THE  MESOLITHIG  PERIOD  57 

and  treeless  highlands,  since  neither  their  tool  kit  nor  their  general  manner 
of  living  was  suited  to  a  forest  environment. 

The  second  cultural  element  was  furnished  by  the  survival  of  the  old 
Upper  Palaeolithic  techniques,  employed  by  the  descendants  of  the  rein- 
deer hunters.  The  gradual  growth  of  forest  in  what  had  formerly  been  the 
North  European  tundra  belt  forced  them  to  learn  a  new  kind  of  hunting 
and  to  live  on  the  flesh  of  new  animals,  while  the  warming  of  northern 
waters  gave  them  an  abundance  of  fish  and  molluscs,  focussing  their 
attention  not  only  on  the  forest  but  also  on  the  rivers  and  sea. 

In  the  north  and  west  of  Europe,  where  the  glacier  lasted  the  longest, 
cultures  of  Aurignacian  and  Magdalenian  tradition  survived  into  the  full 
Mesolithic,  when  some  of  them  blended  in  varying  degrees  with  the  newly 
arrived  Tardenoisian.  In  outlying  regions,  such  as  the  north  coast  of 
Ireland  and  Finnmark  in  Norway,  flint  implements  of  Upper  Palaeolithic 
inspiration  may  still  have  been  made  as  late  as  the  time  of  Christ. 

For  the  purpose  of  simplification,  therefore,  the  history  of  the  Mesolithic 
period  in  Europe  may  be  reduced  to  two  elements:  (1)  an  invasion  of 
microlith-makers  from  southern  regions  which  had  been  temperate  and  de- 
sirable during  the  Late  Pleistocene,  but  which  were  now  drying  up  and  be- 
coming less  habitable  than  Europe;  (2)  survival  of  the  Palaeolithic  people 
of  Europe  in  various  regions  and  in  varying  intensity,  but  concentrated  es- 
pecially in  the  northern  forest  belt,  along  the  western  coasts,  and  in  the 
centers  where  the  ice  had  lasted  longest,  notably,  Norway  and  Switzerland. 

(2)    MESOLITHIG   MAN   IN   AFRICA 

Before  gathering  information  which  will  help  us  in  Europe,  let  us  first 
see  what  changes  or  continuities  occur  in  Africa,  with  the  passage  into 
post-Pleistocene  time.  In  East  Africa  Leakey  has  found  skeletons  asso- 
ciated with  a  microlithic  culture  which  he  calls  Elmenteitan,  probably  at 
least  partly  contemporary  with  the  post-glacial  Mesolithic  cultures  of 
Europe,2  with  which  he  has  tentatively  correlated  it.  The  series  includes 
the  skulls  of  three  adult  males,  three  adult  females,  and  one  child,  as 
well  as  a  number  of  miscellaneous  long  bones.  The  bodies  which  they 
represent  had  been  placed  in  rock  niches  on  either  side  of  a  watercourse, 
and  a  subsequent  flood  had  washed  most  of  them  out  and  deposited  them 
in  silt.  Hence,  it  is  impossible  to  associate  the  long  bones  with  the  crania. 

From  this  series  of  seven  skulls,  it  is  evident  that  the  earlier  East  African 
Mediterranean  racial  types  were  carried  over  into  the  post-glacial  period 
with  little  or  no  alteration.  The  vaults  of  the  Mesolithic  skulls  are  again 
comparable  in  size  to  Galley  Hill  and  Combe  Capelle.  The  shape  of 
these  vaults,  however,  is  now  variable,  at  least  in  the  female  group,  for 

2  Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  Stone  Age  Races  of  Kenya,  Chapter  6. 


58  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

one  of  the  latter  skulls  has  a  cranial  index  of  80.  This  sex  distinction  in 
shape,  may,  of  course,  have  been  equally  present  in  the  Aurignacian 
group,  but  we  have  no  material  to  confirm  it. 

The  face  continues  the  special  evolution  which  had  begun  during  the 
Aurignacian;  it  grows  both  longer  and  broader,  while  the  nasal  height 
increases  at  the  same  time.3  Both  the  faces  and  noses  of  these  skulls  are 
exceptionally  long,  by  any  racial  standards.  All  of  them  have  high  orbits. 
The  nose  remains  leptorrhine,  but  the  nasal  skeleton  is  not  highly  arched; 
some  of  the  crania,  especially  one  of  the  female  specimens,  show  consider- 
able prognathism.  In  general,  the  foreheads  are  sloping,  the  browridges 
and  other  bony  markings  slight  to  medium  on  the  males,  while  on  the 
females  the  browridges  are  actually  lacking.  One  male  specimen, 
Elmenteita  A,  differs  from  the  others;  the  mandible  has  everted  gonial 
angles  while  on  the  cranium  the  temporal  crests  rise  high  over  the  parietals, 
producing  a  narrow  forehead,  and  giving  the  whole  head  a  pseudo- 
Eskimoid  appearance. 

In  the  Gamble's  Cave  Aurignacian  series,  since  only  males  were  repre- 
sented, it  was  impossible  to  tell  whether  or  not  any  extensive  differences 
between  the  sexes  existed.  In  the  Elmenteitan  group,  the  male  crania  ex- 
ceed the  female  ones  considerably  in  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  vault 
and  in  the  face  heights  and  face  breadth.  Vault  heights,  forehead  breadths, 
and  orbital  dimensions  are  much  the  same  in  both,  however.  These  East 
Africans,  therefore,  while  lacking  the  bony  luxuriance  of  the  Upper  Pa- 
laeolithic Europeans  and  North  Africans,  do  exhibit  a  positive  amount  of 
sex  linkage  in  the  characters  which  make  them  racially  distinctive. 

Despite  the  continued  residence  of  this  long-faced  racial  group  in  East 
Africa,  there  is  still  little  that  is  negroid  about  most  of  the  skulls.  The 
forehead,  in  some  of  the  females,  is  a  bit  bulbous,  but  so  it  is  with  many 
living  Mediterraneans;  some  of  the  jaws  project  forward  with  a  consid- 
erable alveolar  prognathism,  but  so  do  the  jaws  of  a  number  of  early 
European  crania.4  The  nasal  index,  which  falls  near  the  human  minimum, 
is  at  the  opposite  extreme  from  those  of  negroes.  The  nasal  bones,  present 
in  but  two  crania,  are  long,  narrow,  and  hour-glass  shaped;  they  taper 
upwards,  and  penetrate  high  into  the  frontal  bone,  as  with  certain  anthro- 
poid apes  and  the  Eskimo;  but  the  two  bones  are  not  greatly  arched  and 
the  nasal  vault,  in  these  two  specimens,  is  low.  Thus  the  nasal  bones  pos- 
sess an  individual  character  which  is  neither  typically  white  nor  negroid. 

The  Elmenteitan  people  remained  as  tall  as  the  Upper  Aurignacians. 

3  Nasion-menton  heights  on  males  are  126  and  132  mm.;  nasion-alveon  80  and 
81  mm.;  nose  heights  58  to  59  mm. 

4  The  female  skull  #F  1  is  the  most  nearly  negroid  of  all,  and  in  this  case  a  definite 
negro  strain  seems  very  likely. 


THE  MESOLITHIG  PERIOD  59 

The  mean  stature  for  six  males  is  178.7  cm.,  for  three  females,  152.5  cm.; 
thus,  the  sex  differences  are  great  in  bodily  size,  as  well  as  in  head  and  face 
diameters.  The  greater  stature  and  sex  differentiation  of  these  East  Afri- 
cans may  have  been  simply  the  result  of  evolutionary  change;  one  cannot 
find  a  non-sapiens  species  to  provide  these  modifications,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Upper  Palaeolithic  Europeans. 

Before  we  leave  East  Africa  for  some  time,  it  may  be  interesting  for  us 
to  note  that  Leakey  has  also  found  a  number  of  skeletons  associated  with 
a  parallel  culture,  Wilton  A.,  located  nearby  and  probably  not  later  than 
Elmenteita.  These  Wiltonians  were  tall,  heavy-boned  men,  with  large, 
strongly  arched  foreheads,  and  small  faces,  very  much  like  the  Strand- 
loopers  from  South  African  shell  heaps,  and  ancestral  Bushmen.  Thus 
along  the  Lake  Victoria  shore  line,  not  far  away  from  Elmenteita,  were 
ancestral  Bushmen,  living  in  geographical  proximity  to  Mesolithic  ances- 
tral Hamites.  The  East  African  whites  lived  on  a  racial  frontier,  and  not 
in  a  center  of  white  racial  differentiation.  If  Bushmen  traits  turn  up  now 
and  then  among  Hamites  or  Hamitic  traits  among  Hottentots  or  Bushmen, 
there  is  little  wonder. 

North  Africa  was  occupied,  during  the  post-glacial  Mesolithic  period, 
by  the  Middle  Capsian  successors  of  the  Afalou  people.  These  are  known 
through  a  collection  of  skulls  from  the  site  of  Mechta  el  'Arbi,  of  which 
only  nine  have  been  studied  in  any  detail.6  All  come  from  what  Aram- 
bourg  calls  the  Middle  Capsian,  which  has  been  correlated  chronologically 
with  the  European  Solutrean  by  Menghin,  with  the  Solutreo-Magdalenian 
by  Obermaier,  and  with  the  Mesolithic  by  Vaufrey.6  They  are  considered 
here  rather  than  in  the  preceding  chapter  since  they  belong  with  the 
Mesolithic  in  the  European  sense  both  racially  and  culturally,  whatever 
their  chronological  position. 

It  is  impossible,  unfortunately,  to  treat  these  skulls  with  complete  clarity. 
Judging  by  published  measurements,  photographs,  and  drawings,  we 
may  conclude  that  on  the  whole  they  resemble  the  earlier  Afalou  skulls  in 
a  general  way,  but  that  most  of  them  are  smaller  and  lack  the  ruggedness 
of  their  predecessors,  having  weaker  browridges,  less  pronounced  muscular 
markings,  and  narrower  faces.  Some  of  them  have  vertical  foreheads,  a 
feature  foreign  to  the  Afalou  people.  They  still  retain  in  most  instances, 
however,  a  low  face  and  low  orbits,  and  a  range  of  head  form  reaching 
the  limits  of  the  earlier  series. 

8  Probably  over  fifty  crania  have  been  removed  from  this  site  by  successive  expedi- 
tions, but  only  five  have  been  carefully  studied.  See  Cole,  Fay  Cooper,  LMB,  vol.  1, 
1928,  pp.  167-189.  Four  others,  of  which  two  only  are  from  the  Mechta  site,  have  been 
dealt  with,  as  thoroughly  as  the  data  permitted,  in  the  Afalou  volume. 

6  Vaufrey  denies  the  existence  of  a  Middle  Capsian,  and  says  that  these  skulls  are  Late 
Capsian,  which  he  considers  Mesolithic, 


60  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

In  their  degree  of  size  reduction,  and  diminution  of  sex-linked  bony 
profusion,  they  may  be  likened  to  some  of  the  Mesolithic  crania  from 
Europe,  which  will  be  studied  later  in  this  chapter.  It  is  quite  likely,  as 
Cole  suggests,  that  one  of  the  Mechta  skulls  showed  a  negroid  tendency, 
while  the  others  were  subjected  to  mixture  with  Mediterranean  racial 
elements.  The  inference  is  that  the  countries  at  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Mediterranean,  from  which  these  influences  probably  seeped,  were  already 
inhabited  by  small  Mediterraneans.  On  archaeological  grounds,  it  is 
unlikely  that  these  Mediterranean  racial  elements  came  directly  from  the 
Sahara. 

Our  entire  knowledge  of  the  racial  composition  of  the  early  inhabitants 
of  the  southern  Sahara  is  furnished  by  a  single  skeleton,  unearthed  at 
Asselar,  a  military  post  some  four  hundred  kilometers  north  of  Timbuctu, 
in  what  is  now  utter  desert,7  but  what  was  at  the  time  a  fertile,  well-watered 
plateau,  drained  by  wide  rivers,  and  rich  in  grass  and  ruminant  game. 

The  skeleton,  which  had  not  been  buried  but  which  simply  lay  in  the 
place  of  death,  was  covered  by  lake-laid  sands.  These  same  sands  have 
yielded  the  bones  of  huge  fish,  in  the  same  state  of  fossilization  as  those 
of  the  man,  and  the  shells  of  fresh-water  molluscs,  which  indicate  that  the 
region  of  Asselar  was  at  that  time  still  a  lake  country,  with  running  streams 
and  a  forest  border,  near  the  southern  limit  of  the  south-Saharan  grass- 
lands, and  the  northernmost  extension  of  the  tropical  forest.  Asselar  man 
died  before  this  region  had  become  desiccated,  but  his  cultural  association 
is  Mesolithic  or  Early  Neolithic,  and  his  chronological  age  unquestionably 
post-glacial. 

He  was  a  tall  man,  over  170  cm.  in  height;  his  limbs  were  long  in  pro- 
portion to  his  trunk,  and  his  forearms  and  lower  legs  long  when  com- 
pared to  the  proximal  segments  of  their  extremities.  His  hands  were  long 
and  slim,  with  small  carpal  bones,  unlike  the  broad  hands  and  thick 
wrists  of  the  Afalou  men  farther  north. 

The  skull  is  of  medium  vault  size,  comparable  to  Grimaldi,  Afalou  #28, 
and  the  Kenya  Aurignacians.  Like  all  of  these,  it  is  dolichocephalic, 
with  a  cranial  index  of  71 .  The  muscular  markings  of  the  vault  are  slight, 
and  the  browridges  weak.  In  facial  dimensions,  Asselar  is  intermediate 
between  the  Grimaldi  and  East  African  extremes.  Morphologically,  how- 
ever, it  is  the  most  negroid  specimen  of  equal  age  yet  found.  The  malars 
project  forwards,  and  the  lower  border  of  the  orbit  stands  in  front  of  the 
upper,  when  the  skull  is  placed  in  the  eye-ear  plane.  The  nose  is  chamaer- 
rhine,  and  negroid  in  conformation. 

Asselar  man  was  either  an  incompletely  evolved  negroid,  or  a  negro- 

*Boule,  M.,  and  Vallois,  H.  V.,  AEPH,  Mem.  9,  1932. 
See  also  Bailly,  Rene,  RA,  vol.  43,  1933,  pp.  172-181. 


THE  MESOLITHIG  PERIOD  61 

white  hybrid;  he  did  not  closely  anticipate,  in  cranial  form,  the  modern 
blacks  from  the  Guinea  Coast  and  Sudan.  He  retained  certain  tendencies 
in  a  white  direction,  and  others  which  related  him  to  the  Bushmen  and 
Hottentots.  The  Asselar  find,  like  those  in  East  Africa,  makes  it  very  likely 
that  the  spread  of  fully  differentiated  negroes  into  much  of  their  present 
area  in  Africa  was  a  fairly  recent  phenomenon. 

(3)   THE  NATUFIANS  OF  PALESTINE 

Compared  with  the  continent  of  Africa,  from  the  prehistoric  standpoint, 
Asia  is  archaeologically  little  known.  So  far,  excavations  have  revealed 
implements  of  Mesolithic  technique  in  Kurdistan  and  in  Palestine,8  but 
only  from  the  latter  have  Mesolithic  skeletons  been  recovered.  Here  an 
Aurignacian  culture  lasted  during  the  entire  Late  Pleistocene,  and  directly 
preceded  the  Mesolithic.  Since  Miss  Garrod  feels  that  this  region  was  one 
of  the  main  areas  of  differentiation  of  the  Aurignacian  cultural  technique, 
it  is  very  unfortunate  that  not  a  single  Aurignacian  skull  has  been  pub- 
lished. Therefore,  the  very  important  question  of  the  Late  Pleistocene  re- 
lationships of  this  key  area  must  remain  unsettled. 

For  the  following  period,  however,  at  least  two  hundred  skeletons  have 
been  exhumed  from  two  different  Mesolithic  levels  and  from  five  or  more 
sites.  So  far,  only  two  of  these  skeletons  have  been  published,  one  from 
each  level.  Great  doubt  is  current  at  the  moment  concerning  the  exact 
nature  of  the  physical  types  of  this  people,  and  we  must  await  detailed 
publications  in  the  near  future  before  this  matter  may  be  settled.9 

These  Palestinians,  who  have  been  given  the  name  Natufians,  appar- 
ently differed  in  physical  type  from  period  to  period.  One  of  the  two  skele- 
tons which  has  been  published  is  that  of  an  adult  female  from  the  earliest 
level  at  a  site  called  Erg  el  Ahmar. 10 

The  skull  of  this  woman  is  large,  robust,  and  thick- walled;  it  is  purely 
dolichocephalic,  and  has  an  elevated  cranial  vault  in  which  the  height 
almost  equals  the  breadth.  The  forehead,  as  with  females  of  many  races, 
is  broad,  straight,  and  rounded.  The*  face,  likewise,  is  broad,  and  of 
medium  height;  the  nasal  root,  somewhat  depressed,  is  hidden  under 
browridges  massive  for  a  female,  while  the  nasal  bones  project  far  forward, 
to  form  an  accentuated  profile. 

The  low,  broad  orbits  of  this  specimen  assume  the  rectangular  form 
characteristic  among  most  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  skulls  from  Europe 
and  North  Africa,  while  the  orbital  index  is  correspondingly  low.  The 

8  Garrod,  Miss  D.  A.  E.,  BASF,  No.  6,  1930,  pp.  8-43. 

9  Mr.  T.  D.  McCown  was,  at  the  time  of  writing,  engaged  in  working  over  a  large  col- 
lection of  these  skeletons  under  the  direction  of  Sir  Arthur  Keith  and  intends  to  publish 
it  shortly. 

10  Vallois,  Henri,  V.,  Anth,  vol.  46,  1936,  pp.  529-543. 


62  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

nose  is  high,  narrow,  and  metrically  leptorrhine;  the  nasal  spine  promi- 
nent, and  the  lower  border  of  the  piriform  opening  strongly  crested.  The 
mandible,  of  medium  robust icity,  possesses  a  prominent  chin.  The  rugged 
beauty  of  this  Natufian  woman  was,  however,  somewhat  diminished  by 
an  abnormality  of  dental  occlusion,  for  her  lower  incisors  overlap  the 
upper  ones. 

Morphologically,  this  skull  is  perfectly  European  and  belongs  without 
question  to  the  general  Upper  Palaeolithic  type.  It  would  also  fit  metri- 
cally into  the  female  range  for  this  group.  It  would,  however,  fit  equally 
well  into  the  North  African  series  of  Afalou  bou  Rummel,  except  that  it  is 
somewhat  narrower  nosed  than  the  females  of  that  group  as  known  at 
present.11  In  the  absence  of  data  on  Palestinian  Aurignacian  crania,  one 
may  suppose  that  the  Aurignacian  Upper  Palaeolithic  Neanderthal- 
sapiens  hybrid  developed  in  this  neighborhood  from  Skhul-like  beginnings, 
and  that  this  Erg  el  Ahmar  female  is  a  survival  of  it. 

The  skulls  from  the  later  Natufian  period,  while  exceedingly  numerous, 
remain  dubiously  classified  because  of  several  conflicting  ideas  about  them 
which  have  been  published.  Sir  Arthur  Keith  12  in  a  preliminary  report  on 
the  remains  from  Shuqbah  and  Kebara,  states  that  the  later  Natufians 
were  short  people,  the  males  having  a  mean  stature  of  160  cm.  and  the 
females  of  152  cm.  The  tallest  male  in  the  group  was  only  165  cm.  in 
height.  The  hands  and  feet  of  these  later  Natufians  were  remarkably 
small,  and  their  long  bones  were  in  no  sense  massive. 

The  skulls  which  Keith  describes  are  of  a  peculiarly  Mediterranean 
type,  with  a  cephalic  index  ranging  from  72  to  78,  thus  rivalling  the  sub- 
dolichocephalic  head  form  of  short  statured  Mediterraneans  living  today. 
The  brain  cases  are  of  medium  size,  and  the  faces  absolutely  small.  The 
lower  jaws  are  also  small  and  weakly  developed,  with  little  chin  promi- 
nence and  a  prevalence  of  alveolar  prognathism.  The  wide,  low- vaulted 
nose,  in  combination  with  prognathism,  gives  a  somewhat  negroid  cast 
to  the  face.  The  browridges  are  smooth,  and  the  whole  system  of  muscular- 
ity in  the  male  but  slightly  developed.  These  late  Natufians  represent  a 
basically  Mediterranean  type  with  minor  negroid  affinities.13  There  was, 
apparently,  a  change  of  race  during  the  Natufian.  These  small  Mediter- 
raneans must  have  brought  their  microliths  from  some  point  farther  south 
or  east,  impelled  by  changes  of  climate. 

11  Some  of  the  Mugharet  el  Wad  crania,  which  belong  to  the  earlier  horizon,  seem 
likewise  to  resemble  those  of  the  Upper  Pleistocene.  This  comparison  represents,  how- 
ever, a  preliminary  impression,  and  is  stated  only  with  reservations.  Personal  com- 
munication by  Mr.  T.  D.  McCown. 

**  Keith,  Sir  A.,  New  Discoveries,  pp.  202-214;  PICP,  1932,  pp.  46-47. 

13  This  impression  is  also  confirmed  by  the  French  school. 

Boule,  Vallois,  and  Verneau,  Les  Grottes  Palaeolithiques  de  Bent  Seghoual,  pp.  212-214. 


THE  MESOLITHIC  PERIOD  63 

(4)   THE  MIDDEN-DWELLERS   OF  THE   TAGUS 

Although,  during  the  last  century,  many  skulls  have  been  removed  from 
caves  in  various  parts  of  Spain,  not  one  of  them  may  be  assigned  with 
complete  security  to  the  Mesolithic  period.  Since  Spain  was  apparently 
the  main  if  not  the  only  highroad  of  migration  northward  from  Africa 
into  Europe  during  the  Mesolithic,  this  gap  in  our  knowledge  is  ex- 
tremely unfortunate,  particularly  in  view  of  the  parallel  deficiency  in 
Morocco. 

Late  Mesolithic  skeletons  have,  however,  been  found  in  Portugal,  in  a 
series  of  shell-heaps  which  lie  on  a  raised  shore  near  the  village  of  Muge,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tagus  River,  some  fifteen  miles  upstream  from  the 
head  of  tide-water.  At  the  time  of  occupation,  the  shellfish  which  the 
midden-builders  ate  lived  in  salt  water,14  and  the  land  must  have  lain 
several  meters  lower  than  its  present  level.  This  sinking  may  probably  be 
correlated  with  the  formation  of  the  Litorina  Sea,  which  lasted  in  what  is 
now  the  Baltic  from  5600  to  2500  B.C.  If  this  dating  applies  to  Portugal, 
the  Muge  middens  were  probably  formed  nearer  the  end  of  this  period 
than  its  beginning.  The  safest  dating  for  this  site  is  immediately  pre- 
Neolithic,15  if  not  early  Neolithic,  in  the  third  millennium  B.C. 

Over  two  hundred  human  skeletons  have  been  removed  from  these 
middens  at  various  times  during  the  last  eighty  years.  Of  this  number, 
however,  only  nine  have  been  measured  and  published  in  such  a  way  that 
we  may  profitably  consider  them  here.16  In  the  past,  many  curious  ideas 
have  been  circulated  about  the  racial  types  represented  by  these  remains, 
and  these  notions  have  been  widely  credited  and  frequently  repeated.  The 
principal  misconception  has  been  that  the  Muge  crania  include  two  types: 
a  non-European  negroid,  and  a  hyperbrachycephal  variously  called  Alpine 
and  mongoloid. 

Actually,  there  is  no  evidence  to  show  among  them  a  greater  negroid 
tendency  than  is  commonly  found  among  many  living  Europeans  of 
Mediterranean  extraction,  while  the  so-called  "brachycephalic"  skulls  are 
probably  all  or  almost  all  mesocephalic,  since  some  were  badly  warped 

14  Obermaier,  H.,  Fossil  Man  in  Spain,  p.  325. 

16  Obermaier,  op.  cit.,  p.  325,  says:  "The  fauna  of  these  deposits  does  not  include 
any  domestic  animals — except  perhaps  the  dog — and  consists  of  wild  cattle,  deer,  sheep 
or  goat,  horse,  swine,  dog  or  wolf,  felines,  badger,  civet,  and  hare."  (Italics  are  mine.) 
The  Iberian  Peninsula  is  not  known,  at  the  period  in  question,  to  have  sheltered  either 
wild  sheep  or  wild  goats.  The  only  animal  which  could  possibly  have  been  mistaken 
for  either  is  a  diminutive  ibex,  the  bones  of  which  are  much  smaller  than  those  of  either 
sheep  or  goat.  Unless  the  bones  in  question  are  actually  those  of  ibex,  the  Muge  midden- 
dwellers  must  have  already  met  the  first  waves  of  the  Neolithic  economy  from  North 
Africa.  Agriculture  and  domestic  animals  did  not  necessarily  enter  the  Iberian  Penin- 
sula in  one  magnificent  sweep;  scattered  families  of  herdsmen  may  have  wandered  over 
as  an  advance  guard. 

16  Vallois,  Henri  V.,  Anth,  vol.  40,  1930,  pp.  337-389. 


64  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

* 
by  earth  pressure,  and  others  were  improperly  measured;  while  still  others 

have  been  lost  or  mislaid. l7 

The  cranial  series  from  Muge,  as  it  is  known  at  present,  is  reasonably 
homogeneous.  The  cranial  index  ranges  from  69  to  80,  or  possibly  82,  with 
most  of  the  skulls  in  the  low  seventies.  One  may  postulate  a  mean  of 
about  75  to  77  on  the  living,  The  brain  case  is  of  medium  size,  but  rela- 
tively high;  ovoid  in  form,  flattish  on  the  top,  and  gently  rounded  in  the 
occipital  region.  The  female  crania  have  vertical  foreheads,  while  those 
of  the  males  are  sloping;  the  frontal  bone  in  both  is  always  strongly  curved. 
On  most  of  the  male  skulls,  the  browridges  are  well  developed  in  the 
median  segment,  but  not  on  the  sides,  while  on  the  female  specimens,  the 
supraorbital  region  is  usually  quite  smooth. 

The  orbits  are  low,  but  not  especially  narrow.  The  nasal  dimensions  are 
small,  yielding  a  mesorrhine  index;  the  lower  border  of  the  nasal  opening 
is  usually  sharp,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  rounded,  and  in  one  guttered.  The 
face  is  mesoprosopic,  being  both  low  and  extremely  narrow.  In  the  photo- 
graphs, the  zygomatic  arches  appear  to  be  delicate,  and  closely  aligned  to 
the  temporals.  The  mandibles  are  of  moderate  height,  but  narrow,  while 
the  palates  are  quite  large  for  the  total  size  of  the  skulls,  and  the  teeth  are 
also  large.  Most  of  the  skulls  show  a  slight  alveolar  prognathism,  which  in 
a  few  instances  is  quite  marked. 

Among  the  nine  crania  measured  by  Vallois,  the  females  equal  the 
males,  or  approach  them  closely,  in  all  dimensions.  Sex  differentiation, 
therefore,  is  practically  absent  from  the  metrical  standpoint,  but  the  differ- 
ence in  browridge  development  is  apparently  sufficient  to  permit  the  crani- 
ologist  to  distinguish  them  readily.  The  long  bones,  studied  apart  from 
the  crania,  to  which  they  cannot  be  matched,  give  a  reconstructed  stat- 
ure of  160  cm.  for  the  males,  and  152  cm.  for  females.  Despite  this  short 
stature,  a  limb  form  found  among  some  Upper  Palaeolithic  peoples  is  re- 
peated here — the  distal  segments  are  long  when  compared  to  the  proximal. 

The  racial  position  of  the  Muge  population  cannot  be  finally  deter- 
mined until  more  evidence,  both  internal  and  comparative,  is  at  hand. 
Yet  from  present  indications  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe  that  the 
Portuguese  midden-dwellers  were  very  similar  to,  or  identical  with,  the 
late  Natufians  of  Palestine,  and  that  both  represented  a  northward  thrust 
from  a  Mediterranean  racial  homeland  somewhere  in  southwestern  Asia, 
northeastern  Africa,  or  both. 

(5)   MESOLITHIC  MAN  IN  FRANCE 

Our  knowledge  of  Mesolithic  man  in  France  is  little  better  than  that 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  despite  the  extensive  digging  which  has  been 
17  Vallois,  op.  cit. 


THE  MESOLITHIC  PERIOD  65 

going  on  there  for  almost  a  century,  French  Mesolithic  sites  are  di- 
vided into  two  main  cultural  groups,  the  Azilian  and  the  Tardenoisian. 
The  Tardenoisian  represents  the  northward  advance  of  the  Capsians 
from  North  Africa,  and  its  eastward  spread  across  central  Europe  to 
Russia,  and  perhaps  beyond.  The  Azilian  represents  a  degenerate  Mag- 
dalenian  cultural  expression  surviving  in  southwestern  France,  in  the 
Asturias  of  Spain,  and  in  parts  of  England,  under  incoming  Tarde- 
noisian influence.  By  the  time  of  the  full  Mesolithic,  the  fauna  of 
France  had  changed  almost  completely,  for  the  reindeer  which  the 
Magdalenian  people  had  hunted  had  been  replaced  by  red  deer,  while 
the  impressive  mammoths  and  other  large  mammals  were  by  now  long 
extinct. 

The  only  French  Mesolithic  series  known,  aside  from  single  skeletons, 
comes  from  T6viec,  a  small  island  to  the  west  of  the  peninsula  of  Quiberon, 
Morbihan,  Brittany.18  Here  a  coastal  population  subsisted  on  molluscs,  in- 
cluding Litorina,  and  crustaceans,  with  little  hunting.  Its  remains,  consist- 
ing of  twenty-one  skeletons,  come  from  stone  cists  buried  in  a  midden  on  a 
raised  beach.  The  implements,  as  shown  in  the  archaeological  part  of  the 
T6viec  report,  seem  to  be  of  a  marginal,  Azilian-like  Epipalaeolithic  char- 
acter, like  those  from  the  Asturian  horizon  in  Spain,  with  some  late  Tar- 
denoisian influence.  On  the  basis  of  the  artefacts,  the  raised  beach,  the 
Litorina  skulls,  and  the  stone  cists,  one  must  suppose  that  the  remains 
cannot  be  older  than  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.,  and  may  be  even  later. 
However,  they  are  purely  Mesolithic  and  antedate  the  local  Neolithic, 
however  retarded. 

Of  the  twenty-one  skeletons,  seven  adult  males  and  eight  adult  females 
have  been  studied  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  3).  The  skulls  are  reasonably  uni- 
form; they  are  smaller  in  size  than  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  French  crania, 
but  a  little  larger  than  those  of  the  Muge  people  or  Natufians;  the  vault  is 
as  high  as  its  breadth;  the  cranial  form  between  dolicho-  and  mesocephaly, 
with  a  male  mean  of  74.3,  and  the  narrow  range  of  72  to  77.  These  skulls 
are  thick  boned,  and  rather  massive  in  structure.  Morphologically,  they 
resemble  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  rather  than  the  Mediterranean  form.  The 
faces  are  low  and  relatively  broad,  with  the  bizygomatic  diameter  often 
exceeding  the  head  breadth.  The  browridges  of  some  of  the  males  are 
rather  heavy,  the  nasion  depression  deep.  The  noses  are  mesorrhine,  and 
fully  European  in  form;  the  orbits  are  low. 

On  the  whole,  these  skulls  look  like  smaller  replicas  of  Aurignacian  and 
Magdalenian  forms,  or  an  intermediate  stage  between  these  and  the 
Mediterraneans  from  farther  south,  as  exemplified  by  the  Portuguese  and 

18  P6quart,  Marthe,  and  St.  Juste;  also,  Boule,  M.,  and  Vallois,  H.,  AIPH,  Mem.  18, 
1937. 


66  THE   RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

Palestinian  specimens.  One  skull  in  particular  bears  a  striking  resemblance 
to  Chancelade. 

The  statures  of  these  people  were  low:  159  cm.  for  the  men,  151  cm.  for 
the  women;  the  long  bones  not  very  heavy.  The  distal  extremities  were 
relatively  long;  not  as  much  so  as  in  some  earlier  skeletons,  but  more  so 
than  among  most  living  Europeans. 

Our  interpretation  of  these  late  Mesolithic  remains  from  the  western 
corner  of  France  is  that  they  represent  a  group  of  marginal  Epipalaeolithic 
survivors  from  beyond  the  Pyrenees,  pushed  northward,  partly  by  climatic 
changes  and  partly  by  the  arrival  of  new  people  from  North  Africa.  We 
have,  after  all,  no  other  evidence  to  show  us  what  kind  of  people  inhabited 
the  Iberian  Peninsula  during  the  Late  Pleistocene;  a  conglomerate  of  first 
wave  Grimaldi- Combe  Gapelle-like  Aurignacians  plus  some  Magdalenians, 
plus  some  bringers  of  microliths  from  the  south  and  east,  would  presum- 
ably look  very  much  like  this  T6viec  type,  especially  since  the  overgrown 
Middle  and  Late  Aurignacians  did  not  hunt  south  of  the  Pyrenees. 

Aside  from  this  T6viec  series,  the  Azilian  culture  proper  is  represented 
by  the  remains  of  four  individuals  removed  from  the  Trou  Violet  at 
Montardit,19  Arrifege,  in  the  northern  Pyrenees,  near  the  type  station  of 
the  Azilian  at  Mas  d'Azil,  and  one  mandible  and  several  long  bones,  from 
Mas  d'Azil  itself.20  Only  one  specimen,  the  so-called  Montardit  I,  includes 
a  complete  skeleton,  or  even  a  complete  brain  case.  Without  elaboration, 
one  may  say  that  in  every  respect  they  belong  to  the  same  type  as  that  of 
T6viec. 

(6)  THE   OFNET   HEAD   BURIALS 

The  third  reasonably  large  series  of  Mesolithic  crania  in  Europe  comes 
from  the  Ofnet  cave  near  Hohlheim  in  Bavaria,21  where  thirty-three  skulls 
were  found  neatly  arranged  in  a  solid  circle,  like  eggs  in  a  nest.  Nineteen 
of  them  belonged  to  children,  ten  to  women,  and  only  four  to  men.  Along 
with  the  skulls  were,  in  most  cases,  the  two  topmost  neck  vertebrae,  the 
axis  and  atlas.  The  bodies  were  missing.  A  few  miles  away,  at  Kauferts- 
berg,  a  single  adult  male  skull  has  been  discovered  which  was  buried  under 
identical  circumstances. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  impossible  to  detect  the  murderers  in  this  Mesolithic 
mystery.  The  peculiar  sex  ratio,  the  fact  that  all  the  heads  were  buried  at 
once  and  while  still  fresh,  and  the  further  fact  that  all  had  been  fractured 
by  sharp  blows  with  a  lens-shaped  implement  similar  in  form  to  a  round- 
poled  celt,22  make  it  unlikely  that  this  was  a  normal,  peaceful  form  of 

19  Sawtelie,  R.  O.  (Mrs.  Wallis),  PMP,  vol.  11,  #4,  1931. 

20  Piette,  E.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  6,  1895,  pp.  485-486. 

21  Scheldt,  W.,  Die  etszeitlichen  Schadelfunde  aus  der  grossen  Ofnet-hohley  etc. 

22  Mollison,  T.,  AAnz,  vol.  13,  1936,  pp.  79-88.  * 


THE  MESOLITHIC  PERIOD  67 

burial.  The  skulls  were  daubed  with  red  ochre,  and  a  few  flint  implements 
were  left  with  them.  From  these  clues  we  may  deduce  that  the  killers, 
their  victims,  or  both,  were  culturally  either  Tardenoisians,23  or  Azilians, 
and  that  the  date  is  probably  Period  II  of  the  Mesolithic.24  These  skulls 
do  not  form  a  homogeneous  group,  but  differ  greatly  in  head  form,  as  well 
as  in  other  characters.  Of  the  two  dolichocephals,  the  male  #K1818  is 
obviously  an  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivor,  without  visible  change.  This 
skull  exceeds  the  rest  of  the  series  in  general  size.  It  is  extremely  massive, 
with  projecting  browridges,  a  retreating  forehead,  a  very  broad  face,  ex- 
tremely low  orbits,  and  a  ponderous  mandible.  Its  cubic  capacity  is  well 
over  1600  cc.  Its  companion,  a  male  of  lesser  dimensions,  is  less  extremely 
developed  and  falls  closer  to  the  general  type  of  the  series. 

The  mesocephals,  which  include  Kaufertsberg,  are  smaller,  and  rela- 
tively higher  vaulted;  as  Boule  and  Vallois  have  pointed  out,25  they  verge 
on  the  type  of  Teviec,  which  these  authors  consider  to  be  Magdalenian 
survivals.  At  any  rate,  they  do  not  seem  to  be  intermediate  between  the 
dolichocephals  just  described,  which  resemble  rather  a  full  Aurignacian 
prototype,  and  the  brachycephals. 

The  last  present  the  real  Ofnet  problem.  Two  of  the  brachycephalic 
crania  are  masculine,26  two  feminine,  with  the  highest  index,  that  of  a 
female,  87.  These  skulls  are  long,  wide,  and  of  moderate  vault  height;  the 
faces  are  without  exception  wide.  In  one  of  the  male  specimens  (K1809) 
the  greatest  length  of  the  skull  lies  in  the  forward  segment,  as  with  modern 
planoccipitals,  such  as  Armenoids.  The  forehead  of  this  skull  is  very  wide, 
and  the  face  extremely  broad  and  low.  The  face  is,  furthermore,  com- 
pletely orthognathous,  and  the  lower  jaw  is  very  massive,  with  flaring 
gonial  angles  and  a  square,  bilateral  chin.  This  jaw  is  also  very  high,  and 
reduces  the  impression  of  shortness  in  the  total  facial  plane.  The  other 
male  specimen,  on  the  borderline  of  brachycephaly  (K1800)  is  the  only 
one  in  the  whole  group  which  is  hypsiconch,  and  one  of  two  that  are  lep- 
torrhine. 

The  female  skulls  show  a  considerable  sex  difference  in  head  form,  and 
likewise  in  browridges  and  other  manifestations  of  bony  relief.  As  with 
their  Upper  Palaeolithic  prototypes,  they  are  notably  smaller,  in  most 
cases,  than  the  males.  On  the  whole,  they  vary  much  less  than  do  the 
masculine  crania,  and  fall  closest  to  the  brachycephalic  male,  K1809,  in 
type. 

23  Clark,  J.  G.  D.,  The  Mesolithic  Settlement  of  Northern  Europe,  p.  218. 

24  Mollison,  in  view  of  the  cross-section  of  the  implement  with  which  they  were  killed, 
suggests  that  the  date  may  have  been  Late  Magdalenian,  since  no  such  implement  re- 
appears until  the  Late  Neolithic.  Mollison,  T,,  op.  cit. 

26  Boule,  M.,  and  Vallois,  H.,  AIPH,  Mem.  18,  pp.  170-177. 
w  Including  #K1800,  the  C.  I.  of  which  is  79.85. 


68  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Despite  the  differences  between  these  skulls,  which  have  been  empha- 
sized in  the  foregoing  description,  they  all  have  in  common  an  Upper 
Palaeolithic  character.  The  dolichocephalic  males  might  have  been  direct 
descendants  of  the  local  Late  Pleistocene  population  or  intruders  of  similar 
type  from  North  Africa.  The  mesocephals  might  have  been,  and  probably 
were,  the  bearers  of  the  Azilian  culture  from  southern  France  to  Bavaria. 
The  brachycephals,  on  the  other  hand,  may  have  been  survivors  of  the 
type  represented  by  Solutr6  #2  several  thousand  years  earlier,  but  their 
resemblance  to  the  brachycephals  of  Afalou  bou  Rummel  is  much  stronger. 

It  is  possible  that  the  old  Afalou  type  was  thrust  into  central  Europe 
at  the  head  of  the  wave  of  migration  which  brought  the  smaller  Mediter- 
raneans to  Portugal.  It  is  likewise  possible,  but  on  archaeological  grounds 
still  impossible  to  demonstrate,  that  these  brachycephals  came  from  Asia 
Minor  or  Palestine,  where  an  Afalou-like  type  existed  in  the  early  Natu- 
fian,  and  presumably  still  earlier.  The  question  of  the  origin  of  these 
brachycephals  cannot  be  settled  without  further  data.27  At  any  rate,  the 
skulls  of  the  Ofnet  victims  serve  to  show  that  various  survivors  of  an  older 
order  had  begun  to  assemble  north  of  the  Alps  in  early  post-glacial  times. 

(7)   MESOLITHIC   MAN   IN  THE   CRIMEA 

From  Ofnet  eastward,  Mesolithic  Europe  is  a  blank  until  we  reach  the 
Crimea,  for  in  all  the  intervening  territory,  no  human  remains  of  this 
period  have  been  found  and  described.  In  the  small  cave  of  Murzak 
Koba,28  near  the  Crimean  village  of  Chorgun,  Soviet  archaeologists  have 
found  two  skeletons  crushed  under  heavy  stones  which  fell  from  the  roof. 
One  is  masculine,  the  other  feminine. 

The  man  from  Murzak  Koba  was  tall  (180  cm.);  long  headed,  large 
headed,  with  heavy  browridges,  and  heavy  superior  oblique  ridges  on  the 
occiput.  The  configuration  of  the  nasion  region,  with  a  depressed  root, 
is  typical  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  European  man;  while  the  orbits  are  ex- 
tremely low  and  wide.  The  face  is  wider  than  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
mean,  and  longer.  Murzak  Koba  man  was,  without  any  question,  a  sur- 
vival of  the  eastern  European  Upper  Palaeolithic  type  into  Mesolithic 
times.  His  female  companion  apparently  represented  the  feminine  version 
of  the  same  race. 

87  The  photographs  of  at  least  three  out  of  eight  Ofnet  crania,  published  by  Scheldt, 
show  apparent  signs  of  tooth  knocking.  These  are  K1809,  upper  right  lateral  incisor; 
K1813,  lower  right  median  incisor;  Kaufertsberg,  lower  left  lateral  incisor.  Since  in- 
cisor evulsion  was  found  in  some  of  the  Natufian  skulls,  as  well  as  in  the  one  published 
Late  Capsian  cranium,  this  might  indicate  either  a  southeastern  or  a  southwestern 
connection.  (Personal  communication  of  T.  D.  McCown,  for  Natufians.  The  Late  Cap- 
sian skull  is  A!n  Mlila,  described  by  Boule,  Vallois,  and  Verneau  in  the  Afalou  mono- 
graph,) 

*8  Field,  Henry,  AA,  vol.  39,  1937,  p.  468. 


THE   MESOLITHIC  PERIOD  69 

The  cultural  equipment  of  this  couple  consisted  of  flint  implements  and 
bone  harpoons  of  Mesolithic  type.  The  bearing  of  these  two  skeletons  on 
the  general  problem  of  Mesolithic  diffusion  is  that  an  entry  of  Mesolithic 
culture  and  race  into  Europe  from  a  point  this  far  east  is  rendered  a  little 
less  likely. 

This  does  not,  of  course,  affect  in  any  way  the  possibility  of  an  entrance 
by  way  of  the  Balkans;  but  extensive  reconnaissance  work  in  Jugoslavia 
has  failed  to  locate  any  Mesolithic  horizon  there.29  We  are  again  forced  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  bulk  of  the  Mesolithic  influences,  both  cultural  and 
physical,  which  entered  Europe  after  the  retreat  of  the  glacier  came  into 
that  continent  over  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,30  a  conclusion  which  may,  of 
course,  need  revision  as  new  evidence  shall  come  to  light.81 

(8)   PALAEOLITHIC  SURVIVALS   IN  THE  NORTHWEST 

During  the  maximum  of  the  Wurm  II  glaciation,  Palaeolithic  man 
adapted  himself,  as  we  have  seen,  to  the  cold.  Once  so  adapted  it  is 
only  natural  to  suppose  that  he  followed  the  climate  to  which  he  was  ac- 
customed northward  as  the  ice  melted,  and  as  the  animals  which  he  ate 
moved  in  the  same  direction.  Now  the  final  glaciation  of  Europe  was  cen- 
tered not  in  the  most  northerly  point  of  the  continent,  but  in  the  land 
mass  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  and,  apparently,  the  coasts  of  Norway 
(northern  and  western)  were  not  affected  by  the  last  glacial  advance. 
Human  beings  thus  could  penetrate  Scandinavia  in  Late  Palaeolithic 
times.32  Scandinavia,  therefore,  formed  the  last  retreat  of  Old  Stone  Age 
man  fleeing  before  the  encroaching  temperate  conditions  with  their  growth 
of  forest  and  change  of  fauna;  for  when  the  ice  disappeared  he  had  no 
further  place  to  go.  Here  at  last  the  changing  climate  of  the  early  post- 
glacial period  faced  him  with  the  final  necessity  of  modifying  his  culture. 

The  accompanying  chart  renders  it  unnecessary  to  describe  at  length 
the  changes  which  took  place  in  the  Baltic  region  during  the  Mesolithic.88 
In  Period  I,  which  lasted  from  the  end  of  Palaeolithic  times  until  about 
6800  B.C.,  following  the  de  Geer  chronolo'gy,  a  number  of  local  industries 

a>Fewkes,  V.  J.}  BASP,  #9,  1933,  pp.  17-32. 

30  Italy  must  be  rejected  as  a  likely  avenue  of  entry,  since  the  culture  of  that  penin- 
sula during  the  entire  Upper  Palaeolithic  was  the  Grimaldian,  a  local  form  of  Aurigna- 
cian,  which  persisted,  without  a  Solutrean  or  Magdalenian  interlude,  until  Mesolithic 
times,  and  even  through  them  to  the  Neolithic,  with  only  a  minor  microlithic  influence. 
Greenlee,  R.  F.,  The  Association  and  Interrelation  of  the  Microlithic  Cultures  of  Europe  and 
Africa  (privately  printed),  1935,  pp.  28-31. 

31  Bonch-Osmolovskii,  G.,  reports  the  discovery  of  another  Mesolithic  skeleton  from 
the  Crimea,  buried  in  a  crouching  position.    He  states  that  it  is  earlier  than  Murzak 
Koba  and  is  not  of  "Cr6-Magnon"  type.  Quoted  by  Field,  H.,  AA,  vol.  39, 1937,  p.  467. 

82  Boe,  J.,  and  Nummedal,  A.,  Le  Finnmarkien. 

*  Most  of  the  following  is  based  on  Clarke,  J.  G.  D.,  The  Mesolithic  Settlement  oj  North- 
ern Europe;  also,  Antiquity,  vol.  12,  1938,  pp.  154-171. 


70 


THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 


developed  in  northern  Europe  from  Palaeolithic  origins.  Thus  the  tanged- 
point  cultures  which  stretched  from  Belgium  to  the  Ukraine,  across  the 
north  of  Germany  and  of  Poland,  are  derived  ultimately  from  Aurignacian 


MESOLITHIC    CHRONOLOGY  IN  THE   BALTIC 

3£0-CHRQNOU>Gf 

M1**tfe6eer 
andSauramo) 

CLIMATIC 
PERIODS 

(after  Blytt 
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PLEISTOCENE 
PERIODS 

PHASES  OF 
THE  BALTIC 

(after  Munthe 
and  Saoramo) 

FORESTS 

(after  von  Post] 

PERK) 

ARCHAEOLOGY 

(after  Clark) 

2,000 

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7,000 

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Birch 
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Willow 
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TUNDRA 
CONDITIONS 

UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC 
HAMBURG  CULTURE 
(MEIENDORF) 

FIG.  16 

Adapted  and  combined  from  the  charts  of  Godwin  and  Clark,  with  further  modifica- 
tions suggested  by  Movius.  Godwin,  H.,  "Pollenanalysis,"  etc.,  The  New  Phytologist, 
Vol.  33,  #4,  Oct.  12,  1934,  p.  339.  Clark,  J,  G.  D.s  The  Mesolithic  Age  in  Northern  Europe, 
p,53. 

prototypes,  and  the  Hamburg  culture  of  Meiendorf,  which  was  ancestral 
to  the  Ahrensburg  of  Period  I,  was  partly  contemporaneous  with  the 
French  Magdalenian. 

In  the  very  north  of  Scandinavia,  during  at  l(iast  the  latter  part  of 
Period  I,  tanged-point  using  people  lived  beyond  the  upper  edge  of  the 
glacier,  isolated,  on  a  narrow  coastal  fringe,  from  the  rest  of  mankind. 
To  the  south  of  the  ice,  in  Denmark  and  the  southern  end  of  Sweden,  as 


THE  MESOLITHIC  PERIOD 


71 


well  as  in  northern  Germany,  Palaeolithic  survivors  apparently  invented 
the  so-called  "Lyngby"  antler  axe  to  cope  with  the  encroaching  forest. 
However,  the  most  important  culture  of  this  period  was  the  Ahrensburg, 


Komsa  Curt  UPC- 


MESOLITHIC 
GEOGRAPHY   OF 
N.W.  EUROPE 


Fosna  Culture 


W 

mtmM^s 


•  Lyngby 

A   Swiderian 

•  Ahrensburg 
o  Hamburg 

X  teemoucnampa 


MAP   1 

After  Clark,  J.  G.  D.,  The  Mesolithic  Settlement  of  Northwestern  Europe,  1936,  Fig.  15, 
p.  55;  Antiquity,  vol.  12,  1938,  Fig.  2,  p.  158. 

which  is  best  known  from  recent  excavations  at  Stellmoor,  a  few  miles 
northeast  of  Hamburg. 

In  Boreal  times,  Period  II  (ca.  6800-5600  B.C.)  the  bed  of  the  North  Sea 
rose,  and  England  and  Scotland  were  joined  to  Denmark  by  dry  land. 
At  the  same  time  the  Baltic  became  a  fresh-water  lake,  called  the  Ancylus. 
The  entire  North  European  plain,  from  England  over  to  the  Urals,  was 
covered  with  a  temperate  forest.  In  this  forest  arose  the  Maglemose  cul- 
ture, which  was  derived  from  three  elements:  (1)  the  previous  cultures  of 


72  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

the  north,  especially  the  Ahrensburg  and  the  "Lyngby  axe"  cultures, 
(2)  the  Magdalenian,  already  incorporated  in  the  Ahrensburg,  (3)  the 
northward  moving  Tardenoisian,  of  eventual  southern  and  southeastern 
inspiration.  Hence,  the  inhabitants  of  northern  Europe  in  Period  I 
(ca.  11,800-6800  B.C.)  were  simply  the  descendants  of  the  people  who 
had  lived  immediately  south  of  the  ice-sheet  for  several  thousand  years, 
while  during  Period  II  (6800-5600  B.C.)  they  were  joined  by  the  vanguard 
of  newcomers,  whom  we  may  already  have  met  at  Ofnet.  These  facts 
should  give  us  some  idea  of  the  physical  composition  of  the  North  Euro- 
pean population  during  these  two  periods. 

The  culture  of  Period  III,  which  roughly  coincides  with  the  time  of  the 
Atlantic  climatic  phase,  was  conditioned  by  further  changes  of  environ- 
ment. The  waters  of  the  ocean  rose  due  to  the  melting  of  the  ice,  the 
Baltic  again  became  salt,  and  Britain  was  isolated  from  the  continent  by 
the  encroachment  of  the  North  Sea.  During  Period  III,  the  Maglemose 
manner  of  living  persisted  in  the  North  European  peripheries,  while  in 
the  special  center  of  Denmark  and  southern  Sweden  developed  a  new 
culture,  the  Erteb^lle. 

The  Erteb^lle  people  were  gatherers  and  eaters  of  molluscs  on  the  shores 
of  the  newly  formed  Litorina  Sea,  and  at  the  same  time  salt-water  fisher- 
men. Their  kitchen-middens,  or  shell-heaps,  contain  quantities  of  animal 
bones  and  discarded  artefacts,  including  a  crude  pottery  ware. 

The  Erteb011e  culture  had  its  roots  in  the  Maglemose,  although  un- 
doubtedly it  was  reinforced  by  new  elements  presumably  from  the  south 
and  east,  and  it  was  a  local  development  from  local  human  material. 
When  the  Neolithic  farmers  and  herders  finally  reached  Denmark  and 
southern  Sweden,  they  found  a  sedentary  population  of  clam-diggers 
and  fishermen  firmly  established  along  the  coast,  and  owing  to  the 
abundance  of  sea  food,  this  population  must  have  been  one  of  con- 
siderable density.  Well-equipped  sea  fishermen  on  the  shores  of  richly 
stocked  waters  offer  far  more  resistance  to  invading  agriculturalists 
than  do  hunters.  The  Ertebjzflle  people  were  not  driven  out  by  their 
Neolithic  neighbors,  nor  were  they  absorbed  without  trace  into  a  larger 
population.  In  southern  Scandinavia  the  old  racial  elements  persisted 
alongside  and  in  combination  with  the  new,  while  in  Norway  the  old 
tanged  point  makers  lived  on,  to  contribute  technical  methods  to  the 
Neolithic  craftsmen. 

Period  I  is  not  represented  by  a  single  piece  of  human  bone  which  can 
be  dated  with  any  pretense  of  accuracy.  Period  II,  the  Maglemose,  is 
known  from  a  number  of  skeletal  finds,  most  of  which,  however,  are  in 
doubt.  The  only  remains  which  are  completely  accepted  and  about  which 
there  can  be  no  question  are:  (1)  St£ngenas,  near  Roe,  in  the  Parish  of 


THE  MESOLITHIC  PERIOD  73 

Bro,  Bohusian,  Sweden;  (2)  Mullerp,  Denmark;  (3)  Svaerdborg,  Sweden; 
(4)  Sandarna,  Sweden.34 

Of  these,  the  only  useful  specimen  for  racial  deductions  of  any  conse- 
quence is  that  of  St&ngenas,  consisting  of  a  brain  case,  a  femur,  and  a  tibia. 
These  were  the  bones  of  an  extremely  tall  man,  181  cm.  in  height,35  with 
long  legs,  particularly  in  the  lower  segments.  The  femur  and  tibia  show  all 
the  peculiarities  of  form  and  development  associated  with  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic man.  The  brain  case,  which  is  of  extreme  length,  has  an  index  of 
71.9,  a  broad  forehead,  and  prominent  browridges.  Furst,  who  has  studied 
this  fragment  carefully,  assigns  it  without  question  to  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
racial  group,  especially  to  the  central  European  Aurignacian.36 

The  Mullerp  and  Svaerdborg  finds  consist  of  a  child's  mandible  each,87 
and  a  few  broken  fragments  of  other  bones.  That  of  Sandarna  is  limited  to 
one  long  bone.  For  further  evidence  of  the  racial  composition  of  Magle- 
mose  man,  we  must  turn  to  northern  Germany. 

In  northern  Germany,  which  forms  a  part  of  the  North  European 
Mesolithic  area,  a  number  of  skulls,  found  under  varying  circumstances, 
have  been  attributed  to  all  three  Mesolithic  periods.  It  is  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  verify  the  alleged  age  of  any  one  of  them. 

Among  the  most  likely  are  two  adult  skulls,  and  one  adult  and  three  in- 
fantile mandibles,  dredged  from  the  bottom  of  the  Pritzerber  Sea,  north- 
west of  Brandenburg  on  the  River  Havel.38  Although  they  came  from  a 
layer  of  blue  clay  underlying  peat  on  the  lake  bottom,  the  exact  geological 
age  of  these  formations  cannot  be  established.  Antler  and  bone  artefacts 
recovered  from  the  same  clay  belong  to  Periods  I,  II,  and  III  of  the 
Mesolithic.39  The  two  skulls  are  probably  female,  although  the  sex  has  not 
been  conclusively  determined.  Both  are  of  dolichocephalic  type,  with 
indices  of  71 ;  both  have  certain  early  European  characters  such  as  alveolar 
prognathism,  strong  browridges,  high  temporal  crests,  marked  supramas- 
toid  ridges,  and  relatively  large  teeth.  But  the  two  differ  in  some  respects; 
number  one  is  large  headed,  short  faced,  and  chamaerrhine,  and  number 
two  of  small  capacity,  very  long  faced,  and  mesorrhine.  But  both  have 
only  moderate  bizygomatic  diameters. 

34  Clarke,  J.  G.  D.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  133-136. 

36  Calculated  by  two  of  Pearson's  formulas.     Stat.  «  71.272  -f  1.159  X  (F  +  T), 
and  Stat.  -  71.443  +  1.22F  +  1.08T. 

*flFurst,  Carl  M.,  FKVA,  vol.  20,  1925,  pp.  274-293. 

37  The  so-called  Homo  kiliensis,  a  child's  skull,  may  also  date  from  this  period,  but  the 
evidence  is  not  sufficient  for  certainty. 

Clarke,  op.  cit.,  p.  133. 
Rcche,  O.,  AFA,  vol.  21,  1925,  p.  176. 

Kossinna,  G.,  MannusB,  #6a,  1928;  Ursprung  und  Verbreitung  der  Germanen,  pp.  134— 
142. 

*  Reche,  O.,  AFA,  vol.  49,  1928,  pp.  122-190.  *9  Clarke,  op.  cit.,  p.  134. 


74  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

A  careful  comparative  study  of  these  two  crania  places  them  both  with- 
out difficulty  into  the  female  series  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  skulls;  the  great- 
est similarity  is  between  number  two  and  the  female  of  Obercassel.  Al- 
though the  two  Pritzerber  crania  differ  widely  in  size  and  in  face  form, 
these  differences  can  be  matched  in  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  group.  The 
adult  male  mandible  found  with  the  Pritzerber  crania  is  large,  wide,  high, 
and  has  everted  gonial  angles;  it  belongs  to  the  same  racial  category  as  the 
crania.  Typologically,  these  Pritzerber  See  remains  are  Mesolithic,  for 
the  two  skulls  could  be  female  counterparts  of  Stangenas,  but  to  which  of 
the  three  sub-periods  they  belong,  we  cannot  tell. 

The  Anthropological  Institute  of  Kiel  University  possesses  a  number  of 
skulls  from  Schleswig-Holstein  of  purported  Mesolithic  age,  most  of  which 
were  removed  from  Kiel  Harbor  or  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  during 
dredging  operations.  Others  were  simply  dug  up  from  peat  deposits  by 
farmers  draining  their  bogs.  Dates  of  varying  accuracy  may  be  assigned  to 
seven  of  these  specimens;  all  seven  belong  to  the  physical  type  of  which 
Stangenas  may  be  a  male,  and  the  Pritzerber  See  crania  female,  ex- 
amples.40 

Four  of  them  have  been  dated  by  pollen  analysis;41  three  being  assigned 
to  the  earliest  Litorina  transgression,  and  presumably  to  the  very  end  of 
Period  II,  or  Maglemose,  archaeologically;  and  a  fourth  to  full  Litorina, 
thus  probably  Period  III,  or  Erteb011e.  The  other  three  specimens,  in- 
cluding the  Ellerbek  skull,  which  was  dredged  from  submerged  land  in 
Kiel  Harbor,  may  be  dated,  very  tentatively,  only  by  their  associations 
with  implements. 

Thus,  so  far,  we  have  found  only  dolichocephalic  crania  of  European 
Upper  Palaeolithic  type  associated  with  early  post-glacial  Mesolithic  re- 
mains in  northern  Germany,  as  well  as  in  Scandinavia.  But  there  are 
other  skulls,  of  dubious  Mesolithic  association,  which  are  brachycephalic. 
These  include  the  skulls  of  Plau,  Mecklenburg;  Domitz,  from  the  bed  of 
the  Elbe;  and  Spandau,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Spree.  All  three  could  fit 
very  easily  into  the  brachycephalic  group  from  Ofnet,  and  if  they  are  not 
Mesolithic,  show  the  northward  movement  of  that  type  in  later  times.42 

Before  concluding  this  survey  of  racial  associations  in  the  Mesolithic  of 

40  Aichel,  Otto,  Der  deutsche  Mensch.    The  specimens  referred  to  are  B  5,  KS  11032, 
KS  11254b,  B  38,  B  34,  B  37,  B  10. 

41  With  newly  exhumed  skulls,  Professor  Aichel  sent  earth  or  peat  from  the  cranial 
cavity  to  palaeobotanists;  with  specimens  which  had  lain  for  years  in  museums,  he 
gathered  earth  from  the  ear  holes.   This  method  does  not  always  yield  certain  results, 
for  sometimes  the  samples  do  not  contain  enough  pollen  for  statistical  study. 

«  Clarke,  J.  G.  D.,  op.  cit.,  pp.  133-136. 

Reche,  AFA,  vol.  49,  pp.  122-190. 

Kossina,  G.,  MannusB,  #6a,  1928,  p.  144. 

Kossina,  G.,  Die  fndogermanen,  MannusB,  #26,  1926,  p.  16. 


THE  MESOLITHIG  PERIOD  75 

northwestern  Europe,  we  must  not  fail  to  mention  the  parallel  situation  in 
the  British  Isles.  Briefly,  during  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  there  are  no  true 
Solutrean  or  Magdalenian  deposits  in  Britain,  but  the  Aurignacian  con- 
tinues, to  develop  into  an  early  Mesolithic  culture  called  Greswellian. 
This  in  turn  is  later  influenced  by  Azilian  cultural  diffusion  from  western 
France  and  northern  Spain.  The  Aurignacian  which  came  to  England, 
and  from  which  Creswellian  developed,  apparently  came  from  central 
Europe.43 

During  the  Mesolithic,  a  northern  extension  of  Greswellian,  strongly 
mixed  with  Azilian,  extended  to  southwestern  Scotland,  where  it  has  been 
found  in  the  Oban  caves  of  Argyllshire.  The  deposits  of  some  of  these 
caves  date  from  Late  Atlantic  time,  subsequent  to  the  maximum  Litorina 
transgression,  during  which  period  the  caves  were  formed.  This  would 
roughly  correlate  the  remains  which  they  contained  with  Period  III  in 
Scandinavia.  We  must  remember,  however,  that,  although  a  few  stray 
Maglemosian  finds  have  been  made  in  eastern  Scotland,  the  land  con- 
necting Scotland  with  Denmark  in  the  Boreal  period  had  since  sunk  below 
the  North  Sea,  and  skeletal  material  from  the  Oban  caves  cannot  be 
closely  related  in  a  cultural  sense  to  that  from  Scandinavia. 

During  the  last  century,  a  number  of  these  caves,  when  excavated, 
yielded  skeletal  material  dating  from  the  Late  Mesolithic  through  the 
Bronze  and  Iron  Ages  into  modern  times.  One  of  the  sites,  the  Mac  Arthur 
cave,  contained  some  artefacts  which  have  been  recognized  as  Azilian,44 
as  well  as  two  male  skulls,  of  which  one  at  least  is  probably  contemporane- 
ous with  the  deposit.45 

This  specimen,  called  skull  B,  is  very  similar  to  the  Stlingenas  fragment 
in  Sweden,  with  nearly  identical  vault  dimensions,  a  cranial  index  of  70,  a 
broad  forehead,  and  heavy  browridges.  The  sagittal  arcs  of  the  skull,  the 
breadths  and  heights  of  the  orbits,  the  depressed  root  of  the  nose,  the 
breadth  of  the  face,  and  the  height  of  the  mandible,  are  all  typical  of  the 
purely  long-headed  variety  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  European  racial 
group.  From  the  photographs  46  it  is  possible  to  make  further  observations, 
and  even  to  reconstruct  tentative  values  of  additional  measurements.  The 
bizygomatic  facial  breadth  was  greater  than  the  breadth  of  the  vault,  and 
the  nose  was  leptorrhine. 

Oban  man  is,  in  short,  an  ideal  example  of  the  central  European  Aurig- 
nacian physical  type.  As  far  as  this  one  specimen  is  concerned,  the  initial 

43  Garrod,  Miss  D.  A.  E.,  RBAA,  Pres.  Ad.,  sec.  H.,  vol.  4, 1938,  pp.  1-26,  viz.  p.  23. 

44  Abb6  Breuil  (PSAS,  vol.  55,  1921,  p.  163)  states  that  the  site  is  fundamentally 
Creswellian  influenced  by  a  strong  Azilian  admixture,  with  faint  Maglemose  traces. 

46  Turner,  Sir  W.  (TRSE,  vol.  51,  1914-15,  pp.  211-214),  states  that  skull  B  actually 
lay  in  the  shell  deposit,  while  skull  A  was  taken  from  the  black  earth  above  it. 
46  Turner,  p.  213. 


76  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Upper  Palaeolithic  invasion  of  the  British  Isles  was  still  represented,  many 
thousands  of  years  later,  by  its  original  racial  type. 

(9)   SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

The  Mesolithic  Age  in  Europe  is  the  time  gap,  lasting  nine  thousand 
years,  between  the  end  of  the  glacial  period  and  the  Neolithic.  Peoples 
living  in  a  Mesolithic  stage  of  culture  continued  to  obtain  their  food  by 
hunting,  fishing,  and  the  gathering  of  wild  vegetable  products  as  they  had 
in  the  Palaeolithic;  but  they  now  possessed  one  domestic  animal,  the  dog. 
Technologically,  the  introduction  of  the  microlithic  blade,  which  could 
be  used  in  composite  tools,  and  the  invention  of  the  wood  chopping  axe, 
further  distinguish  this  period. 

With  the  retreat  of  the  last  ice  cap,  the  fertile  grasslands  of  the  Sahara 
and  of  southwestern  Asia  began  to  dry,  game  became  scarce,  and  the  rain 
belt  moved  westward  and  northward.  The  microlithic  technique,  which 
had  been  employed  during  late  Upper  Palaeolithic  times  in  North  Africa 
and  the  Near  East,  was  carried  across  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  through 
the  Caucasus  and  South  Russia  into  Europe,  where  it  spread  northward 
and  northwestward,  eventually  affecting  the  industries  of  the  entire  con- 
tinent. At  the  same  time,  it  was  diffused  into  Palestine. 

This  cultural  diffusion  to  the  north  and  northwest  was  accompanied  in 
the  Late  Mesolithic  or  followed  in  the  Early  Neolithic  by  the  invasion  of  a 
people  new  to  Europe,  a  relatively  small-headed,  short  statured,  effeminate 
looking,  Mediterranean  type,  of  direct  Galley  Hill  deviation,  and  ancestral 
to  one  branch  of  the  modern  Mediterranean  race.  These  Mediterraneans 
also  entered  Palestine  in  Late  Mesolithic  times. 

A  population  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  derivation,  compounded  of  early 
Aurignacian  and  Magdalenian  elements,  moved  northward  from  Spain 
and  the  Pyrenees  to  western  France  and  Germany,  if  not  farther.  In  the 
vanguard  of  the  northern  movement  was  a  large,  broad-faced,  brachy- 
cephalic  type  reminiscent  of  the  brachycephalic  element  resident  in  Al- 
geria at  an  earlier  date.  Although  its  geographical  origin  is  not  certain, 
it  was  definitely  a  member  of  the  middle  and  late  Aurignacian  group  of 
mixed  j^Vw^-Neanderthaloid  derivation. 

In  eastern  Europe  it  is  possible  that  the  older  Palaeolithic  race  was  rein- 
forced in  early  post-glacial  times  by  an  increment  from  the  Near  East, 
although  this  cannot  as  yet  be  clearly  demonstrated.  Invasions  parallel  to 
that  which  crossed  Gibraltar  probably  entered  Europe  via  the  Caucasus, 
but  there  is  at  present  very  little  evidence  to  suppdrt  such  a  theory.  In 
northwestern  Europe,  especially  in  Scandinavia  and  Britain,  where  the 
last  glacier  had  its  main  centers  and  lasted  the  longest,  Upper  Palaeolithic 
man  of  the  central  European  variety  persisted  through  the  Mesolithic,  and 


THE  MESOLITHIC  PERIOD  77 

it  is  to  this  corner  of  Europe  that  we  must  look  for  a  maximum  survival  of 
glacial  age  European  man  into  the  present  time.  Similarly,  the  other  main 
type  which  we  traced  during  the  Palaeolithic — the  long-faced  and  long- 
legged  ancestral  Hamite  of  East  Africa — persisted  in  East  Africa  into  the 
Mesolithic  without  change. 

Although  most  if  not  all  of  the  innovations,  both  racial  and  cultural, 
which  reached  Europe  during  the  Mesolithic  Age,  came  from  North 
Africa  and  also  perhaps  from  points  farther  east,  we  may  suppose  that 
events  of  far  greater  importance  to  human  history  were  going  on  at  this 
time  on  the  continent  of  Asia.  There  the  peoples  of  the  western  plateaux 
must  have  already  begun  the  mastery  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds 
which  was  to  permit  them  to  increase  in  numbers,  and  to  overflow  into 
Europe,  thus  marking  the  beginning  of  the  Neolithic  period  in  the  latter 
continent.  If  we  are  to  understand  the  racial  changes  which  affected  the 
population  of  Europe  at  the  end  of  the  Mesolithic,  we  must  next  devote  our 
attention  to  these  imminent  invaders. 


Chapter  IV 
THE   NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS 

(1)   INTRODUCTION 

The  word  Neolithic  has  two  meanings,  one  purely  technical,  and  the 
other  of  broader  implications:  (1)  the  manufacture  and  use  of  polished 
stone  implements,  in  the  form  of  axes,  adzes,  gouges,  chisels,  and  hoes; 
(2)  the  conquest  of  the  procreative  forces  of  the  biological  world,  through 
agriculture  and  animal  husbandry.  These  two  definitions,  implying  tools 
on  the  one  hand  and  food  on  the  other,  do  not  always  overlap,  for  some 
peoples  may  be  considered  Neolithic  in  one  of  the  two  senses  only.  Of 
the  two,  only  the  second  is  of  really  vital  importance  in  human  history. 
In  fact,  the  change  from  food-gathering  to  food-producing  was  the  greatest 
step  in  human  development  since  the  invention  of  language.1 

The  initial  adoption  of  a  Neolithic  economy  occurred,  however,  at  few 
centers  on  the  earth;  one  in  the  Old  World  and  another  in  the  New  are  all 
of  which  we  can  be  sure  at  present.  In  the  Old  World,  the  plants  and 
animals  which  were  suitable  for  domestication  ranged  in  a  wild  state  in 
the  highland  zone  from  Anatolia  to  the  Indus,  with  some  species  extending 
out  along  the  southern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean.  Abyssinia  may  have 
been  a  separate  center  for  the  domestication  of  some  grain  plants,  but 
probably  not  of  animals.  Perhaps  when  the  Yemen  shall  have  been 
studied  by  economic  botanists,  this  fertile  highland  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Red  Sea  will  assume  a  like  importance. 

In  the  millennia  during  which  the  glacier  was  retreating  to  its  Scan- 
dinavian center  and  growing  thinner,  the  climatic  zones  which  made  a 
well-watered  grassland  of  this  entire  plateau  belt  moved  northward,  and 
the  regions  in  which  Old  World  civilization  originated  grew  gradually 
drier.  Afghanistan  and  Iran,  now  for  the  most  part  nearly  desert  plateaux, 
were  then  fertile;  in  Egypt  the  valley  of  the  Nile  was  a  string  of  swamps 
ind  jungly  lakes,  full  of  crocodiles  and  hippopotami. 

It  is  now  generally  believed,  although  still  unproven,  that  agriculture 
ind  the  domestication  of  animals  did  not  arise  in  the  three  valleys  of  the 
^ile,  Tigris-Euphrates,  and  Indus,  but  in  the  highlands  between  them. 
The  river  valleys  became  important  as  centers  of  civilization  because 
icasonal  flooding  and  the  deposit  of  fresh  alluvium  made  it  impossible  for 

1  Childc,  V.  Gordon,  The  Dawn  of  European  Civilization;  The  Most  Ancient  East;  The 
Danube  in  Prehistory;  New  Light  on  the  Most  Ancient  East;  Man  Makes  Himself. 

78 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  79 

primitive  farmers  to  exhaust  the  soil,  thus  permitting  sedentary  residence; 
furthermore,  the  development  of  irrigation  and  drainage  canals  were 
public  works  necessitating  social  solidarity,  and  kingdoms  arose  here  while 
the  highlanders  kept  to  their  villages  and  fought  their  feuds,  as  many  of 
them  still  do  today. 

As  Childe  has  pointed  out,  the  acquisition  of  a  new  and  more  productive 
means  of  economic  life  has  as  one  of  its  first  effects  an  increase  in  the  pop- 
ulation. Agriculture  and  the  domestication  of  animals  did  not  appear  in 
one  day.  The  acquisition  of  a  full  Neolithic  economy  may  have  taken 
one  or  more  millennia,  and  it  only  very  gradually  replaced  hunting  and 
collecting.  The  primitive  slash-and-burn  system,  which  must  have  been 
the  first  followed,  and  which  was  the  earliest  in  Europe,  prevents  intensive 
use  of  the  soil  and  promotes  a  slow  but  nevertheless  positive  type  of 
nomadism. 

The  desiccation  which  followed  the  movement  of  the  rain  zones  north- 
ward resulted  initially  in  the  migration  of  peoples  into  Palestine,  North 
Africa,  and  southern  Europe,  in  the  form  of  the  Mesolithic  invasions,  which 
we  have  already  studied.  These  movements  were  not  extensive,  however, 
because  the  new  economy  of  food  production  permitted  a  greater  utiliza- 
tion of  the  drying  soil  on  which  wild  animal  and  vegetable  life,  useful  to 
man,  had  grown  scarce.  For  a  while  emigration  was  unnecessary;  but 
when  the  inevitable  population  increase  had  come,  western  Asia  over- 
flowed, and  farmers  moved  into  regions  where  the  climate  which  had 
formerly  blessed  their  homelands  now  prevailed. 

The  desiccation  which  followed  the  shifting  of  the  cyclonic  storm  belts 
did  not  become  complete  until  what  is  called,  in  northern  Europe,  Atlantic 
time,  that  is,  in  the  neighborhood  of  5000  B.C.  Only  by  this  time  had 
Europe,  south  of  the  newly  formed  northern  forest,  really  become  cli- 
matically what  the  highland  belt  had  been  before — a  temperate,  well- 
watered  parkland,  instead  of  a  chilly,  treeless  plain. 

The  same  general  date,  5000  B.C.,  may;be  tentatively  set  as  the  time  of 
the  beginning  of  agriculture  and  animal  domestication.  It  was  not  until 
almost  2000  years  later,  however,  that  the  disciples  of  this  new  economy 
were  to  expand  and  invade  more  than  the  threshold  of  Europe. 

The  Neolithic  invaders  of  Europe,  seeking  new  lands  for  farming  and 
grazing,  came  as  a  further  result  of  the  same  environmental  shift  which  had 
impelled  the  earlier  Mesolithic  invaders,  whom  they  supplemented  without 
a  gap,  and  with  whom  they  blended.  But  the  Neolithic  invasion  was  not 
as  simple  as  the  Mesolithic.  As  the  new  economy  spread,  it  affected  a 
number  of  peoples,  whose  reactions  were  not  all  the  same.  Europe,  the 
new  stronghold  of  a  lost  climate,  was  broached  in  different  places  and  in 
different  ways. 


NEOLITHIC   MOVEMENT\. 
AND  CHRONOLOGY 


MAP 


80 


82  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Map  2  will  shdw,  in  a  very  general  sense,  the  time  scale  of  Neolithic 
invasions  into  Europe,  and  the  routes  by  which  these  invasions  may  have 
come.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  Crete  became  Neolithic  before  any  of  the 
European  mainland,  followed  by  Greece  and  the  land  near  the  Bospo- 
rus; eventually  these  agriculturalists  spread  into  all  the  northern  Mediter- 
ranean lands  by  sea.  Meanwhile,  other  Neolithic  farmers  had  been  moving 
along  the  coast  of  North  Africa  from  Egypt,  and  had  crossed  over  Gibraltar 
to  invade  Spain.  Hence  they  migrated  northward  and  eastward,  as  far 
as  the  Swiss  lakes  and  the  Rhine.2  Their  agriculture,  and  their  pig,  sheep, 
and  cattle  husbandry,  eventually  spread  over  most  of  western  Europe, 
and  even  into  England.  At  the  same  time  still  other  farmers,  in  this  case 
coming  from  Anatolia,  or  southeastern  Russia,  or  both,  were  moving  up 
the  Danube,  and  eventually  established  themselves  in  the  fertile  valleys 
of  Moravia  and  Bohemia,  and  even  farther  westward  until  they  met  the 
stream  coming  northward  over  Gibraltar. 

These  three  movements  were  the  primary  invasions  which  brought  a 
new,  agricultural  population  into  Europe.  Later  in  the  Neolithic  there 
were  two  other  movements  of  a  different  character.  One  was  that  of  the 
Megalith-builders,  who  sailed  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  skirted 
the  western  shores  of  Europe  to  the  British  Isles  and  Scandinavia.  These 
seafarers  probably  introduced  the  new  economy  to  the  northern  isles  and 
Scandinavia.  Then  there  were  the  Corded  people,  so-called  on  account 
of  the  decoration  on  their  pottery — who  came  from  some  mysterious  point 
in  southern  Russia  or  the  steppes  of  western  Asia  north  of  the  plateau, 
and  who  were  probably  less  dependent  on  farming  than  on  pastoral 
nomadism  and  trade.  Just  as  the  Megalithic  people  carried  civilization 
to  the  far  western  corners  of  Europe  by  sea,  so  the  Corded  people  intro- 
duced the  new  enlightenment  into  the  north,  where  the  old  hunting  and 
fishing  life  survived. 

Five  invasions,  then,  converging  on  Europe  from  the  south  and  east, 
brought  a  new  population  to  Europe  during  the  third  millennium  B.C., 
and  furnished  the  racial  material  from  which  living  European  populations 
are  to  a  large  extent  descended. 

(2)  THE  NEOLITHIC  AND  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RACE 

In  Europe,  the  Neolithic  is  primarily  the  period  of  the  Mediterranean 
race,  in  one  form  or  another.  It  was,  apparently,  the  Mediterraneans 
who  accomplished  the  change  to  a  food-producing  economy  elsewhere, 
and  who  expanded  into  the  territory  of  the  food-gatherers. 

These  Mediterraneans,  while  surprisingly  homogeneous  in  some  re- 
spects, may  be  segregated  locally  and  typologically  into  sub-groups  on 
8  Menghin,  O.,  Weltgeschkhte  der  Steinzeit,  pp.  294-302. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  83 

the  basis  of  a  few  characters.  Before  proceeding  much  further  with  our 
geographical-historical  reconstruction,  it  will  be  well  to  define  what  we 
mean  by  Mediterranean,  to  compare  it  with  other  races  which  we  have 
already  met,  and  to  specify  its  principal  subdivisions. 

By  Mediterranean,  in  the  skeletal  sense  alone,  we  mean  the  wide  family 
of  closely  knit  racial  types  which  are  long  headed,  orthognathous,  meso- 
rrhine  or  leptorrhine,  narrow  faced,  and  of  medium  head  size,  descended 
from  the  general  Galley  Hill  stock,  and  related  to  Combe  Capelle  and 
Afalou  #28.  Mediterranean,  in  this  sense,  is  the  name  by  which  we  pro- 
pose to  designate  that  one  of  the  two  major  racial  elements,  concerned  with 
the  development  of  white  peoples,  which  completely  lacks  Neanderthaloid 
ancestry.  It  differs  from  the  major  Upper  Palaeolithic  group  of  Europe 
and  northern  Africa  in  several  respects,  as  shown  on  page  84. 

The  "Mediterranean"  racial  family  is  just  as  " white,"  in  the  larger 
meaning  of  the  word,  as  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  family.  Its  chief  differ- 
ences from  the  latter  are:  a  smaller  brain  size,  a  moderate  body  size,  and 
a  lack  of  the  excessive  specializations  which  characterize  the  northern 
group.  The  Mediterranean  group  seems  to  be  of  purely  sapiens  ancestry, 
without  Neanderthaloid  or  other  mixture. 

Before  the  Neolithic,  the  principal  branches  of  the  Mediterranean 
family  must  already  have  come  into  existence.  Some  Mediterraneans 
were  probably  white  skinned,  and  others  brown;  it  is  also  possible  that  the 
differences  in  hair  and  eye  color  which  so  strongly  distinguish  living 
Mediterranean  sub-varieties  had  already  come  into  existence. 

We  cannot  speak  with  authority  about  Nordics  until  we  meet  blondism 
in  the  flesh,  nor  make  profitable  surmises  about  them  until  we  find  it  in 
literary  references  and  artistic  representations.  We  must  not,  therefore, 
let  differences  in  pigmentation  and  soft  parts  confuse  our  understanding 
of  the  skeletal  unity  of  the  Mediterranean  race. 

It  can  be  shown  that  Sumerians  who  lived  over  five  thousand  years  ago 
in  Mesopotamia  are  almost  identical  in  skull  and  face  form  with  living 
Englishmen,  and  that  predynastic  Egyptian  skulls  can  be  matched  both 
in  a  seventeenth  century  London  plague  pit,  and  in  Neolithic  cist-graves 
in  Switzerland.  Modern  dolichocephalic  whites  or  browns  are  very  similar 
in  head  and  face  measurements  and  form.  The  Nordic  race  in  the  strict 
sense  is  merely  a  pigment  phase  of  the  Mediterranean.8 

On  the  basis  of  the  material  to  be  covered  in  this  chapter,  we  may  dis- 
tinguish the  following  branches  of  the  general  Mediterranean  or  Galley 
Hill  group: 

1  Popularly,  the  word  "Nordic"  is  frequently  applied  to  a  blond  or  pigmentally  inter- 
mediate conglomerate  type  or  group  of  types  in  northern  Europe,  which  contains  other 
than  blond  Mediterranean  elements. 


84 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


Upper  Palaeolithic 

1 .  Great  size  of  brain  case. 

2.  Mean  skull  length  about  198  mm. 
in  males. 

3.  Vault  height  variable,  usually  mod- 
erate. 


4.  Head  form  variable.    Local  means 
70-72  in  some  cases,  74-75  in  others. 

5.  Strong  tendency  to  become  brachy- 
cephalic,    manifest   in    some    local 
branches. 

6.  Thick  vault,  heavy  relief  of  muscle 
attachments. 

7.  Browridges    and    development    of 
nuchal  lines  on  occiput  strong. 

8.  Face  variable  in  length,  frequently 
short. 

9.  Face  very  broad,  bizygomatic  di- 
ameter over   140  mm.   in   males. 
Zygomatic  arches  greatly  bowed. 

10.  Orbits  very  wide  and  low. 

11.  Distance  between  orbits  great. 

12.  Nasal  skeleton  prominent. 

13.  Sub-nasal  segment  of  face  height 
relatively  great. 

14.  Mandible  thick,  heavy,  with  great 
symphysial  height,  wide  bicondylar 
and  bigonial  diameters;  prominent, 
often  bilateral  chin. 


15.  Stature  variable,  but  most  char- 
acteristically tali,  mean  probably 
about  172  cm. 

16.  Bodily  build  usually  robust,  shoul- 
ders very  broad,  chests  voluminous, 
hands  and  feet  large. 


Mediterranean 

Brain  size  variable,  but  usually  moder- 
ate. 

Mean  skull  lengths  between  1 83-1 93  mm. 
in  males. 

Absolute  vault  height  has  the  same 
range  in  absolute  dimensions,  or  higher, 
but  usually  higher  in  relation  to  other 
diameters.  Within  the  Mediterranean- 
Galley  Hill  group,  differences  of  vault 
height  serve  as  diagnostics  of  race  or 
sub-race. 
Same. 

Tendency  to  brachycephaly  not  mani- 
fested by  advent  of  Neolithic  in  areas  yet 
known. 

Vault  medium  to  thin,  muscular  relief 
on  vault  as  a  rule  slight. 
Browridges  and  nuchal  lines  variable, 
medium  to  weak. 

Same,  but  some  notably  long-faced 
exceptions. 

Face  usually  narrow,  127-133  mm., 
zygoma  tic  arches  weak  and  laterally 
compressed. 

Orbits  of  moderate  proportions. 
Distance  between  orbits  slight. 
Nasal  skeleton  prominent  in  some  types, 
but  not  in  all. 

Sub-nasal  segment  of  face  height  rela- 
tively slight. 

Mandible  variable;  usually  light,  of 
small  symphysial  height,  and  narrow  in 
both  lateral  diameters,  chin  moderate 
or  pointed.  In  some  types,  however,  the 
mandible  approaches  the  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic form  in  height,  but  not  in  breadth. 
Stature  variable,  but  most  characteris- 
tically short,  types  vary  from  159  to  172 
cm.  in  means. 

Bodily  build  usually  linear,  hands  and 
feet  smaller,  weight  probably  less. 


(1)  Mediterranean  Proper  (hereafter  meant  when  the  word  "Mediter- 
•anean"  is  used  alone):  Short  stature,  about  160  cm.;  skull  length  183- 
187  mm.  male  mean;  vault  height  132-137  mm.  mean;  cranial  in- 
lex  means  73-75;  browridges  and  bone  development  weak,  face  short, 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  85 

nose  Jeptorrhine  to  mesorrhine.  Type  already  met  in  Portugal  and 
Palestine  in  Late  Mesolithic.  Represents  the  paedomorphic  or  sexually 
undifferentiated  Mediterranean  form,  and  often  carries  a  slight  negroid 
tendency. 

(2)  Danubian:  The  same  in  body  size  and  build,  skull  length  and  cranial 
index  the  same;  individually,  the  index  goes  to  80.    Vault  is  higher  than 
breadth,  means  137-140  mm.    Nose  mesorrhine  or  chamaerrhine. 

(3)  Megalithic:  Tall  stature,  means  167-171  cm.,  slender  build;  skull 
length  over  190  mm.;  cranial  index  68-72  means,  individual  range  below 
78;  vault  moderate  in  height,  less  than  breadth;  forehead  moderately 
sloping,   browridges  often   of  moderate   heaviness,   muscular  markings 
stronger,  skull  base  wider,  face  medium  to  long,  nose  leptorrhine,  mandible 
often  deep  and  moderately  wide.    The  East  African  Elmenteitans  repre- 
sent an  individual  and  extreme  form  of  this.   It  represents  a  gerontomor- 
phic  or  sexually  differentiated  Mediterranean  or  Galley  Hill  form,  and 
in  cranial  features  is  closer  to  Galley  Hill  itself  than  any  other  branch. 

(4)  Corded:  Tall  stature,  means  1 67-1 74  cm. ;  build  linear  but  muscular, 
perhaps  heavier  than  the  Megalithic;  extremely  long-headed,  194  mm. 
mean.    Vault  of  great  height,  means  over  140  mm.,  exceeding  breadth; 
browridges  and  muscular  markings  medium  to  strong;  face  very  long,  and 
of  slight  to  moderate  breadth;  mandible  deep  and  chin  marked,  but  nar- 
row through  gonial  angles.  Nose  leptorrhine,  often  prominent.  This  type, 
in  western  and  northern  Europe,  approaches  in  some  respects  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  type  with  which  it  mixed. 

(5)  Other  Forms:  Include  mixtures  between  the  four  named,  as  well  as 
others  which  are  also  intermediate  but  perhaps  ancestrally  undifferen- 
tiated.   The  later  "Nordic"  forms  are  intermediate.    In  Asia  Minor  and 
the  Irano-Afghan  plateau  appear  forms  noted  for  great  prominence  and 
convexity  of  the  nasal  skeleton,  and  lack  of  nasion  depression.  Since  thqse 
features  are  found  on  individuals  of  varying  size  and  proportions,  as  well 
as  brachycephalic  races  of  the  same  neighborhood,  they  seem  to  represent 
some  local  genetic  tendency,  and  cannot  be  considered  the  exclusive  prop- 
erty of  a  given  race.  However,  one  might  name  the  small  variety  found  in 
Asia  Minor  Cappadocian,  while  a  larger  form  commoner  farther  east,  and 
metrically  close  to  the  Corded,  may  be  called  Afghanian. 

The  names  given  the  racial  divisions  outlined  above  have  been  chosen 
with  the  intention  of  avoiding  close  reference  to  living  races,  since  they  are 
based  on  the  skeleton  alone.  Mediterranean  forms  an  exception;  it  is  so  well 
known  and  firmly  established  that  it  cannot  be  changed.  In  this  particular 
case,  we  may  be  reasonably  sure  of  the  character  of  the  soft  parts,  owing  to 
the  antiquity  of  accurate  realistic  portraiture  in  Egypt,  Crete,  and  Meso- 
potamia, as  well  as  to  mummification. 


86  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  names  Danubian,  Megalithic,  and  Corded,  have  been  deliberately 
taken  from  archaeology  since,  as  will  be  shown,  the  types  so  designated 
were  closely  linked,  during  the  Neolithic  and  even  later,  to  the  cultural 
entities  with  which  they  are  thus  identified. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  use  of  these  labels  will  eliminate  the  necessity,  in 
the  rest  of  this  chapter,  of  elaborate  description. 

(3)   IRAN  AND   IRAQ 

Unfortunately  for  the  compiler  of  a  general  book,  both  the  archaeology 
and  the  somatdlogy  of  the  Iranian  plateau  and  of  Mesopotamia  are  in 
their  respective  infancies.  City  after  city,  and  village  after  village,  remain 
undug,  while  thousands  of  skulls,  some  excavated  and  discarded,  and 
others  still  in  the  ground,  remain  unmeasured  and  unpublished.  Despite 
the  notable  work  done  at  al  ?Ubaid,  Kish,  Ur,  Warka,  Susa,  Persepolis, 
Rayy,  and  other  sites,  the  archaeologists  have  not  yet  found  the  begin- 
nings of  Near  Eastern  civilization.  Until  recently,  no  single  unquestion- 
ably Neolithic  site  had  been  discovered  in  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  Meso- 
potamia, or  the  Iranian  plateau  over  to  India;  at  present  several  sites 
have  been  located  in  Anatolia  and  Armenia.4  In  the  Tigris-Euphrates 
Valley,  the  Neolithic  material,  if  it  exists,  must  be  buried  by  many  feet  of 
alluvial  soil.  In  the  eastern  highlands,  if  it  exists,  it  should  not  be  hard  to 
find.  The  difficulty  is  that  no  one  has  seriously  looked  for  it.  The  claim 
of  this  whole  highland  and  riverine  zone  to  priority  in  the  development 
of  the  Neolithic  economy  cannot  yet  be  confirmed  or  refuted. 

There  is,  however,  another  claimant  equally  lacking  in  credentials — the 
plain  of  west-central  Asia,  north  of  the  plateau,  and  east  of  the  Caspian. 
In  the  grasslands  drained  by  the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes  the  great  nomadic  cul- 
tures, associated  with  Indo-Aryan-speakers  in  the  oldest  traditional  times, 
and  later  with  the  Turks,  had  their  bed  of  germination.  From  this  center, 
from  time  to  time,  invasions  and  migrations  started  in  several  directions. 
One  was  the  movement  of  the  Aryan  ancestors  into  India,  about  1400 
B.C.;  another  the  Iranian  invasion  of  the  plateau  which  bears  the  name 
and  whose  inhabitants  speak  the  language  of  the  invaders.  A  school, 
founded  by  the  Indo-European  philologists  of  the  last  century,  and  sup- 
ported, although  with  different  dramatis  personae,  by  the  modern  Turks, 
would  make  of  these  vast  plains  the  germinating-bed  of  Old  World  food 
production. 

Commencing  with  the  Iranian  plateau,  we  may  consider  skeletal  ma- 
terial which  antedates  the  arrival  of  the  Iranian-speaking  immigrants. 
Five  crania  from  Luristan  and  the  region  directly  to  the  north,  in  western 

*  Pittard,  E.,  ASAG,  vol.  7,  1937,  pp.  389-391. 
Field,  H.,  AJSL,  vol.  55,  1938,  pp.  101-111. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  87 

Iran,  represent  the  pre- Aryan  period;  three  males  and  two  females,6  dat- 
ing from  2000-1100  B.C.,  are  all  variants  of  the  general  Mediterranean 
type,  in  Cappadocian  and  Afghanian  directions.  An  Early  Copper  Age 
skull  from  southern  Baluchistan,  which  may  date  from  the  third  millennium 
B.C.,  is  the  same.6  We  may  surmise  that  the  ancestors  of  the  bulk  of  the 
present  plateau  population  had  arrived  by  the  beginning  of  the  third 
millennium. 

In  Mesopotamia,  the  earliest  cultural  remains  have  been  found  in 
Sumeria.  Here  there  has  been  recognized  a  long  predynastic  period,  sub- 
divided into  three  phases — al  'Ubaid,  Uruk,  and  Jemdet  Nasr.  These 
three  probably  occupied  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.  The  last  two  at  least 
were  Copper  Age  cultures,  while  the  al  TJbaid  culture  proper,  as  exempli- 
fied by  the  eighteenth  to  fourteenth  levels  at  Warka,  may  possibly  have 
its  roots  in  a  true  Neolithic.7 

One  grave  at  Warka,  in  level  14,  belongs  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
al  'Ubaid  period,  probably  about  3700  B.C.  The  skull  contained  in  it  is 
said  to  be  dolichocephalic.  Two  skeletons  from  perhaps  equally  early 
graves  at  al  'Ubaid  itself  powdered  upon  exposure,  and  could  not  be 
measured.  Hence  our  knowledge  of  the  people  of  the  fourth  millennium 
B.C.  in  Mesopotamia,  based  on  indubitably  contemporaneous  remains,  is 
practically  zero. 

A  series  of  seventeen  crania  from  al  'Ubaid8  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  4),  which 
may  be  predynastic  or  early  dynastic,  belong  without  exception  to  a  type 
which  has  been  called  Eurafrican,  and  which  has  been  the  most  numerous 
and  most  characteristic  element  in  the  population  of  Mesopotamia  from  the 
time  of  the  marsh  dwellers  at  al  cUbaid  to  the  present  day.  These  skulls  are 
large,  heavy,  and  purely  dolichocephalic.  They  belong  to  the  larger-  and 
longer-headed  Mediterranean  division,  nearest  in  vault  size  and  form  to 
the  earlier  Galley  Hill  and  Combe  Capelle.  They  differ  in  one  important 
respect,  however,  from  most  European  skulls  of  the  same  general  type, 
in  that  their  nasal  bones  are  extremely  prominent  and  highly  placed. 
These  early  Sumerians,  like  the  inhabitants  of  the  Iranian  plateau,  had 
already  acquired  the  projecting,  aquiline  noses  so  characteristic  of  the 
modern  Near  East.  Like  the  plateau  dwellers,  these  early  Sumerians 
were  Afghanian  in  race. 

Mesopotamia  is  not,  like  Egypt,  an  isolated  valley,  for  it  may  be  entered 

'Vallois,  H.  V.,  "Notes  sur  les  Tfctes  Osseuses,"  in  Contencau,  G.,  and  Ghirsh- 
man,  A.,  Fouilles  de  Tepe  Giyan. 

6  Sewell,  R.,  and  Guha,  B.,  Report  on  the  Bones  Excavated  at  Nal,  MASI,  vol.  35, 1929, 
app.  5,  p.  56. 

'Jordan,  J.,  APAW,  Jh.  1932,  #2. 

8  Keith,  Sir  Arthur,  "Report  on  the  Human  Remains,  Ur  Excavations,"  vol.  1 :  in 
Hall,  H.  R.  H.,  and  Woolley,  C.  L.,  Al  Vbaid, 


88  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

without  great  difficulty  from  the  highlands  to  the  east  and  north,  while  it 
forms  a  natural  goal  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arabian  uplands,  made 
mobile  by  the  fickle  rainfall  of  the  pastures.  The  history  of  Mesopotamia 
has  consequently  been  a  sequence  of  infiltrations  and  invasions  from  both 
the  highland  zone  and  the  deserts,  for  the  country  feeds  the  city  with 
men,  and  not  the  reverse. 

In  studying  the  racial  history  of  Mesopotamia  from  the  third  millennium 
B.C.  onward,  we  must  remember  this  almost  constant  influx,  and  observe 
how  it  affected  the  Sumerians  and  the  Semitic-speaking  kingdoms.  The 
series  of  skeletal  remains  at  our  disposal,  other  than  the  series  from  al 
'Ubaid,  include:  (a)  a  series  from  Kish,  from  graves  which  may  be  dated 
at  some  time  close  to  2900  B.C.;  (b)  another  from  the  same  site,  from 
fourth  dynasty  graves,  prior  to  2500  B.C.;  (c)  skulls  of  the  third  dynasty 
of  Ur,  dated  about  2300  B.C.  (d)  Neo-Babylonian  crania,  from  between 
800  and  400  B.C.  (e)  Skulls  from  Kirkuk  dated  at  the  fifth  century  A.D.9 

In  all,  well  over  a  hundred  skeletons  have  been  studied.  Most  of  the 
skulls  belong  to  the  "Eurafrican"  type  already  described,  but  two  other 
types  are  represented  in  most  of  the  series.  One  of  these  is  an  ordinary 
Mediterranean  with  a  smaller  skull  and  a  higher  cephalic  index,  which 
ranges  between  70-80  and  averages  about  75.  This  Mediterranean  type 
is  more  fragile,  less  rugged,  shorter  faced,  and  smaller  in  body  size.  This 
is  apparently  not  an  original  Sumerian  type,  for  it  is  completely  absent 
in  the  earliest  series  from  al  'Ubaid  and  Kish.  It  first  appears  well  after 
3000  and  probably  after  2700  B.C.  in  the  fourth  dynasty  graves  at  Kish 
(see  Appendix  I,  col.  5),  and  from  then  on  seems  to  persist  in  all  of  the 
samples,  except  for  the  late  Kirkuk  series  in  the  north.  Like  the  larger 
"Eurafrican"  this  smaller  Mediterranean  type  may  still  be  distinguished  in 
the  living  population  of  Iraq.  . 

The  "Armenoid"  racial  type,  which  is  the  third  one  claimed  in  Meso- 
potamia, begins  with  the  earliest  Kish  graves  and  continues  through  the 
Babylonian  period.  The  identification  of  this  type  is  not  wholly  certain, 
however,  for  very  few  actually  brachycephalic  skulls  have  been  found, 
and,  since  facial  portions  of  these  are  usually  damaged,  it  is  impossible  to 
define  the  type  clearly.  Most  of  the  so-called  Armenoid  skulls  are  meso- 
cephaiic  or  sub-brachycephalic,  but,  in  a  few  instances,  the  cephalic 
index. runs  really  high,  in  an  extreme  case,  to  89.  The  occiputs  of  these 
skulls  are  said  to  be  flat,  the  browridges  heavy,  and  the  capacities  great. 
Although  many  of  the  skulls  which  have  been  called  Armenoid  may  rep- 

8  (a)  Penniman,  T.  K.,  in  Watelin,  L.  C.,  Excavations  at  Ktsht  vol.  4.  (b)  Buxton, 
L.  D.,  in  Langdon,  Excavations  at  Kish,  vol.  1 ;  also  Buxton,  L.  D.,  and  Rice,  D.  T.,  JRAI, 
vol.  61.  (c)  Keith,  Sir  A,  "Report  on  the  Galilee  Skull."  (d)  Buxton,  L.  D.,  vide  supra. 
Buxton  and  Rice,  vide  supra,  (e)  Ehrich,  R.  F.,  Appendix  to  Starr,  Richard,  F.  S., 
vol.  1. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS 


89 


resent  merely  the  rounder  headed  extreme  of  the  total  group,  it  is  never- 
theless probable  that  a  planoccipital  brachycephalic  strain  actually  pene- 
trated Mesopotamia  during  the  third  millennium  B.C.  Although  it  has 
since  increased  in  numbers,  it  still  forms  but  a  minority. 

Except  for  these  few  brachycephals,  none  of  the  invasions  or  cultural 
movements  into  Mesopotamia  in  historic  times  has  changed  the  popula- 
tion in  any  perceptible  way.  This  would  indicate  that  the  regions  which 

FACIAL   TYPES    IN    SUMERIAN    ART 


FIG.  17 


FIG.  18 


FIG.  19  FIG.  20 

Fig.  17,  Frankfort,  H.,  Jacobsen,  T.,  and  Preusscr,  C.,  COIC,  #13,  1930/31,  p.  70, 
Fig.  27.  Fig.  18,  King  Gudea,  after  Woolley,  C.  L.,  The  Development  of  Sumerian  Art. 
London,  1935,  Fig.  62a,  p.  1 15.  Fig.  19,  from  excavations  at  Khafaje,  Expedition  of  the 
Univ.  of  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  of  the  American  School  of  Oriental  Research, 
under  Dr.  E.  A.  Speiser,  New  York  Sunday  Times,  Section  9,  June  27,  1937.  Fig.  20,  same 
source  as  Fig.  19. 


90 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


acted  as  feeders  of  immigrants  to  Mesopotamia  were  themselves  similar 
racially.  The  plateau  people  of  Iran,  therefore,  were  probably  in  the  main 
long-headed.  The  inhabitants  of  northern  Arabia  who  had  entered  the 
valley  from  time  to  time,  and  who  still  come  to  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates 
to  water  their  flocks,  belong  likewise  to  the  general  Mediterranean  family, 
and  examples  of  both  Afghanian  and  Mediterranean  types  may  be  selected 
from  the  living  tribes  without  difficulty.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  first 
appearance  of  the  finer  and  smaller  Mediterranean  type  in  Mesopotamia 
came  with  the  arrival  or  assimilation  of  the  Semites. 

The  Sumerian  sculptors  have  left  behind  them  records  in  stone  which 
may  piece  out  the  evidence  of  the  skulls.  These  records  consist  of  bas  re- 
liefs, which  are  of  conventional  type, 
and  some  really  excellent  portraits  in 
the  round.  The  reliefs  show  wiry,  ath- 
letic men  with  large,  often  aquiline 
noses.  They  are  obviously  normal 
white  men  of  some  Near  Eastern  va- 
riety, just  as  one  would  expect.  The 
portrait  busts,  of  which  three  examples 
are  shown  (Figs.  17,  18,  and  19), 
seem  really  to  depict  individual  men 
rather  than  conventional  types  or 
ideals.  Figure  18  represents  the  oft- 
sculpted  King  Gudea,  who  has  a 
roundish  face  and  a  nose  less  promi- 
nent than  the  bas-relief  ideal.  Figure 
17,  which  looks  less  posed,  bears  the 
sly  expression  of  a  Baghdad  shop- 
keeper of  the  present  day.  In  both 
heads  the  browridges  are  absent,  and 
the  eyebrows  concurrent.  In  these  as  in  most  examples  of  Sumerian 
sculpture,  there  is  no  evidence  of  hair  distribution  or  hair  form  which 
is,  however,  conventionally  shown  in  archaic  statues  of  gods  (Fig.  20), 
dating  from  early  dynastic  times.  In  these,  the  beards  are  full,  the  hair 
straight  or  wavy.10 

In  the  later  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  sculptures,  which  depict  Semitic- 
speaking  populations,  we  find  a  profusion  of  beard  and  head  hair  as  with 
the  early  Sumerian  gods;  the  hair  is  wavy  or  curly,  and  the  beard  ex- 
aggeratedly abundant.  (See  Fig.  21 .)  The  eyebrows  meet  over  the  root  of 

10  Frankfort,  H.,  ''Oriental  Institute  Discoveries  in  Iraq,  1933-34,"  Fourth  Prelim- 
inary Report,  COIC  #19,  1935, 

Speiser,  E.,  New  Tork  Times,  Jan.  27,  1937. 


FIG.  21.  ASSYRIAN. 

After  Schafer,  H.,  and  Andrae,  W.,  Die 
Kunst  des  alien  Orients,  1925,  p.  521. 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  91 

the  highly  arched  nose,  and  eyelids  and  lips  are  full.  The  bodies  are  con- 
ventionally thick-set,  the  arms  and  legs  heavily  muscled.  The  artists  of 
Babylon  and  Nineveh  were  anthropologists  at  heart,  for  they  chose  a  truth- 
ful rather  than  an  imaginary  ideal.  Their  kings  and  soldiers  and  slaves 
could  step  down  from  the  walls  and  mingle  with  the  crowds  today. 

Although  Mesopotamia  was  one  of  the  great  centers  of  Old  World 
civilization,  and  although  its  emissaries  travelled  hundreds  of  miles,  and 
its  cultural  influences  were  so  far-reaching  that  we  may  feel  them  even 
today,  we  must  not  attempt  to  link  it  directly  with  the  Neolithic  invasions 
which  entered  Europe.  The  farmers  who  sought  rich  fields  and  grassy 
meadows  to  the  west  of  the  Euxine  and  the  Bosporus  were  not  Sumerians 
or  Babylonians,  but  peoples  who  had  started  their  wanderings  before  the 
development  of  a  metal  age  civilization,  and  who  were  affected  only  in- 
directly by  cultural  emanations  from  its  center.  Nevertheless,  this  somato- 
logical  survey  of  early  Iran  and  Iraq  is  of  value  in  the  larger  problem  of 
the  white  race,  for  it  enables  us  to  define  clearly  the  physical  charac- 
teristics of  the  Mediterranean  types  of  man  which  were  responsible  for 
what  may  have  been  the  world's  earliest  civilization,  and  of  the  surround- 
ing regions  from  which  it  was  fed,  just  as  one  could  tell  the  physical  types 
of  France  from  a  study  of  Paris  or  of  Europe  from  a  study  of  New  York. 

(4)   CIVILIZED   MEN   IN  EGYPT 

Certainly  the  most  satisfactory  area  in  the  whole  world  for  the  racial 
study  of  a  people  of  antiquity  is  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  Over  four  thousand 
Egyptian  skeletons,  covering  a  period  of  some  seven  thousand  years,  have 
received  anthropometric  attention.  One  Egyptian  series,  consisting  of  nine 
hundred  males,  is  the  most  extensive  group  of  crania  of  a  single  sex  and 
from  a  single  place  ever  assembled.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  to  study  varia- 
bility and  change  in  this  isolated  valley  with  delicate  precision,  for  in  one 
district,  the  region  of  Upper  Egypt  about  Abydos  and  Thebes,  the  cranial 
material  is  more  abundant  than  that  of  any  age  from  any  other  region  of 
the  same  size  in  the  world.11 

Furthermore,  from  the  beginning  of  dynastic  times  until  the  arrival  of 
Islam,  Egyptian  painters  and  sculptors  recorded  faithfully,  often  in  colors, 
the  physical  appearance  of  their  living  countrymen,  as  well  as  of  many 
different  kinds  of  foreigners.  At  the  same  time,  the  climate  of  the  Nile 
Valley,  and  the  skill  of  embalmers,  have  preserved  intact  the  hair,  skin, 
and  dried  muscles  of  both  natural  and  artificial  mummies,  from  the  pre- 
dynastic  period  onward.  With  this  abundance  of  evidence,  we  should  be 
nearly  as  familiar  with  the  racial  characteristics  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
as  with  those  of  the  people  of  our  own  day. 

«  Morant,  G.  M,  Biometrika,  1925,  p.  4. 


92  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Geographically,  Egypt  is  not  unified.  In  the  first  place,  the  Delta,  which 
resembles  early  Sumeria  in  its  climatic  conditions,  is  a  marshy  series  of 
water  ways,  continuous  with  the  coasts  of  Palestine  and  Lybia,  and  easily 
attainable  from  both  directions,  as  well  as  from  the  sea.  It,  and  to  a  lesser 
extent,  Lower  Egypt,  as  well,  forms  an  easy  route  of  passage  from  Asia  to 
North  Africa  without  touching  most  of  Egypt  proper.  It  is  possible,  there- 
fore, that  even  in  dynastic  times  movements  of  racial  importance  passed 
from  western  Asia  to  North  Africa  over  this  coastal  route,  without  affecting 
the  population  of  Egypt  in  any  notable  way.  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  a  narrow  valley  hemmed  in  by  cliffs  on  either  side.  Beyond  these 
cliffs  lie  plateaux,  which  during  the  pluvial  periods  were  well-watered  and 
covered  with  grass  and  game.  There  was  only  one  gateway  to  Egypt  from 
the  south — down  the  Nile — and  during  the  dynastic  period  the  Egyptian 
kings  kept  garrisons  on  their  southern  boundaries  to  prevent  immigration 
from  this  quarter. 

The  cyclonic  rain  belt  which  moved  northward  from  the  Saharan  and 
Arabian  deserts  in  the  general  post-glacial  readjustment  of  climate  also 
took  a  westward  direction.12  For  this  reason,  a  climate  favorable  for  hunt- 
ers and  gatherers  persisted  longer  in  Egypt  than  in  Mesopotamia.  At 
the  same  time,  this  movement  may  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  migra- 
tion of  peoples  crossing  North  Africa  from  east  to  west,  keeping  ahead  of 
the  zone  of  serious  desiccation.  Morocco  was  the  last  of  North  Africa  to 
dry,  and  in  parts  of  that  country  cedar  forests  and  grassy  uplands  still 
remain. 

The  archaeological  sequence  in  Egypt,  which  has  been  well  worked  out, 
begins  with  the  lowest  Palaeolithic  and  continues  without  a  gap  until  his- 
torical times.  During  the  pluvial  and  early  post- pluvial  periods,  however, 
the  swampy  tree-fringed  valley  was  not  the  most  favorable  hunting  ground, 
and  Palaeolithic  and  Mesolithic  food-gatherers  ranged  by  preference  over 
the  open  grasslands  to  either  side,  making  only  occasional  visits  to  the 
river  banks.  As  the  plateaux  grew  increasingly  arid,  many  of  the  hunters 
who  did  not  migrate  westward  moved  into  the  still  moist  valley,  toward 
which  the  game  upon  which  they  lived  must  have  been  converging.  One 
such  concentration  of  food- gatherers  is  seen  in  the  Sebilian  culture  of  Up- 
per Egypt.13  The  skeletal  remains  from  this  culture,  which  have  not  yet 
been  published,  are  said  to  anticipate  in  physical  type  the  predynastic, 
placing  a  fine  Mediterranean  type  in  pre-Neolithic  times.14 

In  another  part  of  Upper  Egypt,  the  earliest  known  of  the  sporadic 
agriculturalists,  who  at  the  same  time  or  soon  afterward,  began  to  exploit 

12  This  summary  of  climatic  changes  in  Egypt  is  based  on  Childe,  V.  G.,  New  Light 
on  the  Most  Ancient  East,  pp.  49-51. 

18  Childe,  op.  «V.,  p.  35.  "  Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  Stone  Age  Africa,  pp.  177-178. 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  93 

the  favorable  environment  of  the  Nile  Valley,  were  the  so-called  Tasians, 
named  after  the  type  site  of  their  culture  at  Deir  Tasa.  At  the  time  of  their 
occupation,  this  part  of  the  Nile  Valley  was  still  swampy,  with  large  trees 
growing  at  the  fringes  of  the  marsh.  In  view  of  these  climatic  conditions, 
it  is  estimated  that  this  culture  may  have  been  introduced  as  early  as  5000 
or  even  6000  B.C.15 

Although  the  physical  type  of  the  Tasians  has  not  yet  been  fully  de- 
scribed, Brunton's  preliminary  notice  informs  us  that  the  few  skulls  as  yet 
found  are  large,  thick-walled,  and  strong  in  muscle  relief,  with  heavy 
browridges.  The  cranial  form,  while  prevailingly  dolichocephalic,  in- 
cludes some  brachycephals.16  The  faces  are  broad,  the  orbits  square,  the 
lower  jaws  deep,  wide,  and  square,  with  flaring  gonial  angles  and  pro- 
jecting, bilateral  chins.  Judging  from  the  drawings  of  one  example  pub- 
lished by  Brunton,  we  may  deduce  that  they  were  orthognathous,  and  in 
this  case  at  least,  mesorrhine.  They  seem  to  belong  to  a  purely  white  cate- 
gory, and  we  may  hazard  a  guess  that  they  represent  an  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic strain  of  Afalou  or  Early  Natufiian  type,  forming  a  link  between 
Algeria  and  Palestine.  They  were  not,  however,  important  in  the  ultimate 
formation  of  the  Egyptian  people,  for  in  subsequent  times  they  seem,  both 
culturally  and  racially,  to  have  disappeared. 

Another  early  Neolithic  civilization  of  Egypt  which  left  no  clear  traces 
in  the  dynastic  culture  was  that  of  the  Fayum  people  and  the  Merimdians 
of  the  Delta,  who,  contemporaneously  with  the  Tasians,  and  following  the 
Sebilians,  grew  barley,  emmer  wheat,  and  flax  along  the  shores  of  the 
Fayum  Lake  and  the  estuaries  of  the  Delta.  They  also  kept  herds  of  cattle, 
and  especially  of  swine.  Their  technology  bridges  the  gap  between  a  Cap- 
sian  Mesolithic  and  a  full  Neolithic.  Their  pottery,  a  thick  black  ware 
decorated  by  incision,  resembles  early  ceramic  types  of  Neolithic  western 
Europe  and  of  Anatolia. 

The  importance  of  these  people  is  that  they  probably  represent  the  pro- 
totype of  the  Neolithic  agriculturalists  who  moved  westward  along  the 
shore  of  North  Africa  to  Morocco,  and  over  into  Spain,  whence  they  spread 
the  Neolithic  economy,  with  emmer,  flax,  and  swine,  to  the  Swiss  lakes 
and  to  the  Rhine.17  Although  they  may  have  had  little  importance  for 
Egypt,  they  had  much  for  Europe.  Their  appearance  in  the  Fayum  and 
the  Delta  is  dated  at  about  5000  B.C.,  and  their  disappearance  about  4000 
B.C.  One  millennium  later  they  or  people  like  them  appeared  in  western 
Europe. 

The  skulls  of  these  people,  which  consist  mostly  of  females  and  infants, 

15  Brunton,  Guy,  Antiquity,  vol.  3,  #12,  Dec.,  1929,  pp.  456-457. 

16  Menghin,  O.,  Lecture  at  Harvard  University,  April  6,  1937. 

17  Childe,  V.  G.,  op.  «/.,  p.  64. 


94  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

are  all  dolichocephalic  and  Mediterranean.  There  is  no  trace  of  negroid 
influence,  and  the  skulls  are  said  to  be  larger  than  those  of  predynastic 
Egyptians,  to  be  described  shortly.18 

After  this  excursion  let  us  return  to  Upper  Egypt,  to  a  number  of  sites 
close  to  that  section  of  the  valley  in  which  the  Tasians  had  previously  lived, 
From  the  type  site,  Badari,  come  the  earliest  skulls  of  a  definitely  Egyptian 
group  which  have  yet  been  discovered.  These  Badarians  lived  about 
4000  B.C.,  after  the  climate  had  become  considerably  drier  than  it  was  in 
Tasian  times,  so  dry,  in  fact,  that  in  many  cases  the  skin  and  hair  of  their 
dead  have  been  naturally  preserved.  The  skin  was  apparently  brunet 
white,  while  the  hair  was  black  or  dark  brown  in  color,  thick,  of  fine 
texture,  and  usually  wavy  in  form. 

Although  the  Badarians,  like  the  Tasians  and  Merimdians,  still  hunted 
and  fished  to  enhance  their  larders  and  vary  their  diet,  they  lived  primarily 
by  agriculture  and  by  herding  cattle  and  sheep.  Unlike  the  Merimdians, 
they  raised  no  pigs.  By  hammering  copper  they  were  entering  the  transi- 
tion from  the  Neolithic  to  the  Metal  Age.  They  navigated  the  Nile  in  ships, 
whose  shapes  are  revealed  by  pottery  models,  but  we  cannot  be  sure  that 
they  sailed  them.  These  Badarians  were  undoubtedly  newcomers  to  Upper 
Egypt,  who  displaced  the  Tasians  and  perhaps  other  predecessors. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  identify  the  sexes  of  Badarian  skulls,  for  the  type  is 
a  delicate  and  feminine  one,  showing  very  little  muscular  development.19 
For  this  reason,  the  various  investigators  who  have  measured  Badarian 
skulls  have  in  no  two  cases  agreed  on  their  sexing,  and  the  means  vary 
accordingly,  but  with  the  most  extreme  division,  the  sex  ratios  are  still 
unusually  small,  even  for  an  Egyptian  series. 

The  Badarian  series  is  the  earliest  cranial  sample  of  any  numerical  length 
which  has  yet  been  obtained  from  any  part  of  the  world.  It  is  our  first 
series,  unified  in  time  and  place,  which  is  ample  enough  to  be  studied  by 
accurate  statistical  methods.  These  show  that  the  series  is  not  very  vari- 
able, but  its  variability  is  no  less  than  that  of  many  modern  populations. 
From  this  Morant  concludes  "In  the  last  six  thousand  years  there  appears 
to  have  been  little  change  in  the  variability  of  racial  populations."  ™ 

The  Badarian  type  represents  a  small  branch  of  the  Mediterranean 
racial  group.  The  head  is  unusually  high  in  comparison  to  the  other  di- 
mensions, and  the  facial  skeleton  is  in  the  absolute  scale  unusually  small; 
the  mandible  is  small,  narrow,  and  light.  Its  mean  male  bicondylar  diam- 
eter is  the  smallest  known,  while  the  bigonial  diameter  of  91.6  mm.  is  also 
extremely  low. 

Although  the  Badarian  type  is  definitely  related  to  that  of  the  succeed- 

18  Deny,  Douglas,  SAWV,  Jahrgang,  1932,  #1-4,  pp.  60-61.  20  Ibid.,  p.  306. 

19  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  1927,  vol.  27,  pp.  293-309. 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  95 

ing  predynastic  people,  it  is  distinguished  from  it  in  a  number  of  ways. 
The  Badarian  skulls  are  more  prognathous  than  those  of  their  successors, 
and  have  higher  nasal  indices.  The  nasal  index  is  just  on  the  line  between 
mesorrhiny  and  chamaerrhiny.  In  fact,  while  the  prognathism  and  nose 
form  would  suggest  a  negroid  tendency,  this  cannot  be  established,  since 
the  hair  form  is  definitely  not  negroid. 

Morant  shows  that  the  Badarian  cranial  type  is  closely  similar  to  that  of 
some  of  the  modern  Christians  of  northern  Ethiopia — who  incidentally 
do  not  show  negroid  characteristics  in  the  skull — and  also  to  the  crania  of 
Dravidian-speaking  peoples  of  southern  India.  One  might  add  that  living 
Somalis  show  a  close  approximation  to  this  physical  type  in  most  respects, 
and  the  extremely  narrow  jaw  in  which  the  Badarians  seem  to  reach  a 
world  extreme  may  be  duplicated  among  both  Somalis  and  the  inhabi- 
tants of  southern  India.  In  Europe,  the  closest  parallel  to  the  Badarian 
type  is  found  among  modern  Sardinians,  but  this  is  not  as  close  as  their 
relationships  to  other  and  later  Egyptians. 

On  the  basis  of  these  racial  comparisons,  it  seems  reasonable  to  suggest 
that  this  Badarian  physical  type  may  have  come  from  the  south,  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  Blue  Nile.  It  may  represent  an  early  Hamitic  racial 
strain,  which  persists  despite  some  negroid  admixture  in  Ethiopia  and 
Somaliland  to  the  present  day. 

The  Badarian  was  succeeded  in  Upper  Egypt  by  a  sequence  of  cultures 
which  may  be  treated  under  the  collective  term  predynastic.  In  predynas- 
tic Egyptian  times,  the  inhabitants  of  Lower  Egypt,  that  is  the  region 
around  Memphis  and  the  modern  Cairo,  were  physically  and  culturally 
distinct  from  those  of  Upper  Egypt.  The  Egyptian  writing  was  developed 
in  Lower  Egypt  where  reeds,  birds,  and  other  natural  objects  typical  of 
that  environment  were  incorporated  into  the  syllabic  and  alphabetical 
signs.  In  predynastic  times,  there  were  two  kingdoms  of  Lower  and  of 
Upper  Egypt.  The  union  of  the  two  under  Menes,  around  3000  B.C., 
marks  the  beginning  of  the  dynastic  tradition.  Predynastic  times  may  be 
considered,  therefore,  to  have  occupied  most  of  the  preceding  millennium. 

In  Upper  Egypt,  the  early  predynastic  physical  type  is  best  represented 
by  the  series  from  Naqada.21  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  6.)  The  Naqada  peo- 
ple, although  they  resembled  the  Badarians  in  many  respects,  yet  differed 
from  them  sufficiently  in  others  to  assure  us  that  these  were  two  popula- 
tions of  separate  though  related  origins.  The  Naqada  people  were  fairly 
tall,  with  a  mean  stature  of  167.5  cm.  for  eighty  males.  They  were  prob- 
ably taller  than  the  Badarians,  although  we  have  no  definite  data  on  Bada- 
rian stature.  Both  heads  and  faces  were  wider  and  larger  than  those  of 
the  Badarians;  the  noses  were  narrower,  and  there  was  less  prognathism. 

21  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biomctrika,  vol.  17,  1925,  pp.  1-52. 


96  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  less  numerous  Badarians  were  probably  absorbed  into  the  Naqada 
population,  though  there  is  no  direct  evidence  to  confirm  this  assumption. 

In  Lower  Egypt  lived  another  group  of  Mediterranean  predynastic 
people  who  differed  from  the  Upper  Egyptians  in  certain  noticeable  ways. 
The  heads  were  broader,  the  cranial  indices  higher,  reaching  a  mean  of 
75,  whereas  the  Upper  Egyptian  mean  is  nearly  72.  The  vault  height  is 
less,  the  face  is  no  broader,  but  somewhat  longer,  and  the  nasal  index  is 
lower. 

The  two  types  from  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  represent  the  extremes  of 
a  purely  native  Egyptian  population,  but  from  the  beginning  of  dynastic 
times,  around  3000  B.C.  until  Ptolemaic  times,  the  numerous  series  which 
give  an  excellent  picture  of  the  progress  of  racial  continuity  and  change  in 
Egypt  show  the  interactions  of  these  two  types.  The  racial  history  of  Egypt 
in  the  course  of  three  thousand  years  was  simply  the  gradual  replacement 
of  the  Upper  Egyptian  type  by  that  of  Lower  Egypt.22  (See  Appendix  I, 
cols.  7,  8.)  As  one  looks  at  the  tables  from  century  to  century,  one  sees  that 
the  crania  increased  gradually  in  breadth  from  131  to  139  mm.,  and  the 
faces  from  124  to  129  mm.  Ancient  Egypt  must  remain  the  most  outstand- 
ing example  yet  known  in  the  world  of  an  important,  naturally  isolated 
region  in  which  native  racial  types  were  permitted  to  develop  their  own  way 
for  several  thousand  years  completely  uninfluenced  by  foreign  contacts. 

Modern  Copts,  who  probably  represent  the  ancient  Egyptian  type  more 
faithfully  than  the  Moslem  population,  have  diverged  from  the  earlier 
types  only  in  a  reduction  of  the  skull  length  from  about  183  mm.  to 
177  mm.  Therefore,  evolutionary  change  in  Egypt  consisted  entirely  of  a 
slight  reduction  of  head  length,  and  in  places  of  a  lengthening  of  the  face, 
and  a  narrowing  of  the  nose;  but  the  change  has  not  been  notable. 
Changes  in  physical  type  in  any  part  of  Europe  within  the  last  five  hundred 
years  have  been  much  greater  than  in  Egypt  during  five  thousand. 

The  wealth  of  contemporary  illustrative  material  from  Egyptian  art 
sources  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  conventional  representations  and 
portraits.  The  former  show  a  definite  and  well-recognized  type;  slender- 
bodied  and  wiry,  with  narrow  hips  and  small  hands  and  feet.  The  head 
and  face  are  those  of  a  smoothly  contoured  fine  Mediterranean  form. 

The  portraits,  on  the  other  hand,  show  two  things  in  particular:  that 
there  -was  considerable  individual  variation  in  bodily  build  as  in  head  and 
face  form  within  the  dolichocephalic  and  mesocephalic  range,  and  that 
many  of  the  officials,  courtiers,  and  priests,  representing  the  upper  class 
of  Egyptian  society  but  not  the  royalty,  looked  strikingly  like  modern 
Europeans,  especially  long-headed  ones.  This  is  due  perhaps  to  the  fact 
that  the  Egyptian  nose  was  not  typically  high  rooted,  like  those  of  the 

22  Morant,  op.  at.,  1925. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS 


97 


FACIAL  TYPES  IN  DYNASTIC  EGYPTIAN  ART 


FIG.  22 


FIG.  23 


FIG.  24  FIG.  25 

Fig,  22,  portrait  head  of  a  man,  in  green  slate,  in  Agyptisches  Museum,  Berlin;  after 
anon.,  The  Art  of  Ancient  Egypt,  Phaidon  Press,  Vienna,  1936,  Plate  166.  Fig.  23,  portrait 
of  Rahotep,  Cairo  Museum,  after  Schafer,  H.,  and  Andrae,  W.,  Die  Kunst  des  alten  Orients  > 
1925,  p.  222.  Fig.  24,  plaster  mask  from  workshop  of  the  sculptor  Thutmosis,  Statlisches 
Museum,  Berlin.  Schafer  and  Andrae,  p.  339.  Fig.  25,  statue  in  possession  of  the  Earl 
of  Carnavon,  Frontispiece,  Journal  of  Egyptian  Archaeology  >  vol.  7,  1917. 


98  THE   RACES   OF   EUROPE 

Mesopotamians  as  depicted  in  their  art;  and  also,  perhaps,  because  the 
portraiture,  at  least  of  the  men,  shows  a  greater  angularity  of  line  and  form 
than  do  the  conventional  representations. 

There  may  also  have  been  some  distinction  of  type  in  the  royal  families, 
for  the  rulers  often  have  that  extremely  dolichocephalic  head  form, 
coupled  with  a  sloping  forehead  and  high  nasal  aquilinity,  with  highly 
excavated  nostrils,  seen  so  typically  in  the  familiar  mummy  of  Rameses  III, 
as  in  the  living  emperor  of  Ethiopia,  Hailie  Selassie.  This  strain  may  well 
have  been  derived  in  most  ancient  times  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Nile. 

The  pigmentation  of  the  Egyptians  was  usually  a  brunet  white;  in  the 
conventional  figures  the  men  are  represented  as  red,  the  women  often  as 
lighter,  and  even  white.  Although  the  hair  is  almost  inevitably  black  or 
dark  brown,  and  the  eyes  brown,  Queen  Hetep-Heres  II,  of  the  Fourth 
Dynasty,  the  daughter  of  Cheops,  the  builder  of  the  great  pyramid,  is 
shown  in  the  colored  bas  reliefs  of  her  tomb  to  have  been  a  definite  blond. 
Her  hair  is  painted  a  bright  yellow  stippled  with  fine  red  horizontal 
lines,23  and  her  skin  is  white.  This  is  the  earliest  known  evidence  of  blond- 
ism  in  the  world.  Later  Egyptian  reliefs,  however,  frequently  represented 
Libyans  as  blond,24  and  in  early  Egyptian  times,  the  territory  of  the 
Libyans  extended  to  the  Delta  itself.  The  Egyptian  representation  of 
foreigners  is  quite  accurate;  besides  the  Libyans,  who  have  Nordic  features 
as  well  as  coloring,  Asiatics,  with  prominent  noses  and  curly  hair,  sea 
peoples  from  the  Mediterranean,  with  lighter  skins  and  a  more  pronounced 
facial  relief  than  the  Egyptians,  are  also  shown,  as  well  as  negroes. 

The  blondism  of  Hetep-Heres  II  apparently  belonged  to  the  Delta  and 
to  the  connections  outside  to  east  or  west,  rather  than  to  Egypt  proper,  for 
it  never  recurred  as  an  important  or  characteristic  Egyptian  trait.  The 
Mediterranean  pigmentation  of  the  Egyptians  has  probably  not  greatly 
changed  during  the  last  five  thousand  years. 

(5)   NEOLITHIC  NORTH  AFRICA 

In  view  of  the  importance  of  North  Africa  as  one  of  the  two  main  cor- 
ridors of  Neolithic  diffusion  into  Europe,  it  is  extremely  disappointing  that 
in  it  very  few  human  remains  of  this  cultural  period  have  been  found.  A 
handful  of  skulls  from  Redeyef  and  Tebessa,  near  the  border  between 
Algeria  and  Tunisia,  are  the  only  surely  Neolithic  ones  that  have  been 
described.26  These  are  all  of  the  small-statured,  thin-boned,  small-headed, 
dolicho-  to  low  mesocephalic  variety  of  Mediterranean  already  seen  at 
Muge;  smaller,  on  the  whole,  than  most  of  tile  early  Egyptians,  and 

2'  Reisner,  G.  A.,  BBMF,  vol.  25,  #151,  October,  1927,  pp.  64-79. 

84  Bates,  O.,  The  Eastern  Libyans. 

25  Bertholon  and  Chantre,  Rec  her  ekes  anthropologiques  dans  la  Berberie  Oriental*,  pp.  237- 
242. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  99 

shorter-headed  than  the  small  Badarians.  They  cannot  be  derived  directly 
from  Egypt  proper,  nor  from  any  known  population  of  the  Delta,  if  the  few 
Merimdian  skeletons  already  mentioned  may  be  considered  typical  of  that 
region.  This  small  and  geographically  limited  group  is  a  local  form  of 
Mediterranean  of  the  same  variety  which,  at  a  presumably  earlier  date,  had 
crossed  the  Straits  into  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 

Other  remains,  found  in  caves  in  eastern  Algeria,26  are  likewise  small 
in  absolute  body  size,  having  a  mean  stature  of  approximately  160  cm., 
but  resemble  the  type  of  T6viec  rather  than  that  of  Muge.  They  may  be 
attenuated  Afalou  survivors,  but  cannot  with  certainty  be  ascribed  to  the 
Neolithic.  Many,  if  not  all,  may  be  Mesolithic  in  date.27 

The  megalithic  cultural  complex,  borne  through  the  Mediterranean  by 
sea  in  the  Late  Neolithic,  and  spreading  northward  past  Gibraltar  to  the 
British  Isles,  France,  and  Scandinavia,  reached  the  North  African  shores. 
But  in  this  minor  theater  of  megalithic  activities  the  stone  monuments, 
which  do  not  occur  east  of  Tunisia,  may  have  been  first  erected  in  post- 
Neolithic  times,  since  most  of  them  contain  objects  of  bronze,  or  even  of 
iron.  They  were,  in  fact,  occasionally  used  as  burial  vaults  through  Roman 
times,  and  right  up  until  the  arrival  of  the  Moslems.  Under  these  circum- 
stances we  cannot  expect  to  find  a  purely  megalithic  race  in  the  Tunisian 
and  Algerian  dolmens  M  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  material  lives  up  to 
expectations.  Although  the  cranial  indices,  in  some  thirty  specimens, 
ranges  from  67  to  84,  the  majority  of  the  skulls  are  dolichocephalic,  and 
some  of  them  are  extremely  long,  while  most  of  them  are  leptorrhine, 
unlike  the  broader-nosed  ordinary  Mediterranean  crania  of  the  Neolithic. 
Furthermore,  the  stature  of  the  dolmen  people  is  tall,  with  a  male  mean  of 
about  168  cm.29  Unless  these  are  the  skeletons  of  Hamites  or  Arabs,  we 
may  infer  that  the  megalith  builders  were  not  the  small  Mediterraneans 
proper  of  Mesolithic  tradition,  but  a  new  ethnic  element  which  we  shall 
be  able  to  study  more  profitably  when  we  find  it  in  greater  numbers  farther 
to  the  north. 

(6)   THE   NEOLITHIC   IN   SPAIN   AND   PORTUGAL 

It  is  not  easy,  from  a  distance,  to  collect  and  review  the  evidence  for  the 
Neolithic  population  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  I  have  been  able  to  assem- 
ble data  on  some  fifty  crania  from  Spain,  and  nine  from  Portugal,  which 
seem,  with  reasonable  certainty,  to  be  of  Neolithic  age.80 

26  Ibid.,  pp.  240-242. 

27  Boule,  M.,  Verneau,  R.,  Vallois,  H.,  AIPH,  Mem.  13,  p.  190. 

28  There  are  very  few  in  Morocco,  and  nothing  is  known  of  their  skeletal  contents. 

29  Bertholon  and  Chantre,  op.  cit.t  pp.  243-249. 

80  Scheldt,  W.,  in  his  Die  Rassen  der  jungeren  Stein&U  in  N.  W.  Europa,  pp.  87-92,  ac- 
cepted but  38,  besides  the  68  early  Bronze  Age  crania  from  el  Argar.  Gzortkower,  S., 
the  author  of  another  compilation  (PAn,  vol.  8,  1934,  pp.  45-52),  used  118  from  Spain, 


100  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  Portuguese  specimens,  all  from  the  Tagus  Valley,  can  all  be  classi- 
fied as  Mediterranean.  They  include,  however,  not  only  the  small  Muge 
type,  but  others  with  larger  skulls  and  taller  stature,  as  high  as  168  cm. 
in  the  case  of  one  male.31 

The  Spanish  material  is  best  represented  by  two  series,  the  first  from  the 
cave  of  La  Solana  at  Angostura,  Segovia  82  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  9),  and 
the  second  from  the  cave  of  Ticuso  at  Sepulveda,  in  the  same  province.33 
Both  of  these  series  were  originally  called  Magdalenian,  but  the  presence 
of  pottery  and  polished  celts  in  the  Solana  cave,  and  of  trephination  at 
Ticuso,  leave  little  doubt  that  both  are  really  Neolithic. 

The  Solana  series,  which  includes  ten  males  and  four  females,  repre- 
sents a  relatively  large  Mediterranean  type,  which  may  be  nearly  duplicated 
in  the  Egyptian  series  from  the  royal  tombs  at  Abydos  34  arid  would  also  fit 
metrically  into  a  Mesopotamian  Eurafrican  type  group.  Morphologically, 
the  crania  are  relatively  heavy,  with  moderately  large  supraorbitals. 

The  second  series,  that  of  Ticuso  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  10),  includes 
fourteen  male  and  seven  female  crania.  These  are  somewhat  smaller  and 
more  delicately  formed  than  the  Solana  series,  and  resemble  metrically  the 
Naqada  predynastic  skulls  from  Upper  Egypt.  Smaller  series  and  single 
skulls  from  other  parts  of  Spain  usually  fall  into  this  same  category. 

The  human  remains  which  represent  the  Neolithic  period  in  Por- 
tugal and  Spain,  therefore,  incomplete  as  they  are,  corroborate  the 
evidence  of  archaeology.  The  Iberian  Peninsula  was  a  corridor  of 
movements  into  western  Europe  from  North  Africa,  and  two  types,  at 
least,  made  use  of  this  passageway — a  small  variety  of  Mediterra- 
nean, somewhat  larger  than  the  Mesolithic  people  of  Muge,  but  bas- 
ically the  same,  and  identical  with  the  people  who  moved  into  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Nile  in  predynastic  times;  and  a  somewhat  larger,  heavier 
sub-division  of  the  same  race,  similar  to  Neolithic  man  in  western 
Asia,  and  perhaps  to  the  early  farmers  of  the  Egyptian  Delta.  To 
what  extent  these  two  types  included  local  Mesolithic  survivors  it  is  im- 
possible to  tell. 

which  probably  include  el  Argar.  When  these  are  subtracted  his  list  attains  exactly  the 
same  size  as  mine. 

81  Barros  e  Cunha,  J.-G.  D.,  ACIA,  3me  Session,  Amsterdam,  1927,  pp.  358-360. 

Herve",  G.,  REAP,  vol.  9,  1899,  pp.  265-280. 

Mendes-Correa,  A.,  BAC,  vol.  3,  1925,  pp.  117-146. 

Herv6  states  (p.  274)  that  the  series  includes  a  few  brachycephals,  but  the  published 
data  do  not  support  this. 

»  Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  AMSE,  vol.  12,  1933,  Cuad.  1,  pp.  90-123;  Verneau, 
RDAP,  1886,  ser.  3,  vol.  1,  pp.  10-24. 

^Hoyos  Sainz,  L.,  CRCA,  14me  Sess.,  Geneva,  1912,  vol.  2,  pp.  399-408;  Barras 
de  Aragon,  ibid. 

**  Morant,  op.  cit.,  1925. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  101 

(7)   THE  EASTERN  SOURCE  AREAS:   SOUTH,   CENTRAL, 
AND  NORTH 

North  of  the  Pyrenees,  the  Neolithic  population  of  Europe  was  im- 
mediately derived  not  only  from  Africa,  but  also  from  the  east.  In  order 
to  understand  the  racial  complications  of  trans-Pyrenean  Europe  in  the 
Neolithic,  we  must  converge  from  a  different  quarter.  The  eastern  source 
areas,  and  their  possible  routes  into  Europe,  may  be  divided  into  three: 
(a)  Crete  and  the  Aegean  Islands,  thence  by  sea  to  Greece,  and  to  Italy, 
and  from  Greece,  northward  by  land  into  Macedonia,  (b)  From  Anatolia 
over  the  Bosporus  into  the  Balkans,  and  thence  up  the  Vardar  and  down 
the  Morava  into  the  Danube  above  the  Iron  Gates,  (c)  Around  the  north- 
ern shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  perhaps  of  the  Caspian  Sea  as  well,  then 
the  steppes  of  southern  Russia  into  the  plains  which  reach  through  Poland 
to  Germany,  and  into  the  Danube  Valley. 

(a)  Our  knowledge  of  the  physical  type  in  Greece  during  the  Neolithic 
is  confined  to  one  small,  narrow,  female  skull  of  Mediterranean  type,  from 
Arcadia,35  which,  as  we  shall  soon  see,  is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
racial  picture  farther  north,  although  it  is  not  very  likely  36  that  racial 
movements  passed  northward  from  this  quarter  at  that  time.  Crete,  whose 
civilization  was  rooted  in  the  Neolithic,  is  unknown  racially  until  the 
Bronze  Age. 

The  Neolithic  inhabitants  of  Italy  probably  came  from  the  east  in  large 
measure  by  sea,  although  some  may  have  entered  from  other  directions,  as 
from  North  Africa  by  way  of  Malta  and  Sicily,  around  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea  from  Catalonia,  and  down  over  the  Alps  from  the  north. 

It  is  also  very  likely  that  Mesolithic  types,  containing  an  earlier  Palaeo- 
lithic increment,  survived  in  Italy  into  the  Neolithic,  for,  until  the  arrival 
Df  metal,  Italy  and  its  islands  formed  an  area  of  relative  isolation  from  the 
main  racial  and  cultural  currents  which  affected  Europe  as  a  whole. 

Although  Aeneolithic  or  Copper  Age  skeletons  from  Italy  are  abundant, 
those  dating  from  Neolithic  time  are  rare.37  All  that  have  been  found  38 
(51)  are  long-headed,  and  of  Mediterranean  type.  Three  skulls  from  the 
Ligurian  cave  of  Arena  Candide  which  are  very  large  and  of  great  length, 
may  represent,  at  least  in  part,  an  Upper  Palaeolithic  survival  of  Early 
Aurignacian  type,  or  an  invasion  of  the  tall  Mediterranean  type  usually 
identified  with  the  megalith-builders.  It  will  be  more  profitable,  however, 
to  defer  the  study  of  racial  types  in  early  Italy  and  her  islands  until  our 
discussion  of  the  Copper  and  Bronze  Age  population,  when  we  shall  have 
something  more  definite  and  extensive  with  which  to  work. 

86  Fiirst,  Carl  M.,  LUA,  NF.  Avd  2,  Bd.  28,  #13,  1932. 

MFewkes,  V.  J.,  Goldman,  H.,  Ehrich,  R.  W.,  BASF,  #9,  1933,  p.  18. 

87  Sergi,  G.,  Europa,  pp.  270-289. 

88  With  the  exception  of  one  microcephalic  skull,  op.  cit.,  p.  279. 


102  THE   RACES  OF   EUROPE 

(b)  The  second  eastern  source  area  from  which  Neolithic  invaders 
may  have  entered  Europe  is  that  of  the  Anatolian  plateau — to  what  ex- 
tent the  Danubian  peasants  were  derived  from  these  highlands  is  a  matter 
of  dispute  among  archaeologists  which  we  shall  do  well  not  to  enter.   At 
any  rate,  no  Neolithic  skeletal  remains  have  yet  been  found  there,  and  the 
metal  period  sites  which  have  been  studied  are  later  than  those  in  Mesopo- 
tamia.  Farther  east,  at  a  site  called  Zizernakaberd  in  Armenia,  the  brain 
case  of  a  tall  man  (172  cm.)  with  apparently  Upper  Palaeolithic  affinities, 
resembling  Murzak  Koba,  may  have  been  buried  in  the  earliest  Neo- 
lithic time.89  This  one  specimen  from  Armenia  is  small  evidence,  and  we 
still  do  not  know  what  kind  of  people  lived  in  Anatolia  at  the  time  when 
the  first  farmers  pioneered  up  the  valley  of  the  Danube. 

(c)  The  third  eastern  source  area,  and  perhaps  the  most  important  of 
the  three  in  the  total  peopling  of  Europe  in  the  Neolithic  and  later,  is  the 
grassy  plain  extending  from  Poland  across  Ukraine  and  Bessarabia,  north 
of  the  Black  Sea  and  Caucasus,  across  to  the  Caspian,  and  beyond  into 
Turkestan.  Here  the  evidence  of  Neolithic  man  is  considerably  better  than 
in  the  other  two. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Caspian,  near  the  modern  border  between 
Russian  territory  and  Iran,  are  the  three  famous  Kurgans,  or  mounds,  of 
Anau.  The  earliest  cultural  horizon  found  in  this  site,  Anau  I  of  the  north 
mound,  probably  dates  from  3500  to  3000  B.C.,  on  a  conservative  estimate. 
This  level,  which  is  largely  but  not  purely  Neolithic,  contained  a  number 
of  human  skeletons,40  most  of  which  were  those  of  children. 

All  of  the  children  were  dolichocephalic,  and  apparently  of  Mediter- 
ranean type.  One  adult  female,  found  with  them,  was  the  same.  She  was 
mesocephalic,  with  a  cranial  index  of  76,  and  her  skull  shows  a  minimum 
of  bony  relief.  The  forehead  projects  forward,  the  glabella  is  almost  absent, 
the  nasal  root  high,  and  the  nasal  profile  apparently  straight;  the  orbits 
are  mesoconch,  and  the  facial  bones  delicate. 

Another  adult,  in  this  case  a  male,  is  represented  by  a  mandible  and 
certain  facial  bones  below  nasion.  Again  a  Mediterranean  type  is  indi- 
cated, orthognathous,  with  a  strong  lower  jaw,  and  a  small  nose  which  was 
moderately  leptorrhine.  This  specimen,  the  female,  and  the  children,  al- 
though hardly  a  series,  are  sufficient  to  show  us  that  this  southwestern 
corner  of  Turkestan  was  inhabited  by  agricultural,  animal-breeding, 

»  Vishnevsky,  B.  N.,  MAGW,  vol.  64,  1934,  pp.  102-111. 

40  Moliison,  T.,  "Some  Human  Rernains  Found  in  the  North  Kurgan,  Anau,"  in 
Pumpelly,  R.,  Explorations  in  Turkestan,  vol.  2,  pp.  449-463. 

Sergi,  G.,  "Description  of  Some  Skulls  from  the  North  Kurgan,  Anau,"  ibid.,  pp.  445- 
448;  ASRA,  #13,  1917,  pp.  305-321. 

Warner,  Langdon,  "Report  on  Skeletons  Excavated  at  Anau,"  in  Pumpelly,  R., 
op.  cit.,  p.  484. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  103 

pottery-making  people  of  general  Mediterranean  type  in  the  second  half  of 
the  fourth  millennium  B.C.,  as  early  as  the  predynastic  period  in  Mesopo- 
tamia. 

Long  bones  from  the  following  level  in  the  North  Kurgan  show  varia- 
tions in  stature — with  two  males  at  170  and  161  cm.,  respectively,  and  a 
female  at  149  cm. 

A  post-Neolithic  skull  from  the  South  Kurgan,  probably  of  the  third 
millennium,  is,  like  the  others,  dolichocephalic.  It  has  a  low,  sharply 
curved  forehead,  no  browridges,  small  zygomatic  arches,  and  apparently 
considerable  prognathism;  41  but  an  exact  racial  diagnosis  of  it  cannot  be 
made. 

Returning  to  the  Neolithic  material,  we  may  be  sure  that  it  all  belongs 
to  some  branch  of  the  Mediterranean  race,  but,  with  the  present  evidence, 
which  does  not  contain  a  single  complete  adult  male  specimen,  we  cannot 
hope  to  distinguish  the  skeletal  sub-variety. 

In  the  grasslands  of  European  Russia,  south  of  the  forest  belt,  a  racial 
continuity  with  Anau  extends  westward  into  the  Ukraine.  One  of  the 
earliest  sites  which  show  this  connection  is  located  at  Mariupol  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Kalmins  River  on  the  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Azov.42  Here,  an 
unstated  number  of  skeletons,  lying  in  rows  and  covered  with  red  ochre, 
was  found  in  association  with  apparently  Early  Neolithic  implements,  and 
a  quantity  of  bone,  shell,  and  tusk  objects.  Although  the  typology  of  the 
artefacts  is  early,  we  do  not  know  the  date,  but  the  absence  of  pottery 
would  presumably  argue  against  a  late  assignment. 

No  measurements  of  these  skeletons  have  been  published,  but  the  de- 
scription is  sufficient  to  show  that  a  Mediterranean  type,  perhaps  similar 
to  that  found  at  Anau,  is  probably  involved.  The  stature  was  "slightly 
above  the  medium  height  of  today,"  43  which  would  place  it  in  the  upper 
160's;  the  bones  of  the  extremities  are  elongated,  the  hands  narrow  and 
long.  The  skulls  are  small,  and  in  all  cases  dolicho-  or  mesocephalic. 

Neolithic  crania  from  southwestern  Russia  and  the  adjacent  segment 
of  Poland  are  not  numerous,  but  are  clearly  differentiated  racially.44  They 
belong  to  two  types;  a  high-vaulted,  moderately  broad-nosed  dolicho-  to 
mesocephal,  associated  with  short  stature,  160  cm.  or  less,  in  the  males. 
This  type,  which  carries  the  Anau  form  to  the  west,  is  the  most  numerous, 

41  From  a  poorly  oriented  photograph  given  Sergi  by  Pumpelly  and  published  by  the 
former,  without  measurements.    Sergi,  G.,  ASRA,  vol.  13,  1907,  pp.  305-321. 

42  Makarenko,  N.,  ESA,  vol.  9,  1934,  pp.  135-153. 
«/*«/.,  p.  140. 

44  Bogdanov,  A.  P.,  AAM,  vol.  3,  1879,  part  1,  p.  305. 

Gzarnowski,  S.  J.,  Swiatowit,  vol.  3,  1901,  pp.  75-84. 

Levit'kyj,  I.,  AntrM,  vol.  2,  1928,  pp.  192-222;  ZVAK,  vol.  1,  1930,  pp.  159-178. 

Sailer,  K.,  AAnz,  vol.  2,  1925,  pp.  26-46. 

Zabrowski,  S,,  BMSA,  ser.  5,  vol.  2,  1901,  pp.  640-666. 


104  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  is  centered  in  the  Volhyn  district  of  the  Ukraine.  With  it,  in  the  Late 
Neolithic  Fatjanovo  culture,  are  associated  a  few  brachycephals  which, 
except  for  head  form,  differ  little  from  the  rest.  This  "Danubian"  type  is 
not  basically  different  from  some  of  the  Lower  Egyptian  and  Delta  groups. 

The  second  type,  commonest  in  Late  Neolithic  cemeteries  of  the  Kiev 
government,  is  of  the  tall  (stature  =  171-1 72  cm.),  hyperdolichocephalic 
variety,  usually  leptorrhine  and  high-vaulted,  which  we  have  called 
" Corded."  Crania  of  this  variety  are  actually  few  in  number,  and  prob- 
ably Late  Neolithic  in  date.  Metrically,  they  resemble  the  earliest  Sume- 
rian  skulls  at  el  Ubaid. 

Sergi,  on  a  visit  to  Moscow  some  thirty  years  ago,  measured  over 
seventy  male  " Kurgan"  crania  from  southern  Russia,  dating  from  all 
periods  from  the  Neolithic  to  the  pre-Christian  Iron  Age.  These,  selected 
as  "Mediterraneans,"  45  conform  to  the  two  types  mentioned  above.  The 
main  group,  the  smaller  variety,  fits  our  "Danubian"  type,  the  larger, 
the  "Corded."  In  general,  the  metrical  deviation  of  the  total  group  from 
Mesopotamian  figures  is  not  great. 

The  result  of  this  south  Russian  inquiry  leads  to  several  cumulative  if 
tentative  conclusions: 

(1)  During  the  Neolithic,  all  known  avenues  of  approach  to  Europe, 
from  Gibraltar  to  the  southern  limit  of  the  Russian  forest,  show  only 
variants  of  Mediterranean  or  Galley  Hill  man.     The  Neolithic  culture 
with  its  food-producing  economy,  and  the  Mediterranean  race,  are,  as 
Sergi  said,  inseparably  linked. 

(2)  The  special  "Mediterranean"  form,  which  had  apparently  brought 
agriculture  to  the  countries  north  of  the  Iranian  plateau  and  Black  Sea, 
was  not  unlike  others  found  in  more  southerly  regions  in  which  Old 
World  agriculture  is  supposed  to  have  originated. 

(3)  The  tall,  hyperdolichocephalic  high-vaulted  variant  of  the  basic 
Galley  Hill  stock,  elsewhere  to  appear  as  the  Corded  people,  was  present, 
at  least  by  the  Late  Neolithic,  in  southern  Russia. 

(8)  THE  DANUBIAN   CULTURE   BEARERS 

One  of  the  most  striking  events  of  the  Neolithic  period  in  Europe  was 
the  gradual  migration  of  farmers  up  the  Danube  Valley  into  central 
Europe.  These  new  settlers  stayed  fairly  close  to  the  banks  of  the  river 
and  its  tributaries,  farming  on  patches  of  loess  where  the  land  would  not 
need  to  be  cleared  by  the  axe.  Southern  Hungary,  Moravia,  Bohemia, 
and  Silesia  were  areas  which  they  found  especially  favorable,  and  in  which 
they  settled  in  greatest  numbers.  As  they  moved  to  the  west,  they  finally 

45  Sergi,  G.,  Europa,  pp.  309-316.  In  Sergi's  own  words,  Eurafrican.  This  term  has 
since  taken  on  a  narrower  meaning  in  the  hands  of  Mesopotamian  archaeologists. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  105 

reached  southern  Bavaria,  Baden,  and  the  north  of  France,  especially 
the  Paris  basin.  From  southern  Germany  onward,  they  encountered  the 
descendants  of  the  Neolithic  people  who  had  entered  by  way  of  Gibraltar. 

The  river  valleys  which  the  Danubians  occupied  must  have  been  rela- 
tively free  of  people;  Mesolithic  remains  in  the  eastern  and  middle  Danube 
Valley  are  very  scarce,  if  not  entirely  absent. 46  We  may  therefore  expect 
the  remains  of  the  Danubian  immigrants  to  exhibit,  without  particular 
alteration,  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  population  or  populations 
from  which  they  originated. 

Danubian  chronology  is  based  on  pottery  types,  particularly  on  tech- 
niques of  decoration;  the  earliest  Danubian,  Period  I,  is  typified  by  in- 
cised pottery  with  banded  decoration,  while  the  second  and  third  periods 
mark  the  common  use  of  painted  pottery.  The  agriculture  of  the  Danu- 
bians was  a  hoe-culture,  for  the  characteristic  tool  is  a  hoe  blade  of  flint, 
called  a  "shoe-last  celt."  Their  domestic  animals  included  the  ox,  sheep, 
and  pig. 

It  is  one  of  the  problems  which  face  the  archaeologist  in  the  future  to 
discover  the  point  of  origin  of  Danubian  pottery.  Incised  black  ware,  of 
the  banded  variety,  undoubtedly  came  from  somewhere  to  the  east;  from 
the  country  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  or  from  Anatolia,  whence  it  may  have 
been  influenced  by  the  same  source  which  produced  the  Merimdian  of 
the  Egyptian  Delta.  In  this  case,  the  two  movements,  the  Danubian  and 
that  which  passed  over  Gibraltar,  may  have  come  from  a  single  original 
source  in  western  Asia,  and  have  moved  into  Europe  from  two  different 
directions,  converging  in  Switzerland,  southern  Germany,  and  France. 

The  painted  pottery,  on  the  other  hand,  shows  definite  Asiatic  simi- 
larities; there  was  painted  pottery  in  Iraq  in  the  earliest  known  cultures; 
Anatolia  contains  some  varieties  of  it;  the  Iranian  plateau  is  said  to  be 
full  of  it;  there  is  painted  pottery  at  Anau  in  Turkestan;  and  painted 
pottery  penetrated  early  into  Kansu  in  China.  Despite  these  occurrences, 
we  do  not  yet  know  by  which  route  or  routes  it  entered  Europe  from  the 
east.  It  may  have  come  across  the  Bosporus,  around  the  Black  Sea,  or 
from  both  quarters.  Again,  it  may  have  travelled,  farther  east,  either 
north  or  south  of  the  Caspian. 

The  physical  evidence  at  hand  will  hardly  settle  the  problem  of  Danu- 
bian origins,  although  it  will,  in  a  fragmentary  manner,  dispel  a  number  of 
unfounded  hypotheses.  In  the  material  used  in  the  present  survey,  seven- 
teen male  crania  associated  with  banded  pottery,47  and  seven  associated 

"Fewkes,  V.  J.,  Goldman,  H.,  Ehrich,  R.  W.,  BASF,  #9,  1933,  pp.  17-32.    Also, 
personal  communication  of  Dr.  V.  J.  Fewkes. 
*7  Bayer,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  51,  1921,  pp.  46-47. 

Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  66,  1936,  pp.  14-15;  ibid.,  "Sitzungberichte,"  p.  16. 
Reche,  O.,  AFA,  vol.  35,  1908,  pp.  232-237. 


106  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

with  painted,48  are  all  that  can  without  doubt  be  attributed  to  the  Danu- 
bian  Neolithic^  These  may  be  supplemented  by  a  smaller  female  series. 

The  two  series,  Banded  and  Painted,  are  so  close  to  each  other  anthropo- 
metrically  that  they  may  readily  be  pooled  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  11).  Their 
type  is  a  familiar  one  —  a  small  Mediterranean,  with  cephalic  indices 
ranging  from  68  to  81,  and  a  mean  of  73.6.  The  mean  cranial  length  is 
185.5  mm.,  but  individually  they  go  as  high  as  196  mm.  The  vault  height, 
139  mm.  is  elevated  in  comparison  to  the  other  dimensions.  The  faces 
are  short  (116  mm.),  and  moderately  narrow  (130  mm.);  both  foreheads 
and  jaws  (minimum  frontal  96  mm.,  bigonial  94  mm.)  are  also  of  moderate 
breadth.  The  orbits  are  low,  with  an  orbital  index  mean  of  80,  the  noses 
chamaerrhine,  with  a  nasal  index  mean  of  55.  The  highest  orbitted  skull 
has  an  orbital  index  of  91,  the  most  leptorrhine  a  nasal  index  of  45. 

Although  this  Danubian  group  is  reasonably  homogeneous,  even  with 
the  small  numbers  available  it  is  seen  to  include  more  than  one  type  in 
the  strictest  sense.  For  example,  the  stature  is  low;  Reche  found  a  mean 
of  153  cm.  for  eight  Banded  male  skeletons  from  Jordansmuhl,  and  in  this 
small  series  four  mesocephalic  crania  are  associated  with  higher  statures 
than  are  the  purely  dolichocephalic  ones.  Some  of  the  skulls  with  higher 
orbits  and  longer  vaults  differ  again  from  the  majority.  On  the  whole, 
however,  the  group  is  definitely  dolicho-  to  mesocephalic,  and  definitely 
Mediterranean.  As  far  as  the  criteria  studied  may  be  invoked,  this  series 
is  very  similar  to  Sergi's  Kurgan  group  from  southern  Russia,  and  may  be 
considered  to  contain  the  same  racial  elements,  although  the  Russian  mate- 
rial as  a  whole  is  less  homogeneous. 

If  we  carry  the  comparison  further,  we  find,  again,  strong  resemblances 
in  the  Spanish  Neolithic,  and  with  all  of  the  smaller  Mediterranean 
groups.  The  Danubians  undoubtedly  represent  another  branch  of  the 
same  racial  group  which  entered  Europe  from  North  Africa  through  the 
southwestern  avenue.  Where  they  came  from  immediately  before  their 
arrival  in  Europe,  however,  it  is  impossible  at  the  moment  to  tell.  The 
Russian  evidence,  including  that  from  Mariupol  and  Anau,  leans  heavily 
in  favor  of  a  trans-Euxine  origin,  but  at  the  same  time  they  might  have 
come  from  Anatolia,  from  which  we  have  as  yet  no  Neolithic  skeletal 
evidence.  It  is  again  possible  that  related  elements  from  more  than  one 
geographical  source  made  up  the  Danubian  migrations. 

We  do  not  know  what  language  the  Danubians  spoke,  nor  what  was 


H,  A.,  ACAP,  1931,  pp.  114-115. 
Lebzelter,  V.,  WPZ,  vol.  15,  1928,  pp.  35-41. 
Nestor,  I.,  BRGK,  #119,  1933,  p.  37. 

Schiirer  von  Waldheim,  Hella,  MAGW,  vols.  48-49,  1919,  pp.  247-263. 
Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  22,  1890,  p.  97. 
Zimmerman,  G.,  AJKS,  vol.  10,  1935,  pp.  227-236. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  107 

the  coloring  of  their  skin,  hair,  and  eyes.  But  we  may  surmise  from  the 
small  evidence  which  has  been  assembled  that  the  successive  waves  repre- 
sented did  not  come  from  racially  different  parent  groups. 

Although  we  cannot,  from  this  evidence,  state  what  racial  elements 
were  lacking  in  the  Danubian  countries  during  the  Neolithic,  we  know 
that  the  culture  bearers  from  the  east  belonged  to,  or  included  mem- 
bers of,  the  wider  Mediterranean  stock,  which  seems  everywhere  to  be 
associated  with  the  earliest  food  production;  and  the  most  important  ele- 
ment seems  to  have  been  a  small,  light  boned,  rather  infantile  Mediter- 
ranean. 

(9)   THE   CORDED   OR   BATTLE-AXE   PEOPLE 

The  latter  part  of  the  Neolithic  period  in  most  of  north  central  Europe 
is  marked  by  the  appearance  of  an  enigmatical  group  of  people,  who 
decorated  their  pottery,  while  still  wet,  with  cord  impressions,  and  who 
also  placed  in  their  graves  perforated  stone  battle-axes  suspiciously  like 
those  of  the  Fatjenovo  culture  in  southern  Russia,  and  others  in  the  Cau- 
casus. These  axes,  again,  have  copper  parallels  in  Sumeria.  The  limits 
of  the  country  overrun  by  the  Corded  people  are  the  Vosges  on  the  west, 
the  Urals  on  the  east,  the  Baltic  on  the  north,  and  the  Dinaric  Alps  on  the 
south.49  Although  these  invaders  were  partly  agricultural,  their  graves 
contain  weapons  rather  than  hoes,  and,  in  a  few  cases,  bones  of  horses, 
probably  of  a  domestic  variety. 

Their  r61e  in  the  economic  and  political  picture  of  Neolithic  Europe 
remains  still  in  doubt.  Although  they  were  equipped  for  warfare,  they 
did  not  fight  for  the  love  of  battle  alone.  The  location  of  their  burying 
grounds  near  the  sources  of  natural  wealth,  such  as  amber,  salt,  and  later 
of  tin,  shows  that  they  were  interested  in  easily  traded  commodities  of 
small  bulk  but  high  value.  They  may  have  been  Neolithic  racketeers 
extorting  their  share  from  the  drones,  or  overlords  among  peasants,  or 
merely  industrious  and  well-armed  peddjers.  Whatever  their  calling, 
whether  peaceful  or  otherwise,  they  were  destined  to  influence  the  later 
cultures  of  Europe  in  considerable  degree. 

The  most  typical  aggregation  of  Corded  skulls  comes  from  Silesia  and 
Bohemia,  whence  a  series  of  twenty-nine  males  may  be  assembled.50  (See 
Appendix  I,  col.  12.)  These  belong  to  a  very  definite,  very  distinct  physical 
type.  The  length  of  the  vault  is  great,  well  over  190  mm.  in  most  instances; 
its  breadth  is  slight,  yielding  the  low  mean  cranial  index  of  71;  and  the 
height  is  great,  considerably  exceeding  the  breadth.  Combined  with  this 

49  Childe,  V.  G.,  The  Danube  in  Prehistory,  pp,  145-160. 
60  Rechc,  O.,  AFA,  vol.  35,  1908,  pp.  232-237. 
Stock^,  A.,  AnthPr,  vol.  7,  1929,  pp.  65-78. 


108  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

exaggeratedly  long,  narrow,  and  high  vault  form  is  usually  found  a  high, 
relatively  steep  forehead;  stronger  browridges  and  muscular  markings  than 
are  usual  with  the  Mediterranean  types  familiar  to  us  in  Egypt,  Spain,  and 
the  Danube;  while  the  face  form  includes  compressed  zygomata,  low  or- 
bits, and  a  leptorrhine  nose.  The  face  heights  are  probably  great,  and  the 
mandible  is  deep  and  strongly  marked,  although  usually  narrow.  Unfor- 
tunately, in  this  series,  these  facial  descriptions  are  much  less  certain  than 
those  of  the  vault,  for  few  of  the  crania  retain  their  facial  segments.  The 
long  bones  are  heavier  and  more  rugged  than  those  of  the  smaller  Mediter- 
ranean varieties,  but  the  stature,  ranging  between  157  and  170  cm.  in 
ten  male  examples,  reaches  the  unimpressive  mean  of  164  cm.  In  other 
Corded  series,  as  we  shall  see  later,  it  is  almost  always  tall. 

The  Corded  crania  are  larger  than  any  from  Egypt,  and  are  metrically 
very  similar  to  the  Elmenteita  skulls  from  East  Africa— the  two  groups 
could  be  combined  without  loss  of  homogeneity.  In  Mesopotamia,  they 
may  be  favorably  compared  with  the  three  early  dynastic  skulls  from  Ur, 
although  they  are  higher  vaulted  than  the  other  early  groups. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  over  the  origin  of  the  Corded  people, 
and  many  cradle-areas  have  been  proposed.  Childe,  despite  several  ob- 
jections which  he  himself  raises,  prefers  to  derive  them  from  southern 
Russia,  where  the  typical  cultural  elements  of  the  Corded  people  are 
found  mixed  with  other  factors.  The  so-called  boat-axe,  the  typical 
battle-axe  form  which  they  used,  has  relatives  all  the  way  to  the  Caucasus 
and  beyond.  And  the  horse,  their  use  of  which  in  the  domestic  form  is 
not  fully  confirmed,  since  the  grave  examples  might  conceivably  have 
been  wild  ones,  was  first  tamed  in  Asia  or  in  southern  Russia. 

On  the  basis  of  the  physical  evidence  as  well,  it  is  likely  that  the  Corded 
people  came  from  somewhere  north  or  east  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  fully 
Neolithic  crania  from  southern  Russia  which  we  have  just  studied  include 
such  a  type,  also  seen  in  the  midst  of  Sergi's  Kurgan  aggregation.  Until 
better  evidence  is  produced  from  elsewhere,  we  are  entitled  to  consider 
southern  Russia  the  most  likely  way  station  from  which  the  Corded  people 
moved  westward. 

There  is  one  cautionary  remark  which  must  be  made  here,  and  that  is: 
there  is  so  far  no  justifiable  reason  for  assuming  that  the  Corded  people  were 
Nordics.  Their  cranial  type,  as  we  know  it,  does  approach  one  or  more  of 
the  forms  which  we  know,  in  later  times,  to  have  been  associated  with 
blondism;  but  it  also  approaches  those  of  the  Iranian  plateau  and  of  Ur, 
which  were  probably  brunet.  Let  us  withhold  judgment,  therefore,  upon 
Corded  soft  parts  and  pigmentation,  and  view  these  remains  in  the  more 
scientific  but  less  lively  light  of  a  skeletal  type. 

This  Corded  skeletal  type  is  familiar  also  in  Poland,  where  it  is  found 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  109 

in  the  graves  of  its  associated  culture;  but  that  country  also  contains  the 
more  usual  Danubian  type,  associated  with  a  Neolithic  agricultural 
economy,  and  a  certain  number  of  brachycephalic  and  other  crania, 
which  have  northern  affiliations,  and  which  will  therefore  be  dealt  with 
later.51 

In  southern  and  western  Germany  remains  of  the  Corded  people  are 
again  found,  and  in  comparative  abundance.  In  Saxony  and  Thuringia 
they  flourished  especially,  and  apparently  were  more  stable  here  than 
farther  east.  Out  of  ten  crania  which  belong  to  the  Saxo-Thuringian 
Corded  culture,62  four  of  the  seven  which  can  be  measured  are  meso- 
cephalic,  and  only  three  dolichocephalic.  In  the  eastern  Corded  group, 
the  highest  index  was  75.  The  three  dolichocephals  seem  to  have  be- 
longed to  the  usual  type. 

The  statures  of  two  of  them  were  both  1 68  cm.  The  rest  of  the  crania, 
as  far  as  one  can  tell,  are  normal  Neolithic  Mediterranean  examples, 
which  might  have  had  either  a  Danubian  or  a  North  African  derivation, 
or  both.  The  Corded  people  in  the  west  and  south  of  Germany  had 
settled  down,  and  had  combined  with  Neolithic  farmers. 

Before  we  leave  this  section,  let  us  move  still  farther  west  to  Baden,  to 
the  Early  Neolithic  cemetery  of  Altenburg.53  Here,  in  the  center  of  one  of 
the  most  brachycephalic  regions  of  Europe  today,  were  buried  four  male 
skeletons,  the  crania  of  which  ranged  from  65  to  71  in  cranial  indices,  and 
two  female  skulls  of  77.  The  long  bones  are  small,  the  statures  short;  the 
skulls  are  delicate  in  appearance  and  purely  Mediterranean — but  remark- 
able for  the  narrow  vault  form  of  the  males.  Six  other  Neolithic  male 
crania,  from  Worms,  are  similar.54  This  evidence,  while  not  complete, 
at  least  shows  that  the  Corded  people,  in  southern  and  southwestern  Ger- 
many, were  preceded  by  an  agricultural  population  of  the  smaller  Medi- 
terranean variety,  upon  which  they  superimposed  themselves. 

(10)   THE   NEOLITHIC   IN  THE   BRITISH   ISLES 

The  next  move  in  this  geographical  game  is  back  to  the  extreme  west 
again,  and  to  Britain.  The  Early  Neolithic  culture  of  the  British  Isles  was 
a  peripheral  echo  of  the  movements  which  influenced  the  rest  of  western 

51  Lcncewicz,  Stanislaw,  Swiatowit,  vol.  10,  1912,  pp.  53-64. 

Rosinski,  B.,  WArc,  vol.  9,  1924-25,  pp.  29-50;  ACIA,  2me  Session,  Prague,  1929, 
pp.  164-174. 

Westlawawa,  Eleanora,  PAn,  vol.  9, 1935,  pp.  80-84,  French  r6sum6,  pp.  142-143. 

62  Gotze,  W.,  JVST,  vol.  24,  1936,  pp.  91-100. 

Heberer,  G.,  JVST,  vol.  24,  1936,  pp.  82-90. 

Strauch,  K.,  MannusZ.,  vol.  7,  1915,  pp.  249-262. 

68  Miihlmann,  Wm.  E.,  ZFMA,  vol.  28,  1930,  pp.  244-255. 

"  Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  29,  1897,  p.  464. 


110  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Europe.  The  so-called  Windmill  Hill  culture,  closely  allied  to  the  Michels- 
burg  expression  ill  southern  Germany,  may  have  been  originally  of  either 
North  African  or  Danubian  inspiration,  or  a  blend  of  both.  Childe,  seeing 
Merimdian  similarities  in  the  pottery,  suggests  but  does  not  insist  on  the 
former.  At  any  rate,  we  have  no  valid  evidence  in  Britain  itself  to  indicate 
the  physical  type  of  the  people  who  brought  it.55 

The  bulk  of  the  Neolithic  population  of  the  British  Isles  seems  to  have 
come  by  sea,66  with  the  Megalithic  invasions  which  also  passed  on  to 
Denmark  and  southern  Sweden.  In  many  parts  of  Scotland  and  in  Ire- 
land, the  Megalithic  people  may  well  have  been  the  first  bringers  of  the 
Neolithic  economy.  In  England,  it  was  their  custom  to  make  primary 
interments  under  long  barrows  of  earth,  unchambered  in  Yorkshire  and 
Derbyshire,  chambered  in  the  counties  farther  south. 

The  cranial  remains  of  Long  Barrow  men,  as  the  occupants  of  these 
monuments  are  called,  are  abundant.67  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  13.)  Al- 
though over  160  skulls  represent  this  group,  the  geographical  distribution 
is  far  from  even.  Wiltshire,  Staffordshire,  and  Gloucestershire  account  for 
120;  fourteen  only  are  from  Scotland,  and  one  from  Ireland.  The  remain- 
ing thirty  come  from  a  few  counties  of  England.  Wales  is  unrepresented  as 
is  most  of  Scotland;  the  few  crania  found  in  the  latter  country  were  all 
buried  close  to  the  sea.  The  Long  Barrow  people,  who  had  come  by  water, 
selected  open,  unforested  country  to  live  in.  A  large  .part  of  the  land  area 
in  the  British  Isles  was,  therefore,  either  uninhabited  or  open  to  the  wan- 
derings of  earlier  human  occupants. 

The  Long  Barrow  population  formed  a  distinct,  homogeneous  type; 
one  different  from  any  which,  to  our  knowledge,  had  previously  inhab- 
ited the  British  Isles  since  the  days  of  Galley  Hill;  and  one  which  cannot 
be  duplicated,  except  as  an  element  in  a  mixed  population,  anywhere  on 
the  western  European  continent.  One  is,  therefore,  led  to  conclude  that 
the  Megalithic  cult  was  not  merely  a  complex  of  burial  rites  which  dif- 

56  The  so-called  river-bed  skulls,  dredged  from  the  bottom  of  the  Thames,  are  those 
of  low-vaulted  Mediterraneans.  These  may  include  some  examples  from  the  Early  Neo- 
lithic, but  the  evidence  is  inconclusive.  (Garson,  J.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  20,  1890,  pp.  20-25.) 
Three  skulls  from  stone  cists  at  La  Motte,  Jersey  are  similar.  (Marett,  R.  R.,  Archae- 
ologia,  vol.  63,  1911-12,  pp.  203-230.  Keith,  Sir  A.,  Antiquity  of  Man,  vol.  1,  pp. 
52-65.) 

66  Childe,  who  read  Chapters  II  to  VII  in  manuscript  before  revision,  comments  at 
this  point:  "I  find  it  hard  to  believe  that  the  bulk  of  the  British  population  came  by  sea. 
The  Windmill  Hill  culture  is  predominant  in  the  megalithic  tombs,  but  arose  earlier." 
While  Childe  is  undoubtedly  correct  as  to  the  importance  of  the  Windmill  Hill  people 
culturally,  there  is  little  evidence  of  them  in  a  physical  sensf »  This  apparent  contradic- 
tion cannot  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  present  data.    The  fact  that  small  Mediter- 
raneans do  appear  in  the  living  British  population  (see  Chapter  X)  indicates  that 
Childe's  observation  may  be  well  founded. 

67  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  56-98. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  111 

fused  without  visible  carriers;  and  also  that  the  bearers  of  this  complex 
avoided  mixture  by  coming  by  sea. 

In  stature  and  bodily  build,  the  Megalithic  people  belong  to  a  large 
variety  of  Mediterranean.  The  stature  for  a  large  number  of  males  58 
from  England  ranges  about  a  mean  of  167  or  168  cm.;  which  is  not  con- 
traverted  by  the  meager  evidence  from  Scotland  and  Ireland.  Four  male 
skeletons  from  a  single  burial  in  Kent 69  may  represent,  more  nearly  than 
most,  the  Windmill  Hill  group;  they  are  somewhat  shorter  than  the  rest. 

The  Long  Barrow  skulls  are  large  for  a  Mediterranean  sub-race,  but 
not  as  large  as  those  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  peoples.  They  are  par- 
ticularly long,  moderately  narrow,  and  of  medium  height.  Unlike  that  of 
the  Corded  skulls,  the  height  is  less  than  the  breadth.  In  most  instances, 
the  occiput  projects  far  to  the  rear;  the  parietals  are  parallel;  the  forehead 
is  moderately  sloping,  and,  in  contrast  to  the  restricted  skull  width,  very 
straight  and  broad. 

The  face  is  of  medium  length  and  of  moderate  width;  the  orbits  are  of 
medium  dimensions,  and  in  many  instances  slope  downward  an4  outward, 
as  if  the  confines  of  the  face  were  too  narrow  for  them.  The  nasion  depres- 
sion is  of  medium  depth,  under  browridges  of  medium  development;  and 
the  straight-profiled  nose  is  leptorrhine.  In  its  totality,  the  I^ong  Barrow 
type  is  both  extreme  and  striking. 

In  looking  for  related  populations  of  equal  age,  we  may  eliminate  at 
once  the  smaller,  less  dolichocephalic  branches  of  the  Mediterranean  race 
proper,  including  the  Danubian.  A  few  individual  crania  in  Neolithic 
Spain  and  Italy  would  qualify,  but  none  of  the  series  from  these  coun- 
tries. The  standard  Egyptian  crania,  as  groups,  are  all  too  small,  as  is 
the  single  lady  from  Greece.  In  one  particular  feature,  the  nasal  index,  the 
Long  Barrow  people  resemble  the  Egyptians  more  than  most  of  the  more 
northerly  Mediterraneans,  for  the  Long  Barrow  crania  are  leptorrhine. 

In  their  extreme  dolichocephaly,  the  Long  Barrow  skulls  resemble  the 
Corded  group,  but  the  comparison  does  not  hold  for  all  features — the 
Long  Barrow  skulls  are  slightly  longer',  considerably  broader,  and  much 
wider  of  forehead,  than  the  Corded  specimens,  and,  of  course,  the  vault 
of  the  Long  Barrow  skulls  is  much  lower.60  As  far  as  one  can  tell,  the 

88  Calculated  by  the  Pearson  formulae  on  femora  from  several  series,  including  some 
eighty-six  individuals  from  England,  of  which  many  may  be  duplicates;  three  from 
Scotland,  and  one  from  Ireland.  Sources:  Crania,  Britamuca;  Thurman,  J.;  Garson, 
J.  G.;  Mortimer,  J.  R.;  Keith  and  Bennett;  Edwards,  A.  J.  H.,  and  Low,  A.;  Laing,  S., 
and  Huxley,  T.  H.;  and  Bryce. 

69  Keith,  Sir  A.,  and  Bennett,  JRAI,  vol.  43,  1910,  pp.  86-100. 

60  In  this  I  am  relying  on  Morant's  mean  of  135.5  tnm.  for  25  male  crania.  Schuster 
(1905)  gives  137.8  mm.  for  12;  Garrison,  135.0  mm.  for  four  from  Howe  Hill  Barrow, 
Yorkshire.  On  the  other  hand,  45  male  crania  of  Thurman  (1867)  when  seriated 
«  143  mm.,  59  from  the  Crania  Britannica  and  Thurman  =  142.1  mm. 


112  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

orbits  in  the  two  series  are  much  the  same,  while  in  regard  to  the  faces, 
there  is  not  enough  evidence  in  the  Corded  group  for  a  valid  comparison. 

A  true  and  valid  similarity,  however,  may  be  found  between  the  Eng- 
lish Long  Barrow  series  and  the  early  skulls  from  al  'Ubaid  in  Sumeria, 
which,  whether  belonging  to  the  fourth  or  third  millennium  B.C.,  are  in 
either  case  older  than  their  British  counterparts.  The  only  difference, 
which  prevents  identity,  is  that  the  Mesopotamian  faces  and  noses  are 
somewhat  longer. 

The  current  idea  that  the  Long  Barrow  people  were  directly  derived 
from  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  inhabitants  of  Britain  is  clearly  erroneous. 
The  Long  Barrow  skulls  are  definitely  smaller,  shorter,  and  narrower  than 
those  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  group,  but  of  equal  or  greater  height; 
they  have  the  same  forehead  breadth,  the  same  upper  face  height,  but  a 
smaller  jaw,  a  much  narrower  face,  and  narrower  orbits.  There  is  prob- 
ably a  genetic  linkage,  over  a  long  period  of  time,  between  the  Long  Bar- 
row or  Megalithic  type  and  an  early  Galley  Hill  or  Combe  Capelle  vari- 
ety of  European  man,  but  the  continuity  could  not,  for  historical  reasons, 
have  taken  place  in  England. 

The  few  crania  from  the  Scottish  seashores  belong  to  the  standard  Long 
Barrow  type,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  one  surely  Neolithic  spec- 
imen from  Ireland — the  male  vault  from  Stoneyisland,  Portumna,  County 
Galway.61  The  male  skull  from  Ringabella,  County  Cork,62  which  is 
perhaps  also  Neolithic,  is  likewise  of  Megalithic  race,  while  the  disputed 
Kilgreany  specimen,  whatever  its  age,  is,  although  low  vaulted,  also  basi- 
cally of  a  Galley  Hill  Mediterranean  type.63  However,  the  large  mandible 
of  the  latter,  and  its  low  vault,  make  it  atypical,  so  that  it,  like  two  skulls 
from  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin,64  which  may  be  Neolithic  or  Early  Bronze 
Age,  is  not  wholly  characteristic  of  the  Long  Barrow  race,  and  may  derive 
its  peculiarities  from  either  a  Mesolithic  or  an  Early  Bronze  Age  source. 
We  must  repeat,  in  view  of  these  aberrances,  that  the  only  surely  Neolithic 
skull  in  Ireland  is  of  Long  Barrow  race. 

The  Megalithic  Long  Barrow  people  must  have  come  by  sea,  and  they 
probably  came  from  somewhere  in  the  Mediterranean.  They  did  not 

61  Martin,  G.  P.,  JSAI,  vol.  64,  June,  1934,  pp.  87-89. 

Movius,  H.  L.,  Jr.,  op.  cit.9  vol.  65,  Dec.,  1935,  p.  282.  For  dating  by  palaeobotany, 
see  Shea,  S.,  JGAS,  vol.  15,  1931,  pp.  73  ff. 

White,  Miss  J.  M.,  INF,  vol.  3,  1934,  pp.  270-274. 

62  Martin,  G.  P.,  in  6  Riordain,  S.  P.,  JSAI,  vol.  64,  June,  1934,  pp.  86-87. 
68  Fawcett,  E.,  PBSS  for  1928,  vol.  3,  #3,  pp.  126-133. 

Martin,  G.  P.,  as  above. 
Movius,  H.  L.,  Jr.,  as  above. 
Tratman,  E.  K.,  ibid.,  pp.  134-136. 

*4Haddon,  A.  G.,  PRIA,  vols.  3,  4,  1896-98,  pp.  570-585.  Also,  Crania  Britannica, 
skulls  22  A  and  B. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  113 

find  the  British  Isles  uninhabited,  and  their  homogeneity,  in  a  few  re- 
stricted localities,  cannot  mean  that  they  caused  the  extinction  of  earlier 
peoples.  Nor  did  they,  when  still  later  invasions  of  another  physical  com- 
plex reached  the  British  Isles,  become  extinct.66  The  mountains  of  Wales, 
the  hills  of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  and  almost  the  whole  of  Ireland,  remain 
a  blank  in  our  early  skeletal  map  of  the  British  Isles. 

(11)   WESTERN   EUROPE  AND   THE  ALPINE   RACE 

By  this  time  we  have  studied  all  of  the  approaches  by  which  Neolithic 
food-producers  invaded  Europe,  and  have  seen  that  in  all  known  cases 
these  immigrants  belonged  to  some  branch  of  the  Galley  Hill  stock  or 
wider  Mediterranean  race.  We  now  come  to  the  portions  of  Europe  in 
which  the  Mesolithic  cultural  tradition  had  a  strong  survival — as  a  blend 
into  the  Neolithic  economy,  or  as  an  absolute  continuation.  These  por- 
tions may  be  divided  into  three  general  groupings:  (1)  Western  Europe — 
that  is,  Switzerland,  France,  and  Belgium;  (2)  Scandinavia,  northern 
Germany,  and  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Baltic;  (3)  The  forest  belt  which 
stretches  across  northern  Russia  into  Siberia.  It  is  with  the  first  of  these 
that  we  are  immediately  concerned. 

Commencing  with  Switzerland,  we  find,  in  the  so-called  Lake  Dwelling 
culture  of  the  Neolithic,  a  blending  of  the  old  with  the  new.  The  early 
Lake  Dwelling  culture  of  western  Switzerland,  centered  about  Lake 
Neufchatel,  consists  of  the  grafting  of  North  African  Neolithic  agriculture 
upon  a  local  Mesolithic  base,  while  that  of  eastern  Switzerland  represents 
the  same  phenomenon  to  which  a  Danubian  element  may  later  have  been 
added.  Toward  the  end  of  the  Neolithic  period,  just  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  metal,  the  Corded  people  invaded  Switzerland  from  the  north, 
and  at  this  time  local,  sectional  differences  were  to  some  extent  ironed 
out.66 

Under  these  circumstances,  we  may  expect  to  find,  in  all  Swiss  Lake 
Dwelling  skeletal  collections  from  the  Early  and  Middle  Neolithic,  exam- 
ples of  the  small  Mediterranean  race,  representing  the  bringers  of  agri- 
culture and  animal  husbandry  to  the  hunting  and  fowling  communities 
of  the  lake  shores;  as  well  as  survivors  of  the  previous  population,  what- 
ever, in  a  racial  sense,  they  may  have  been. 

Unfortunately,  the  archaeologists  have  yet  to  discover  the  cemeteries 
in  which  the  Lake  Dwellers  buried  their  dead;  what  few  remains  have 
been  found  seem  to  have  been  for  the  most  part  those  of  persons  who  died 
by  accident,  and  especially  of  children.  Schlaginhaufen  states  that  seventy- 

66  As  suggested  by  Hooke,  Beatrix,  G.  E.,  and  Morant,  G.  M.,  in  their  article:  Bio- 
metrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  99-104. 

66  Childe,  The  Danube  in  Prehistory,  p.  186. 


114  THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 

three  Lake  Dwelling  skulls,  suitable  for  the  study  of  the  cranial  index,  are 
known  to  exist,  but  few  of  these  have  been  made  available  to  the  pro- 
fession through  publication.  Schlaginhaufen  could  find  but  nine  adult 
crania  with  measurable  faces.67 

His  conclusion  is  that  in  the  earliest  phase  of  the  Swiss  Neolithic, 
brachycephals  predominate;  in  the  late  stages,  round  and  long  skull 
forms  are  about  equal  in  number,  with  few  intermediate  forms;  later,  the 
two  blend,  and  there  is  a  reinforcement  of  dolichocephals  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  metal  period.  The  brachycephals  of  the  Early  Neolithic  were 
short  statured,  low  faced,  low  orbitted,  and  broad  nosed;  later,  their  face 
form  became  longer  and  narrower,  producing,  by  the  end  of  the  Neolithic, 
disharmonic  forms.  The  original  combination  of  round  heads  with  low 
faces  and  orbits  had  been  upset  by  mixture  with  the  invading  Mediter- 
raneans. 

One  must  remember  that  these  conclusions  on  changes  in  linkage  be- 
tween head  form  and  face  form  are  presumably  based  on  no  more  than 
nine  specimens.  Five  of  these  may  be  studied  directly  from  readily  avail- 
able published  data.68  Three  of  them  are  brachycephalic,  two  meso- 
cephalic.  The  former  have  upper  facial  indices  below  50,  and  nasal  in- 
dices above  50;  while  the  latter  fall  on  the  other  side  in  each  case.  In  the 
orbital  index  two  of  the  brachycephalic  crania  fall  below  80,  and  one 
above  it;  while  both  of  the  dolichocephals  are  above.  In  these  five  exam- 
ples, then,  the  round  skulls  have  short  faces,  low  or  broad  noses,  and  low 
orbits,  while  the  longer  specimens  are  higher  and  narrower  in  face,  orbit, 
and  nose  form. 

The  dolicho-  and  mesocephalic  Swiss  Lake  Dwelling  crania  seem  to 
belong  without  exception  to  some  variety  of  small  Mediterranean,  such 
as  might  have  entered  either  from  the  east  or  the  southwest,  with  agri- 
cultural movements.  The  brachycephals,  which  are  most  numerous  and 
least  mixed  in  the  earliest  levels,  form  the  one  element  in  the  Lake  Dwell- 
ing racial  complex  which  cannot  be  derived  from  known  Neolithic  sources, 
and  may,  therefore,  be  circumstantially  linked  to  the  Mesolithic  element 
so  important  in  Swiss  Lake  Dwelling  cultures. 

Besides  the  Lake  Dwellings,  with  their  meager  supply  of  human  re- 
mains but  rich  yield  of  cultural  objects  which  have  perished  elsewhere, 
there  are  Neolithic  sites  of  other  kinds  in  Switzerland,  including  rock  shel- 

87  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  Die  menschlichen  Skeletr ester  aus  der  Steinzeit  des  Wauwilersees. 
68  Covering  the  following  crania : 

(1)  Pittard,  E.,  ASAG,  vol.  7,  1935,  pp.  118-122.   One  fjemale,  Lake  Neuchatel. 

(2)  Pittard,  E.,  Anth,  vol.  10, 1899,  pp.  281-289.  One  female,  Point,  Lake  Neuchatel. 

(3)  Schenk,  A.,  REAP,  vol.  15,  1905,  pp.  389-407.    One  female,  Lake  Leman. 

(4)  Kollman,  J.,  KDGA,  vol.  29,  1899,  p.  116.    One  female,  Auvcrnier. 

(5)  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  op.  at.  One  female,  Greifensee. 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  115 

ters  and  cist  graves.  Most  of  these  dry  land  burials,  which  were  not,  in 
most  cases  at  least,  Lake  Dwelling  cemeteries,  contain  human  remains 
of  Mediterranean  type,  although  a  few  brachycephals  have  been  found 
in  them.69 

The  most  extensive  single  series  is  that  from  the  cist  cemetery  of  Cham- 
blandes,  with  ten  male  and  eight  female  skeletons.70  (See  Appendix  I, 
col.  14.)  These  remains  are  those  of  small,  light-boned  Mediterraneans, 
dolicho-  to  mesocephalic,  mesorrhine,  and  shallow  jawed,  with  very  little 
metrical  sex  differentiation.  Basically,  these  Chamblandes  people  resem- 
ble the  smaller  groups  of  predynastic  Egyptians  very  closely,  but  are  even 
closer  to  Muge.  There  seems  to  be  a  perceptible  negroid  element  in  the 
Chamblandes  groups,  which  accentuates  the  African  relationship.  In 
vault  size  and  height,  they  do  not  resemble  the  Danubians. 

The  Chamblandes  culture  was  mid-Neolithic,  and  probably  represents 
the  northward  intrusion  of  a  semi-nomadic  tribe  or  band  from  northern 
Italy,  where  cist  burials  of  the  same  type  have  been  found.71  Since  the 
Chamblandes  physical  type  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  small  Mediter- 
ranean race,  that  type  must,  therefore,  have  been  prevalent  in  the  Early 
and  Middle  Neolithic  of  northern  Italy.  Its  presence  furthermore  illus- 
trates the  complexity  of  ethnic  movements  in  Neolithic  Europe. 

The  racial  prpblems  exposed  by  the  study  of  Neolithic  man  in  Switzer- 
land apply  equally  to  France,  which  presents  an  even  more  complex 
archaeological  situation.  Along  the  whole  Atlantic  coast,  and  most  of  all 
in  Brittany,  dolmens  and  other  kinds  of  megalithic  monuments  were  built 
in  abundance.  The  north  of  France,  especially  the  Paris  Basin,  formed  the 
westernmost  reflection  of  the  Danubian  invasions  from  the  east,  through 
the  mixed  cultures  of  southern  Germany,  but  in  the  Paris  Basin  this  culture 
was  mingled  with  megalithic  elements,  since  many  of  the  burials  are  in 
hewn  underground  vaults  and  in  dolmens. 

The  southeast  of  France  contained  a  surviving  cave  culture,  while  the 
whole  eastern  section  of  the  country,  in  the  valley  of  the  Rh6ne  and  the 
borders  of  Switzerland,  was  occupied  by  farmers  with  the  same  blend 
of  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic  cultural  elements  which  in  Switzerland  ap- 
pear in  the  western  Lake  Dwellings.  Both  Dechelette  and  Menghin  derive 
the  agricultural  element  in  the  French  Neolithic  south  of  the  Paris  Basin 
from  North  Africa.72 

Although,  if  one  may  judge  by  the  number  of  finds  made,  France  was 
a  densely  populated  country  during  the  Neolithic,  the  distribution  of 

69  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  op.  cit. 

70Schenk,  A.,  REAP,  vol.  14,  1904,  pp.  335-375. 

71  Childe,  The  Danube  in  Prehistory,  pp.  163,  174. 

72  Dechelette,  J.,  Manuel  d'archaeologie  prehistorique. 
Menghin,  O.,  Weltgeschichte  der  Stein^eit, 


116  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

people  was  very  uneven.  It  is  very  likely  that  large  areas,  notably  in  the 
Massif  Central^  the  mountain  core  of  south-central  France,  where  a  thin 
soil  and  granite  base  are  inimical  to  agriculture,  were  still  inhabited 
throughout  the  Neolithic  time  span  by  scattered  bands  of  Mesolithic 
hunters  and  grubbers.  The  bulk  of  the  population  lived  in  the  great  river 
valleys. 

As  an  indication  of  the  head  form  of  the  French  Neolithic  people,  we 
may  turn  to  a  compilation  of  608  crania,  out  of  which  43  per  cent  are 
dolichocephalic,  38  per  cent  meso-,  and  19  per  cent  brachycephalic.78 
Although  this  distribution  is  not  bimodal,  there  are  at  least  two  types 
present,  a  long  and  a  round  one. 

The  long-headed  type  or  types  belong  clearly  to  the  Mediterranean 
category.  Although  most  series  include  brachycephalic  crania,  a  few  are 
purely  long  headed.  Some  of  them,  such  as  the  series  from  L'Homme  Mort 
and  Loz£re  74  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  15),  are  low  dolichocephals,  with  means 
of  72;  these  approach  but  do  not  quite  approximate  the  British  Long  Bar- 
row standards  of  size.  The  skulls  from  the  corridor  tomb  of  Vaudancourt, 
Oise,  are  of  full  Long  Barrow  size,  and  the  stature  of  the  skeletons  is  tall. 
Thus  there  was,  apparently,  here  and  there,  a  tall,  large,  and  very  long- 
headed element  in  the  French  Neolithic,  related  to  that  which  predom- 
inated in  the  British  Isles.  It  was  rarely,  however,  pure. 

The  mesocephalic  crania  are,  as  a  rule,  larger  in  vault  size  than  most 
of  the  Mediterranean  groups  which  we  have  studied,  such  as  the  Danu- 
bians,  the  Chamblandes  series,  and  the  Mesolithic  skulls  from  Muge.  One 
suspects  that  the  mesocephaly  so  common  among  Neolithic  French  crania 
may,  in  part,  be  due  to  a  mixture  between  a  Megalithic,  rather  than  a 
small  Mediterranean,  dolichocephalic  type  with  brachycephals.  This  is 
supported  by  the  evidence  of  stature,  for  means  of  French  Neolithic  series 
run  to  164  and  165  cm.,  taller  than  the  majority  of  Mediterraneans 
proper. 

In  certain  definite  ways,  the  long-headed  crania  of  the  French  Neolithic, 
as  a  whole,  show  a  western  affiliation:  the  vaults  are  wider  than  they  are 
high,  and  the  noses  are  leptorrhine  or  low  mesorrhine.  In  these  respects 
they  differ  from  the  Danubians,  as  well  as  in  size;  and  in  the  vault  form, 
they  differ  from  the  Corded  group.  These  peculiarities  further  strengthen 
the  similarity  between  the  longer  and  larger  examples,  and  the  British 
Long  Barrow  type.  We  may  conclude  from  this  that  most  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean racial  element  in  France  came  from  North  Africa  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  little  from  central  and  eastern  Europe. 

78  Salmon,  P.,  REAP,  vol.  5,  1895,  pp.  155-181.  Series  re-divided  to  agree  with  con- 
ventional partitionment  of  cranial  index. 

74  Unpublished  measurements  by  Mrs.  Ruth  Sawtelle  Wallis. 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  117 

The  geographical  distribution  of  Neolithic  crania  by  head  form  can  be 
partially  determined  from  Salmon's  study.76  In  all,  forty-one  departments 
are  represented,  covering  less  than  half  of  France.  Of  these  forty-one, 
only  fifteen  departments,  one-sixth  of  France,  have  ten  or  more  crania 
each.  As  far  as  we  can  tell  from  this  fragmentary  distribution,  there  were 
two  centers  of  high  brachycephaly,  one  in  the  Auvergne  region,  crossing 
the  Rh6ne  to  Savoie,  and  fading  out  in  the  Massif  Central;  the  second  in 
the  north  of  France,  from  Paris  over  to  the  Meuse.  The  Atlantic  coastal 
region  below  Brittany,  and  the  west  central  part  of  France,  were  dolicho- 
cephalic strongholds  during  the  Neolithic. 

The  range  of  indices  in  the  French  Neolithic  extends  from  63  to  97, 
which  is  practically  the  normal  range  for  the  world.  Whole  groups  of 
over  thirty  skulls  (as  at  Beaumes  Chaudes),  found  in  single  caves,  are 
entirely  long  headed,  showing  that  some  purely  dolichocephalic  local  pop- 
ulations existed  in  Neolithic  France,  as  they  do  in  parts  of  the  country 
today  76  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  16);  while  smaller  interments  contain  wholly 
brachycephalic  clusters.  Hyperbrachycephaly  had  already  developed  as 
an  evolutionary  phenomenon,  for  twenty-five  out  of  Salmon's  six  hundred 
and  eight  crania  have  indices  between  85  and  97.  Others  over  90  were 
found  in  the  Swiss  collection.  This  extreme  head  form  was  not,  appar- 
ently, as  common  then  as  it  is  today. 

Salmon's  list  luckily  contains  data  as  to  mode  of  interment  as  well  as 
to  cranial  index  and  locality.  Most  of  the  crania  come  from  either  mega- 
lithic  tombs  or  caves.  Rock  shelters  and  caves  contain  the  same  head  form 
ratio  as  the  total  for  France;  and  this  is  also  true  of  the  totality  of  mega- 
lithic  tombs.  Brachycephalic  crania  are  found  in  all  kinds  of  interments; 
there  is  nothing  of  an  archaeological  nature  to  distinguish  them  socially  or 
ethnically  from  the  others.  They  were,  therefore,  an  integral  part  of  the 
Neolithic  population  in  all  sections  where  they  have  been  found.  They 
cannot  have  belonged  to  a  separate,  unified  group  of  immigrants,  but 
formed  rather  a  residual  element  in  the  total  population,  with  a  strong 
genetic  impulse  for  the  perpetuation  and  increase  of  its  peculiar  head  form, 
regardless  of  other  racial  factors. 

The  further  examination  of  this  problem  of  western  European  brachy- 
cephaly can  best  be  pursued  by  a  study  of  Belgium,  which  formed  an 
extension  of  the  archaeological  province  of  northern  France  during  the 
Neolithic.  Most  of  the  sites  of  this  period  come  from  the  Ardennes  hills, 
from  the  present  Walloon-speaking  part  of  Belgium,  for  the  swamps  and 
fens  of  the  Flemish  country  offered  little  inducement  to  Neolithic  farmers. 

76  Salmon,  op.  cit. 

76  Bonin,  G.  von,  considers  the  Beaumes  Chaudes  series  a  Palaeolithic  survival  into 
Neolithic  times.  HB,  vol.  7,  1935,  pp.  216-217. 


118  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

It  is  perhaps  for  this  reason  that  Neolithic  Belgians  were  even  more 
brachycephalic  than  their  relatives  in  France — out  of  seventy  skulls  of 
both  sexes,77  one-half  have  cranial  indices  above  80.  The  largest  series, 
that  of  Hastiere,78  has  a  mean  of  79.8;  and  a  high  variability.79 

Among  the  readily  available  published  crania  one  may  senate  eighteen 
male  specimens  80  for  which  adequate  measurements  have  been  given. 
The  eighteen  adult  male  skulls  divide  themselves  naturally  into  two  sub- 
groups, of  eight  and  ten,  respectively.  The  first  ranges  in  cranial  index 
from  74  to  77;  the  second  from  80  to  83.  This  natural  division  is  so  marked 
that  it  would  be  futile  to  seriate  the  eighteen  as  a  whole,  for  the  mean  would 
fall  at  a  point  unrepresented  by  a  single  specimen.  Seven  female  crania 
which  accompany  this  series  likewise  have  none  in  the  middle  brackets. 

The  dolichocephalic  group  of  eight  male  skulls  belongs  to  a  normal, 
Mediterranean  type,  mesocephalic,  and  relatively  low  vaulted.  The 
brachycephals  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  17),  the  important  group  for  our  pres- 
ent purpose,  may  serve,  through  comparison,  to  help  elucidate  the  prob- 
lem of  western  European  Neolithic  brachycephaly. 

In  Switzerland  we  had  only  a  few  individual  crania  for  study;  in  France 
the  brachycephalic  crania  are  mingled  in  individual  series  with  dolicho- 
cephalic ones.  In  the  small  Belgian  group  of  ten  males,  however,  we  have 
a  purely  brachycephalic  series  for  comparative  purposes.81 

In  searching  for  the  prototype  of  these  Neolithic  Alpine  skulls,  one  turns 
naturally  to  the  few  Upper  Palaeolithic  and  Mesolithic  crania  of  brachy- 
cephalic type  for  comparison.82  In  vault  diameters,  the  Neolithic  skulls 
correspond  nearly  to  the  Ofnet  ones  of  the  same  sexes,  but  the  female 
examples  are  smaller  than  those  from  the  Upper  Palaeolithic.  All  speci- 
mens, of  all  three  periods,  are  low  vaulted. 

The  Neolithic  Alpine  faces,  insofar  as  we  can  judge,  run  somewhat 
smaller  and  narrower  than  do  most  of  the  earlier  ones;  the  orbits  are 
much  the  same,  but  the  noses  seem  smaller  in  size.  On  the  whole,  the 
Neolithic  brachycephalic  crania  are  less  rugged  and  much  smoother  than 
the  earlier  examples,  more  globular,  and  more  infantile.  The  faces  look, 
in  many  cases,  little  different  from  those  of  the  Mediterraneans  which 
accompany  them.  The  stature  of  these  brachycephals  varies,  but  is  greater 
than  that  of  the  accompanying  long-heads,  reaching  165  or  166  cm.  for 

77  Including  those  on  Salmon's  list  and  others. 

78  Salmon,  1895,  33  crania. 

78  Range  =  72-88,  <r  =  3.65. 

80  Anvers,  3;  Sandron,  10;  Pr6alle,  4;  Grotte  du  Docteur,  Huccorgen,  1. 

81  These  crania  come  from  the  same  series  as  the  dolicho-  dhes,  Sandron  and  Pr£alle, 
plus  the  Huccorgne  cranium.    There  is  no  such  thing  as  an  exclusively  brachycephalic 
Neolithic  group  of  any  size  from  any  one  place. 

«*  Solutr6  #2,  #5,  Le  Placard  (1881).  Solutr6  #1  and  #3,  and  Le  Placard  F  and  B,  are 
high  mesocephals.  Among  Mesolithic  crania,  Ofnet  1800,  1801,  1802,  1806,  1815. 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  119 

males  in  the  few  ascertainable  instances.  This  correlation  would  favor  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  comparison. 

It  is  impossible,  in  an  orderly  and  logical  manner,  to  explain  the  pres- 
ence of  these  ancestral  Alpines  during  the  Neolithic  in  Europe  west  of  the 
Alps,  north  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  south  of  the  Rhine.  But  certain  hypothe- 
ses 83  merit  discussion,  and  by  elimination  of  lesser  probabilities  we  may 
narrow  the  field.  The  most  important  of  these  hypotheses  are: 

(1)  The  Alpine  brachycephals  came  into  the  area  in  question  during  the  Neolithic 
period,  as  part  of  an  agricultural  invasion,  from  the  east.    This  theory,  which 
has  been  accepted  as  fact  by  the  majority  of  anthropologists  for  some 
thirty  or  more  years,  may  be  practically  ruled  out.    All  the  evidence  in 
existence  serves  to  contradict  it. 

(2)  The  Alpine  brachycephals  came  into  the  area  in  question  during  the  Meso- 
lithic, as  part  of  a  preagricultural  invasion,  from  North  Africa  by  way  of  the 
Iberian  Peninsula.    This  theory  is  based  upon  the  discovery  of  allegedly 
brachycephalic  crania  at  Muge  in  Portugal.    Vallois  has  recently  shown 
that  the  Muge  crania  are  in  reality  of  Mediterranean  type,  and  that  most, 
if  not  all,  of  the  alleged  brachycephaly  was  due  to  the  post-mortem  de- 
formation of  a  few  skulls.    Hence,  in  its  usual  form,  this  theory  may  also 
be  considered  unlikely,  although  less  improbable  than  the  first. 

(3)  The  Alpine  brachycephals  are  Afalou  type  round- heads,  carried  up  to  western 
Europe  with  the  Mesolithic  movements  from  North  Africa,  or  from  Asia  by  some 
unknown  Mesolithic  movement.    We  have  already  suggested  that  the  Ofnet 
skulls  might  have  had  some  such  origin.  But  the  Alpine  crania  are  smaller, 
and  more  globular.  The  faces  are  much  smaller,  though  similar  in  propor- 
tions. These  differences  may  possibly  be  explained  by  mixture  with  small- 
headed  and  short-statured  Mediterraneans. 

(4)  The  Alpine  brachycephals  represent  a  continuation  of  the  Aurignacian  brachy- 
cephalic tendency  found  at  Solutre.     The  Azilian  culture  was  a  blend  of 
Capsian  and  Magdalenian  elements.    It  is  possible  that  a  brachycephalic 
element  from  Palaeolithic  France  passed  into  this  Mesolithic  cultural 
expression,  and  was  carried  over  into  the  Neolithic,  which  retained  many 
Mesolithic  cultural  forms. 

(5)  The  Alpine  brachycephals  are  the  result  of  a  genetic  tendency  toward  a  globu- 
lar skull  form  acting  on  a  dolichocephalic  group.    Without  reasonable  doubt, 
there  has  been  a  tendency  toward  an  increase  in  brachycephaly  in  the 
Alpine  racial  zone  in  modern  times.    We  are  as  yet  unaware  of  its  true 
cause  and  of  its  mechanism.    But  we  cannot,  for  various  reasons,  suppose 
that  the  Neolithic  Alpines  were  merely  brachycephalized  Mediterraneans. 
They  were  often  taller,  and  had  larger  vaults,  lower  orbits,  shorter  faces, 

83  The  hypothesis  that  they  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Lapps  serves  in  no  direct  way  to 
explain  their  origin,  and  will  be  dealt  with  later. 


120  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  wider  noses.    Furthermore,  the  soft-parts  of  living  representatives  of 
this  type  are  distinctly  un-Mediterranean. 

The  true  answer  to  the  question,  "What  is  the  origin  of  the  western 
European  Alpines?"  cannot  yet  be  given,  But  we  may  be  reasonably 
certain  that  they  are  older  than  the  Neolithic,  that  they  may  owe  part,  at 
least,  of  their  reduced  size  of  vault  and  face  to  mixture  with  Mediter- 
raneans, and  that  their  round  headedness  possessed  a  strong  genetic  sur- 
vival value.  At  the  moment,  the  theory  of  an  Upper  Palaeolithic  survival, 
somewhat  reduced  in  head  and  face  size,  seems  the  most  reasonable. 

(12)   NEOLITHIC   SCANDINAVIA 

Let  us  next  move  to  the  center  of  the  second  area  of  maximum  Meso- 
lithic  survival — southern  Scandinavia.  Here  the  Neolithic  cultures  and 
techniques  were  late  in  arrival,  and  survived  long  enough  to  attain  a 
considerable  complexity,  flourishing  long  after  most  of  the  rest  of  Europe 
was  making  common  use  of  metal.  The  old  Erteb^lle  country  of  Denmark 
and  southwestern  Sweden  became  the  seat  of  a  dense  population  of  suc- 
cessful farmers  and  cattle  breeders,  partly  derived  from  the  old  fishing 
and  hunting  stock,  and  partly  from  new  immigrants  who  brought  with 
them  new  ways  of  living.  This  part  of  Scandinavia,  in  the  Sub-Boreal 
period,  which  followed  the  Litorina,  and  which  witnessed  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Neolithic,  was  eminently  suited  to  agriculture  and  cattle 
raising,  for  the  climate  was  drier  than  at  present,  and  four  Fahrenheit 
degrees  warmer  in  mean  annual  temperature.84 

Neolithic  impulses,  when  they  eventually  reached  Scandinavia,  prob- 
ably no  earlier  than  2500  B.C.,  came  into  this  region  from  more  than  one 
direction.  It  is  possible  that  Danubian  influences,  transferred  through 
South  German  mediums,  were  felt  by  the  Ertebjzflle  moor-dwellers  at  the 
beginning,  and  also  that  Neolithic  cultural  movements  came  directly  to 
Scandinavia  from  South  Russia.  However,  the  first  movement  which  can 
be  traced  with  certainty  was  that  of  the  Megalithic  immigrants.  These 
came  by  sea  from  the  south  and  west,  probably  for  the  most  part  from  the 
British  Isles,  although  some  may  have  come  from  Brittany  as  well.  They 
brought  with  them  not  only  the  habit  of  erecting  impressive  burial  monu- 
ments, but  also  agriculture  and  animal  husbandry,  which  they  may  have 
been  the  first  to  introduce  as  a  basic  source  of  food  supply,  although 
Neolithic  techniques  may  have  come  from  the  east  and  south  before  them. 

The  Megalithic  invaders  found  a  strong,  settled  population  of  fishermen 
and  hunters,  located  mostly  on  the  coasts,  who  apparently  did  not  prevent 
them  from  establishing  their  farms  and  trading  stations.  The  archaeo- 

84  Shetelig,  Falk,  and  Gordon,  Scandinavian  Archaeology,  p.  53.  Much  of  this  intro- 
ductory material  is  based  on  their  book. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  121 

logical  record  furthermore  makes  it  certain  that  the  aborigines  were 
neither  driven  out  nor  destroyed,  but  survived  to  form  an  important  ele- 
ment in  the  eventual  Danish  population. 

The  forms  of  the  abundant  megalithic  monuments,  in  combination 
with  weapon  types,  provide  a  scale  for  Neolithic  chronology.  After  a 
tombless  period  characterized  by  round-poled  axes,  dolmens  were  built 
first,  followed  by  passage  graves,  under  specific  influence  from  Brittany 
via  Holland;  and  by  Long  Barrows  brought,  as  a  trait,  from  England  by 
sea. 

In  the  later  part  of  the  dolmen  period  and  the  beginning  of  the  passage 
grave  epoch,  a  new  group  invaded  Scandinavia  from  the  east  and  south- 
east, probably  initially  attracted  by  the  rich  supply  of  amber  in  Jutland. 
These  were  the  so-called  Battle-Axe  people,  who  were  simply  our  old 
friends  the  Corded  people  under  their  alternate  name.  Their  route  lay 
from  Holstein  up  through  Schleswig  to  Jutland,  and  only  later  did  they 
reach  the  Danish  archipelago,  and  Sweden.  Having  come  from  Germany, 
it  is  doubtful  if  they  represented  a  pure  Corded  racial  strain;  this  became 
less  pure  through  blending  with  their  predecessors  in  Scandinavia,  the 
Megalithic  and  Kitchen-Midden  peoples.  The  burial  form  of  the  resultant 
amalgam  was  the  stone  cist,  a  Megalithic-Corded  compromise,  with  the 
corridor  tombs  and  Battle-Axe  single  graves  as  prototypes. 

During  the  entire  Neolithic,  almost  all  of  Norway,  as  well  as  central  and 
northern  Sweden,  remained  in  a  food-gathering  stage  of  culture,  although 
Neolithic  axes  and  other  objects  were  traded  to  them  from  the  south. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  to.  a  large  extent  the  northern  hunters  were 
direct  descendants  of  Mesolithic,  and  hence  of  Late  Palaeolithic,  man. 
Many  traits  of  their  so-called  Arctic  culture  have  survived  until  recent 
times. 

Without  the  knowledge  of  Neolithic  movements  and  continuities  pro- 
vided by  the  careful  work  of  the  Scandinavian  archaeologists,  and  with- 
out a  previous  study  of  the  Neolithic  racial  situation  in  other  parts  of 
Europe,  it  would  be  difficult  to  interpret  the  human  remains  from  the 
Danish  and  Swedish  sites,  since  this  is  racially  the  most  complex  and  most 
mixed  section  of  the  continent.  The  concept  of  Scandinavia  as  the  home 
of  a  pure  Nordic  race  or  of  any  other  single  group  during  the  Neolithic 
is  a  completely  false  one. 

The  total  of  Neolithic  skulls  from  Scandinavia  is  well  over  two  hun- 
dred; 86  of  these  nearly  three-fourths  come  from  Denmark.  Only  one  repre- 

85  Principal  sources : 

Fiirst,  G.  M.,  %ur  Kraniologie  der  Schtvedischen  Stein&it. 
Nielsen,  H.  A.,  ANOH,  1905,  1911,  1915. 
Retzius,  A,,  Crania  Smcica. 


122  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

sents  Norway,  and  this  is  a  heavy-boned  specimen,  with  strong  browridges, 
a  mesocephalic  vault,  mesorrhine  nose,  and  low  orbits;  apparently  a  par- 
tial or  complete  Mesolithic  survival. 

In  both  the  Swedish  and  Danish  series,  two  main,  mutually  contrasting 
types  are  found.  One  is  a  very  long,  quite  narrow,  cranium  of  moderate 
height;  with  projecting  occiput,  parallel  side  walls,  moderate  browridges, 
a  moderately  sloping  forehead,  which  is  usually  quite  broad;  a  moderate 
upper  face  height  coupled  with  a  narrow  breadth;  mesoconch  orbits  of 
square  form  sloping  downward  at  the  outer  corners;  and  a  mesorrhine  or 
leptorrhine  nasal  aperture.  This  type  of  skull,  which  comprises  some 
thirty-nine  per  cent  of  the  Swedish  series,  and  five  per  cent  of  the  Danish, 
was  early  recognized  by  Fiirst  as  a  counterpart  of  the  British  Long  Barrow 
race,  which  occurs  more  frequently  in  Britain  in  unmixed  form.  In  the 
Danish  Long  Barrow  tombs  of  purely  British  type,  the  skull  form  is  also  iden- 
tically British.86  Most  of  the  people  of  this  type  in  Neolithic  Scandinavia 
must  have  come  by  the  western  sea  route  around  Britain;  some,  however, 
may  have  arrived  overland  from  southern  Russia  in  pre-Corded  times. 

This  Megalithic  form  is  not,  however,  the  only  long-headed  type  dis- 
cernible among  Scandinavian  Neolithic  long-heads;  individual  crania  of 
Corded  type  with  longer  faces  and  higher  vaults  are  not  uncommon.  A 
mean  stature  of  172  cm.  for  the  long-headed  skeletons87  shows  that  the 
racial  types  involved  were  tall,  taller  than  either  the  Long  Barrow  mean 
from  England  or  that  of  the  Corded  group  from  Silesia  and  Bohemia.  But 
this  excess  of  stature  cannot  be  taken  to  indicate  a  strong  admixture  in 
this  type  of  Palaeolithic  long  heads,  for  the  dimensions  of  the  vault  are 
not  comparable,  and  the  face  is  very  narrow — as  with  both  Megalithic  and 
Corded  crania  elsewhere. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  impossible  to  follow  the  progress  of  these  long  heads 
through  the  different  types  and  stages  of  Neolithic  cultural  development. 
Dolmen  burials  and  those  in  corridor  tombs  have  been  classed  together 
in  Denmark — and  may  be  contrasted  with  profit  only  with  the  skeletons 
from  the  later  cist  graves.  In  both  groups  there  has  been  much  mixture 
between  long-  and  round-headed  forms;  a  mean  cranial  index  of  77  in 
each  case  indicates  an  intermediate  condition.  Since  the  brachycephalic 
element  in  each  is  probably  the  same,  and  apparently  present  in  equal 
quantities,  we  may  compare  the  two  groups  with  some  validity.  The  cist- 
grave  crania  are  higher  vaulted,  longer  and  generally  larger  faced,  and 
longer  nosed  than  the  Megalithic  ones.  In  all  diverging  characters,  the 
cist  grave  skulls  differ  from  their  Megalithic  predecessors  in  a  Corded  di- 

86  Five  crania  from  Danish  Long  Barrows. 

87  Pearson's  formula,  M  ~  172.4  cm.    Nielsen's  figure  is  173.4cm.,  based  on  Ma- 
nouvrier's  tables. 


THE  NEOLITHIC   INVASIONS  123 

rection.  Therefore,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  a  true  Corded  racial  ele- 
ment did  play  a  perceptible  part  in  the  formation  of  the  Neolithic  Danish 
population,  and  did  not  appear  merely  as  sporadic  individual  specimens. 

In  Sweden,  out  of  twenty-four  male  crania  found  in  passage  graves, 
only  one  was  brachycephalic;  for  the  most  part  a  pure  Long  Barrow  type 
is  represented.88  In  the  later  cist  graves,  a  much  stronger  brachycephalic 
element  had  entered.  On  the  whole,  the  Swedish  material  runs  more 
strongly  to  both  extremes  than  that  from  Denmark  (see  Appendix  I, 
cols.  18,  19);  forty-nine  per  cent  of  the  Swedish  skulls  are  considered  mix- 
tures between  the  long-  and  round-headed  forms;  while  in  Denmark  these 
total  eighty-seven  per  cent.  In  Sweden,  the  round  heads  are  concentrated 
in  Skane,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  country;  in  Denmark,  they  are 
commonest  on  the  islands  of  Zealand,  Laaland,  and  Falster.  The  long- 
heads were  particularly  prevalent  in  central  Sweden  and  in  Jutland  and 
the  islands  of  Fiinen  and  Langeland.  Brachycephaly,  therefore,  is  centered 
around  the  Copenhagen  region,  and  particularly  the  islands,  which  would 
naturally  permit  the  greatest  survival  of  people  who  derived  their  suste- 
nance from  the  sea. 

From  every  standpoint  it  seems  indicated  that  this  brachycephalic  ele- 
ment in  the  population  is  associated  with  the  preagricultural  midden 
dwellers.  Yet  we  know  from  our  scanty  list  of  Mesolithic  remains  that  the 
basic  element  of  that  time  was  probably  a  long-headed,  Brunn-like  Up- 
per Palaeolithic  European  survival.  Many  skulls  of  large,  square-jawed 
brachycephalic  type  appeared  toward  the  end  of  the  Mesolithic  or  begin- 
ning of  the  Neolithic  in  Denmark  and  northern  Germany.  Most  of  them 
have  been  assigned,  largely  through  caution,  to  the  Neolithic  rather  than 
to  the  preceding  food-gathering  period.  Such  are  the  skulls  from  Kiel, 
from  Plau,  from  Spandau,  and  numerous  other  sites.89 

Whatever  their  date,  they  resemble  the  brachycephalic  crania  of  un- 
disputed Neolithic  age  very  closely.  The  latter,  in  turn,  are  sufficiently 
numerous  for  accurate  racial  evaluation.  The  Danish  and  Swedish  brachy- 
cephalic people  were  tall,  with  a  mean  of  168.2  cm.,90  and  heavy  boned. 
Their  skulls  are  large,  high  vaulted,  and  with  lengths  greater  than  those 
common  to  most  crania  of  equal  index.  The  browridges  are  usually  heavy, 
the  foreheads  often  sloping,  the  lambdoid  region  is  flattened  often,  the 
occipital  region  more  rarely.  The  face  is  short  and  wide;  the  orbits  square 
and  moderately  low;  the  nasal  skeleton  often  prominent;  the  nasal  index 

88  Furst,  op.  cit. 

Retzius,  op.  cit. 

88  Aichcl,  O,,  Der  deutsche  Mensch. 

Clarke,  J.  G.,  The  Mesolithic  Age  in  Northern  Europe. 

Kossinna,  Gustav,  Ursprung  und  Verbreitung  der  Germanen,  MannusB,  #6a,  1928, 

90  Pearson's  formula,  170.7  cm.  by  Manouvrier's  tables, 


124  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

usually  leptorrhine  or  mesorrhine;  the  lower  jaw  heavy,  wide,  and  angu- 
lar. There  seems  little  reason  to  dispute  the  conclusion  that  this  type  of 
skull  is  closely  related  to  that  found  at  Ofnet,  Bavaria,  in  the  Mesolithic; 
and  that  it  is  at  least  strikingly  similar  to  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  brachy- 
cephals  from  Afalou  bou  Rummel  in  Algeria,  to  which  the  Ofnet  crania 
have  already  been  compared.  Individual  Scandinavian  crania  can  be 
matched  with  others  from  Afalou. 

Brachycephalic  crania  are  not  infrequent  in  the  Neolithic  graves  of 
central  and  southern  Germany,  in  which  we  have  already  found  them 
mixed  with  long-headed  varieties.  The  same  is  also  true  of  Poland.  In  the 
southwest,  the  Danish  brachycephalic  type,  commonly  given  the  name  of 
the  site  Borreby,  is  found  as  far  from  its  apparent  center  as  Belgium,  where 
the  three  crania  of  Sclaigneux  are  probably  marginal  representatives.91 
In  the  absence  of  further  knowledge,  one  cannot  definitely  state  that  this 
brachycephalic  type  was  the  principal  one  of  the  Erteb011e  kitchen-midden 
period,  or  that  it  was  not.  But  it  seems  most  reasonable  to  suppose  that  it 
was  native  to  southern  Germany  during  most  of  the  Mesolithic,  with  ex- 
tensions westward  and  eastward;  and  that  at  some  time  during  the  Late 
Mesolithic  or  initial  Neolithic  it  filtered  into  northern  Germany  and  the 
coastal  zone  from  Belgium  to  Denmark  and  southern  Sweden  where  it 
survived  the  Megalithic  and  Corded  invasions,  and  where  it  is  still  present 
today. 

It  is  interesting  that  in  the  whole  stretch  of  the  European  continent  in 
which  Neolithic  invaders  blended  culturally  with  the  previous  Mesolithic 
population,  from  southern  France  to  Sweden,  some  form  of  brachycephal 
should  appear.  This  northern  Borreby  type  is  different  from  the  Alpine  of 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium  in  a  number  of  ways.  The  vaults  are 
higher,  the  orbits  somewhat  lower,  the  faces  larger,  the  jaws  heavier. 
Whereas  the  French  crania  are  usually  globular,  many  of  the  Borreby 
ones  resemble  modern  planoccipital  types  in  angularity  of  vault  form. 
The  Borreby  people,  while  shorter  than  their  longer-headed  companions, 
were  quite  tall;  the  Alpines,  frequently  taller  than  theirs,  were  shorter 
than  the  northern  brachycephals.  One  is  tempted  to  interpret  the  differ- 
ence partly  in  terms  of  the  types  with  which  each  mixed;  a  Megalithic  and 
Corded  mixture  with  an  Upper  Palaeolithic  brachycephalic  type  would 
have  a  quite  different  result  from  that  of  a  Danubian  or  Spanish  small 
Mediterranean  strain  with  the  latter.  In  either  case,  we  still  may  ask: 
What  became  of  the  long-headed  Palaeolithic  element  which  accompanied 
the  brachycephals  both  in  western  Europe  and  northern  Africa? 

But  this  problem  is  far  from  solution;  we  have  established  the  presence 

*  Virchow,  R.,  AFA,  vol.  6,  1873,  pp.  85-118.  In  Virchow's  article  skull  #3  is  the 
subject  of  a  misprint.  The  length  should  read  175  mm.,  the  breadth  151  mm. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  125 

of  brachycephals  in  the  earliest  Neolithic  horizons  in  various  parts  of 
western  Europe,  in  each  case  in  connection  with  a  strong  Mesolithic  cul- 
tural survival.  We  must  await  further  evidence  from  the  mysterious 
Mesolithic  for  an  answer. 

(13)   NEOLITHIC   INHABITANTS   OF  THE  NORTHERN  FORESTS 

From  the  Baltic  to  the  Urals  stretches  a  belt  of  forests  and  swamps, 
crossed  by  many  rivers,  which  long  formed  a  shelter  for  primitive  hunters 
and  fishers,  while  the  steppes  to  the  south  were  overrun  by  successive 
groups  of  farmers  and  pastoral  nomads  from  the  earliest  Neolithic  until 
modern  historical  times.  This  northern  cultural  backwater  forms  environ- 
mentally a  westward  extension  of  the  vast  Siberian  expanse  of  tundra  and 
taiga;  since  early  pre-Slavic  days  it  has  been  the  home  of  various  tribes  of 
Finns,  some  of  whom  once  led,  on  European  soil,  a  life  much  like  that  of 
the  Siberian  Ostiaks  and  Voguls  of  recent  centuries. 

In  the  Neolithic  time-expanse,  in  the  general  European  sense,  the  in- 
habitants of  these  forests  lived  by  hunting  and  stream-fishing,  in  a  manner 
reminiscent  of  their  Maglemose  predecessors.  A  few  cultural  innovations 
filtered  northward  from  the  agricultural  lands,  and  among  these  was  pot- 
tery, decorated  by  comb-impressions  and  other  characteristic  marks  which 
render  it  easy  to  identify.  Within  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  much 
discussion  about  this  combed  pottery,  for  it  has  been  found  in  a  more  or 
less  continuous  band  from  Finland  across  Russia  into  Siberia,  and  then 
again  at  various  points  across  the  northern  forest  region  of  North  America 
to  the  Atlantic.  A  school  is  rapidly  forming  which  believes  that  this  type 
is  circumpolar  and  boreal,  non-agricultural,  and  associated  with  the 
hunting  and  fishing  peoples  of  the  entire  north.  An  impressive  roster  of 
archaeological  authorities,  including  Kossina,  Ailio,  and  Childe,  believes 
that  in  Europe  it  was  associated  with  an  early  Finno-Ugrian  forest  people, 
the  direct  ancestors  of  the  various  Finnish  groups  of  today.92 

The  skeletal  evidence  from  the  Neolithic  of  this  forest  belt,  while  not 
abundant,  is  sufficient  to  show  that  racial  uniformity  did  not  characterize 
this  widespread  cultural  province.  Fifteen  crania  from  the  Neolithic  of 
the  shores  of  Lake  Ladoga  93  are  almost  equally  divided  into  two  types;  a 
normal  South  Russian  dolichocephal,  presumably  of  the  extreme  long- 
headed type,  with  narrow  face  and  nose;  and  a  mesocephal  which  does 
indeed  have  a  Finnish  appearance  in  the  modern  sense.  Skulls  of  the  latter 
type  are  characterized  by  low  orbits,  short,  broad  noses,  and  wide  faces, 
which  as  individual  examples  exceed  the  accompanying  brain  case  in 
width.  This  face  and  head  form  bears  a  certain  Cr6-Magnon-like 

92  Childe,  V.  G.}  "Adaptation  to  the  Postglacial  forest  on  the  North  Eurasiatic  Plain," 
in  McCurdy,  G.  G.,  Early  Man. 

*  Bogdanov,  A.  P.,  1882;  from  Sailer,  K.,  AAnz,  1925. 


126  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

implication,  and  may  indeed  indicate  descent  from  some  eastern  Upper 
Palaeolithic  form  as  yet  undiscovered. 

At  Salis  Roje,  in  Livonia  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  another  collection  of 
thirty-one  Neolithic  crania  is  even  more  varied.94  This  includes  not  only 
the  types  present  at  Lake  Ladoga,  but  also  a  short-statured,  brachycephalic 
form,  with  a  long  face,  slight  prognathism,  high  orbits,  and  a  broad  nose. 
Morphologically,  there  is  said  to  be  a  mongoloid  appearance  to  these 
crania.  This  adds,  therefore,  a  third  element  to  the  northern  forest  popu- 
lation during  the  Neolithic. 

Farther  to  the  east,  at  Volosovo  on  the  bank  of  the  Oka  River,  a  sub- 
brachycephalic  skull  from  the  same  cultural  horizon  would  apparently  fit 
into  the  Finn-like  Ladogan  category.95  Across  the  Urals  in  Siberia,  the 
essentially  European  character  of  the  Comb-Pottery  people  comes  grad- 
ually to  an  end.  A  female  skull  from  Bazaiha  96  in  the  Krasnoyarsk  district 
resembles  the  Salis  Roje  brachycephalic  type,  but  has  a  narrow,  prominent 
nose.  This  specimen  has  been  likened  to  a  form  typical  of  modern  Turko- 
Tartar  women.  Farther  to  the  east,  one  encounters  a  hyperbrachyce- 
phalic,  fully  mongoloid  skull  from  Kokui  on  the  Transbaikal  railroad,97  and 
beyond  that  the  extensive  and  carefully  studied  Neolithic  series  from  Lake 
Baikal,  the  main  type  of  which  Debetz  finds  identical  with  the  crania  of 
modern  Tungus.98 

In  summarizing  this  material,  we  shall  not  dispute  the  opinion  of  the 
archaeologists  who  have  concerned  themselves  with  this  special  field  that 
the  participants  in  the  comb-ceramic  hunting  and  fishing  culture  of 
northern  Russia  and  the  forests  to  either  side  were  the  cultural  ancestors 
of  some,  at  least,  of  the  modern  Finno-Ugrian-speaking  peoples.  But  the 
racial  aspect  of  the  problem  is  far  from  simple;  at  least  three  elements  were 
present;  an  extremely  long-headed  Mediterranean  form  with  southern 
connections;  a  Cr6-Magnon-like  broad-faced,  low-orbitted  mesocephal, 
filling  most  closely  the  requirements  of  an  ideal  modern  Finnish  type;  and 
a  small-statured  brachycephal  with  a  long  face  and  high  orbits,  which  in 
some  instances  is  at  least  partly  mongoloid.  As  will  be  seen  later,  the  sub- 
brachycephalic  element  in  the  Danubian  population  was  probably  related 
to  these  non-Mediterranean  forest  types. 

(14)   CONCLUSIONS 

The  survey  of  the  white  race  during  Neolithic  times,  which  has  required 
the  wholesale  examination  of  a  large  number  of  skeletal  remains  and  their 

*  Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  9,  1877,  p.  412.   Also,  Sailer,  KV}  AAnz,  1925. 
96  Pavlov,  A.,  RAJ,  vol.  16,  1927,  p.  56.    See  also  Ouvarov,  A.  S.,  Archaeologie  de  la 
Russie. 

wDus,  AF,  vol.  1,  1923,  pp.  72-78.   Also,  Sailer,  K.,  AAnz,  1925. 

wDus,  ibid.    Sailer,  ibid.  M  Debetz,  G,,  RAJ,  vol.  19,  1930,  pp.  7-50. 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  *  127 

placing  in  space,  time,  and  cultural  settings,  has  led  to  a  number  of  definite 
conclusions,  some  of  which  are  as  final  as  anything  can  be  in  the  present 
state  of  physical  anthropology,  and  others  which  are  admittedly  both 
tentative  and  tenuous. 

The  Neolithic  manner  of  living  differs  radically  from  that  of  Palaeolithic 
and  Mesolithic  man,  since  it  involves  the  production  of  food  by  agriculture 
and  animal  husbandry.  The  plants  and  animals  themselves  are  not  of 
European  origin,  but  are  native  for  the  most  part  to  western  Asia.  Neo- 
lithic civilization  had  probably  begun  in  Egypt,  Mesopotamia,  and  pos- 
sibly the  Indus  Valley  by  5000  B.C.  The  people  who  discovered  or  in- 
vented this  control  over  nature  probably  belonged  to  the  purely  sapiens 
branch  of  the  white  race  in  the  larger  sense,  including  a  group  of  related 
dolicho-  or  mesocephalic  types  which  did  not  form  part  of  the  more  spe- 
cialized European  and  North  African  Upper  Palaeolithic  group,  although 
they  were  closely  related  to  such  generalized  forms  as  Galley  Hill  and 
Combe  Capelle. 

Members  of  this  larger  racial  group  invaded  Europe  from  several  quar- 
ters, starting  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.  Their  principal 
avenues  of  approach  were  from  North  Africa  through  Spain,  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  western  Europe  by  sea,  across  the  South  Russian  plains, 
and  up  the  Danube  Valley.  The  Danubian  migration  may  have  been  fed 
by  streams  from  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  from  Anatolia  by  way  of  the 
Bosporus,  from  southern  Anatolia  and  points  farther  south  and  east  by 
way  of  Greece,  or  by  some  combination  of  these  three.  The  exact  source 
or  sources  of  the  Danubian  migration  remain  to  be  determined.  Another 
avenue  was  to  Greece  and  Italy  from  the  east  by  sea. 

The  invaders  may  be  divided  into  a  number  of  sub-types.  First,  there  is 
a  basic  cleavage  into  a  short-statured,  sexually  undifferentiated,  relatively 
small-headed  and  frequently  mesocephalic  variety  which  fits  most  closely 
the  specifications  of  the  Mediterranean  race  in  the  more  commonly  used 
sense  of  that  term.  There  were  three  groups  of  Neolithic  culture  bearers 
who  belonged  principally  if  not  entirely  io  this  type:  the  Danubians;  the 
farmers  and  swineherds  who  moved  westward  along  the  fertile  coastal 
regions  of  North  Africa,  and  over  into  Spain  and  thence  northward  to 
France  and  Switzerland;  and  the  sea-borne  settlers  of  Italy,  and  probably 
also  of  Greece.  The  Danubians  are  distinguished  by  a  particularly  high 
cranial  vault  and  high  nasal  index;  the  western  branch  by  a  lower  vault 
and  narrower  nose.  To  the  latter  class  belonged  also  the  ancient 
Egyptians. 

The  other  half  of  the  Neolithic  Mediterranean  race  is  noted  for  tall 
stature  and  a  more  extremely  dolichocephalic  skull  form.  This  variety 
was  found  in  East  Africa;  it  was  also  common  in  early  Mesopotamia  and 


128  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Iran,  while  the  Egyptians  belonged  more  nearly  to  the  smaller  Mediter- 
ranean variety.  This  tall,  longer-headed  half  of  the  race  is  longer  faced, 
narrower  nosed,  and  less  delicate  in  bony  structure  than  the  other.  It  also 
seems  to  fall  closer  to  such  possible  prototypes  as  Galley  Hill  and  Combe 
Capelle  from  the  Palaeolithic. 

This  tall  branch  is  again  sub-divided.  One  sub-branch,  with  moderate 
vault  and  face  heights,  travelled,  in  all  likelihood,  by  sea  from  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  to  Gibraltar,  around  Spain,  and  up  to  western  France, 
Britain,  and  Scandinavia.  In  the  last  two  countries,  and  especially  in  the 
British  Isles,  it  contributed  an  important  element  to  the  population.  It  is 
not  easy  to  find  the  prototype  of  this  Megalithic  group;  some  of  the  Meso- 
potamians  seem  to  have  been  very  close  to  it  metrically,  and  some  East 
Africans  as  well;  we  shall  later  find  evidence  of  it  on  the  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea.  For  the  moment  we  can  only  postulate  that  it  came  from  some  as  yet 
unidentified  part  of  southwestern  Asia,  southeastern  Europe,  or  north- 
eastern Africa. 

The  other  sub-branch,  characterized  by  an  extremely  high  cranial 
vault  and  a  very  long  face  and  nose,  moved  westward  from  the  plains  of 
southern  Russia  and  Poland  into  central  and  western  Europe.  The  mem- 
bers of  this  group,  who  were  culturally  associated  with  Corded  pottery, 
performed  a  different  part  in  Neolithic  history  from  that  of  the  Danubians. 
They  were  not  peasants,  but  traders  and  presumably  warriors.  Their  final 
destinations  were  southern  and  central  Germany,  especially  Saxony  and 
Thuringia,  and  southern  Scandinavia.  From  a  late  center  in  the  Rhine- 
lands,  they  were  destined  to  play  an  important  part  in  subsequent  metal 
age  prehistory. 

The  Neolithic  population  of  Europe  did  not  wholly  consist  of  these 
various  invaders  just  described,  although  they  perhaps  made  up  the  more 
numerous  element  in  the  whole.  In  the  western  and  northern  fringes, 
away  from  the  gates  of  entry,  earlier  peoples  of  Mesolithic  and  even 
Palaeolithic  tradition  remained.  In  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy  small 
Mediterranean  types  of  pre-Neolithic  or  Early  Neolithic  dating  may  well 
have  blended  with  the  invaders  in  large  numbers,  but  since  the  two  ele- 
ments would  have  been  much  the  same  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the 
proportions  of  each. 

In  France,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium  a  major  survival  of  Mesolithic 
cultural  factors  into  the  Neolithic  is  accompanied  by  a  large  brachy- 
cephalic  increment,  which  is  indubitably  related  to,  and  in  some  degree 
ancestral  to,  the  modern  Alpine  race.  Farther  north,  from  Belgium  to 
Sweden  and  particularly  in  the  Danish  archipelago,  one  finds,  under 
similar  circumstances  of  cultural  survival,  a  numerous  brachycephalic 
element,  called  the  Borreby  type,  which  is  somewhat  different  from  the 


THE  NEOLITHIC  INVASIONS  129 

ancestral  Alpine  form  farther  south.  The  northern  brachycephals 
were  larger  headed  and  definitely  higher  vaulted  and  wider  faced;  with 
taller  stature,  heavier  limb  bones,  and  in  many  cases  heavy  browridges, 
wide  jaws,  and  low  orbits.  The  shape  of  the  skull  is  sometimes  angu- 
lar, while  that  of  the  Alpines  is  perhaps  more  often  globular,  although 
this  difference  does  not  apply  to  all  individuals  and  should  not  be  over- 
stressed. 

Both  the  Alpine  and  the  Borreby  types  bear  strong  resemblances  to  the 
few  known  brachycephalic  examples  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  crania.  The 
Borreby  type  in  particular  resembles  those  from  Afalou  bou  Rummel  in 
Algeria.  Both  also  resemble  the  Mesolithic  skulls  from  Ofnet  in  Bavaria. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  brachycephalic  man  in  western  Europe 
was  not  a  Neolithic  importation  but  a  Mesolithic  survival.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  these  two  types  evolved  from  Palaeolithic  man  by  some  process 
which  involved  the  disappearance  or  absorption  of  the  normal,  long- 
headed and  numerically  more  important  element.  It  is  also  possible 
that  they  came  into  Europe  during  the  Mesolithic  from  some  source 
or  sources  unknown.  The  Mesolithic  is  still  so  much  of  a  blank  in  the 
racial  sense  that  almost  any  movement  might  have  taken  place  without 
detection. 

Northern  Britain,  parts  of  Ireland,  Norway,  and  the  north  of  Sweden 
formed  an  area  of  isolation  during  the  entire  Neolithic,  into  which  the 
ideas  and  products  of  civilization  gradually  and  only  partially  seeped.  We 
do  not  know,  from  contemporary  evidence,  that  Palaeolithic  man  of  the 
type  already  indicated  in  the  same  regions  during  the  Mesolithic,  survived 
in  these  spots  through  the  Neolithic,  but  later  evidence  will  make  that 
assumption  reasonable. 

The  forests  of  northern  Europe  east  of  Scandinavia  were  inhabited  by  a 
hunting  and  fishing  people  who  formed  part  of  a  general  circumpolar 
cultural  group  which  probably  extended  with  little  technical  change 
across  Siberia  to  the  Pacific,  and  may  have  influenced  North  America. 
In  the  European  and  western  Siberian  segment  of  this  belt,  eminent  au- 
thority opines  on  cultural  grounds  that  the  Neolithic  inhabitants  were  the 
direct  ancestors  of  an  element  in  the  modern  Finno-Ugrians  physically, 
although  not  necessarily  linguistically.  The  skeletal  remains  from  this 
region,  while  few,  yet  reveal  the  presence  of  at  least  three  separate  types; 
a  presumably  Corded  variety  of  Mediterranean;  a  Palaeolithic-looking 
mesocephal  with  low  orbits  and  a  wide  face,  which  does  simulate  an  ele- 
ment common  among  the  modern  Finns;  and  an  incipiently  or  partially 
mongoloid  brachycephal,  with  high  orbits,  a  long  face,  and  a  prominent 
nose,  resembling  certain  modern  central  Asiatic  Turks. 

The  racial  history  of  Europe  in  the  Neolithic,  therefore,  is  a  problem  in 


130  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

the  balance  between  new  racial  streams  of  relatively  uniform  type  which 
poured  in  from  the  south  and  east,  and  older,  residual  elements  which  sur- 
vived or  suffered  amalgamation  in  the  west  and  north.  It  again  reveals 
the  marginal  character  of  Europe  in  the  racial  as  well  as  cultural  sense, 
and  shows  the  necessity  of  a  greater  knowledge  of  race  in  Asia  and  in 
Africa  if  we  are  to  understand  our  own  origins. 


Chapter  V 
THE   BRONZE   AGE 

(1)    INTRODUCTION 

The  dividing  line  between  the  Neolithic  and  the  age  of  metal  is  difficult 
to  draw  and  essentially  artificial.  Like  that  of  any  other  material,  the  in- 
troduction of  copper  and  bronze  into  Europe  was  a  gradual  process.  In 
much  of  the  continent  the  use  of  this  new  substance  was  first  implanted 
on  established  agricultural  peoples,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  generally  sup- 
posed that  the  Bronze  Age  was  a  period  of  cultural  diffusion  but  racial 
quiescence.  This  supposition  is  only  a  half-truth.  In  the  areas  of  high 
civilization,  in  which  metal  was  first  notably  used — Mesopotamia  and 
Egypt — the  continuity  of  local  branches  of  the  Mediterranean  race  re- 
mained quite  constant  in  these  thickly  settled  and  well-established  valleys. 
That  this  was  by  no  means  equally  true  of  the  lands  to  the  north  and  west, 
we  shall  presently  see. 

The  Bronze  Age  was  a  period  of  ethnic  complexity.  It  is  a  unit  only  in 
the  common  use  of  a  single  metallic  alloy  by  a  number  of  peoples  who  ob- 
tained the  technique  of  producing  tools,  weapons,  containers,  and  orna- 
ments of  this  substance  from  the  lands  of  earliest  civilization.  Within  its 
span  occurred  major  shiftings  of  population,  if  not  equalling,  at  least  com- 
parable to  those  of  the  Neolithic. 

In  the  East,  where  bronze  was  early  and  iron  late,  the  Bronze  Age  lasted 
for  fifteen  hundred  years  or  more.  In  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  the  efflores- 
cence of  high  civilization  occurred  entirely  within  the  Age  of  Bronze,  and 
by  the  time  that  the  harder  metal  had  come  in,  the  highest  cultural  levels 
had  long  been  attained,  and  the  two  valleys  had  lost  their  cultural  leader- 
ship. 

In  Europe,  however,  bronze  furnished  in  many  regions  but  a  brief  inter- 
lude of  a  few  hundred  years  between  stone  and  iron.  Only  in  far  pe- 
ripheries, as  in  Britain,  where  iron  arrived  tardily,  did  the  Bronze  Age 
flourish  long.  Here,  as  in  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt,  it  lasted  nearly  fifteen 
hundred  years;  but  the  two  equal  spans  barely  overlapped.  A  Neolithic 
child  in  Denmark  might  have  had  a  Bronze  Age  father;  similarly  a  Bronze 
Age  child  in  Britain  might  have  been  begotten  by  a  lonely  Kelt  trained  in 
the  use  of  iron  and  visiting  the  western  islands  before  his  people. 

Most  authors  make  a  distinction  between  the  Ages  of  Copper  and  of 
Bronze.  In  both  Mesopotamia  and  Egypt  there  was  an  experimental 

131 


. , 


BRONZE  AGE  MOVEMENTS 

AND  CHRONOLOGY  \ 
INCLUDING  BELL 


132 


MAP 


133 


134  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

period  before  the  use  of  tin  as  an  alloy,  and  the  determination  of  the  proper 
proportions  of  the  two  metals,  were  known.  Copper  spread  northward  and 
westward  in  these  early  days,  and  many  of  the  weapons  and  ornaments  of 
western  Europe  in  the  so-called  Chalcolithic  or  Aeneolithic  (Copper  Age) 
period  resemble  early  Egyptian  or  Sumerian  forms.  The  earliest  copper 
and  bronze  objects  were  carried  to  outlying  and  barbarous  parts  by 
traders,  and  could  only  be  obtained  by  those  who  had  something  to  offer 
in  exchange.  The  Aeneolithic  Italian  or  Spaniard  could  no  more  produce 
a  metal  dagger  than  a  modern  Arab  can  make  a  machine-gun.  In  the  full 
Bronze  Age,  however,  imported  ingots  were  cast  locally  into  the  desired 
form,  and  there  was  a  smith  in  every  village  of  consequence. 

During  the  Neolithic,  the  farmer  or  herdsman  could  shape  most  of  the 
tools  and  containers  which  he  needed  from  local  materials.  Trade  was 
carried  on  more  in  luxury  objects  such  as  sea-shells,  than  in  primary  neces- 
sities. But  during  the  Bronze  Age,  trade  affected  everyone,  for  the  metal 
with  which  ordinary  tools  and  weapons  were  made  came  from  relatively  few 
places.  Copper  came  from  Spain,  the  Carpathian  region,  and  the  Caucasus. 
Tin  was  found  in  Bohemia,  Cornwall,  and  again  in  Spain.  Extensive  trade 
necessarily  arose  to  bring  the  products  of  these  mining  regions  together. 

In  order  to  possess  bronze  objects,  the  European  peoples  needed  some 
valuable  commodity  to  give  in  exchange.  In  the  north,  this  was  of  course 
amber.  The  principal  amber  road  ran  from  Denmark  to  Saxony  and 
Thuringia,  to  Bohemia,  to  the  Inn  River  in  Austria,  and  over  the  Brenner 
Pass  to  the  Po.  The  people  of  Bohemia  acted  as  middle-men,  buying  amber 
from  the  Danes  with  gold  which  they  had  obtained  from  Transylvania  in 
exchange  for  tin.  Thus,  even  in  the  Bronze  Age,  European  culture  rested 
upon  a  basis  of  interchange  of  local  products. 

This  extensive  trafficking  in  material  objects  must  have  implied  con- 
siderable travel  on  the  part  of  a  large  class  of  merchants.  Such  travel  neces- 
sarily meant  exchanges  of  populations  in  some  degree.  Childe  believes 
that  the  earliest  Bronze  Age  objects  made  in  central  Europe  were  cast 
by  artisans  who  had  emigrated  from  southern  Russia  or  Asia  Minor, 
forming  little  colonies  in  the  barbarous  European  villages. 

The  Neolithic  period  in  most  of  Europe  fell  in  a  wet,  warm  climatic  age 
during  which  much  of  the  continent  was  covered  with  forest,  and  this  pro- 
fusion of  vegetation  had  hindered  migrations  and  the  development  of 
pastoral  nomadism.  During  the  Bronze  Age,  however,  the  Sub-Boreal 
climate,1  which  then  prevailed,  was  more  continental  and  drier;  and  re- 
gions which  had  formerly  been  forested  now  became  parkland,  or  in  many 
cases  open  steppes. 

1  Much  of  the  Neolithic  of  Scandinavia,  where  the  Bronze  arrived  late,  fell  also  in  the 
Sub-Boreal. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  135 


In  many  parts  of  the  north  European  plain  the  drought  may  have  been 
great  enough  to  discourage  agriculture  and  to  force  some  peoples  to  rely 
wholly  on  their  flocks  and  herds,  thus  changing  their  habit  of  life  from 
farming  to  pastoral  nomadism.  Droughts  of  this  kind  also  fostered  tribal 
migrations,  and  political  disturbances  in  Mesopotamia  and  Anatolia,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  second  millennium  B.C.,  indicate  that  widespread 
movements  of  economic  origin  were  prevalent  at  this  time. 

About  the  middle  of  the  Bronze  Age  we  find  the  first  definite  evidence 
of  the  domestication  of  the  horse  as  an  animal  of  traction.  Horse-using 
nomads  invaded  Mesopotamia  and  brought  about  the  Babylonian  Dark 
Age.  Others,  the  Hyksos,  appeared  in  Egypt,  where  they  first  conquered 
the  Delta,  and  then  obtained  control  over  the  entire  kingdom.  In  the 
absence  of  definite  information,  it  has  been  supposed  that  these  inroads 
were  the  indirect  result  of  desiccation  farther  north,  where  the  steppes  had 
become  too  dry  for  cultivation,  and  the  erstwhile  farmers  had  turned  to 
pastoral  nomadism. 

Although  all  movements  on  the  eastern  European  plain  were  by  no 
means  westward,  we  may  find,  in  later  times,  significant  parallels  to  the 
Bronze  Age  migrations  which  brought  the  Hyksos  to  Egypt,  the  Nasili- 
speakers  to  Asia  Minor,  and  other  barbarians  to  Mesopotamia.  The  west- 
ward migrations  of  the  Scyths,  Huns,  Turks,  and  Mongols  were  simply 
consecutive  events  in  a  reciprocal  sequence  which  may  have  commenced 
long  before  the  days  of  Herodotus. 

All  Bronze  Age  movements  were  not  entirely  overland,  however.  Metal 
seekers  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean  followed  the  megalith-builders 
along  their  sea  route  from  the  Aegean  to  the  Italian  islands,  thence  to 
Spain,  and  around  Gibraltar  to  Britain  and  the  north.  During  the  Late 
Bronze  Age  movements  of  peoples  may  be  established  archaeologically, 
but  the  racial  interpretation  is  complicated  by  the  adoption  of  that  un- 
fortunate practice,  cremation,  which  destroys  the  evidence  which  physical 
anthropologists  require. 

(2)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN  WESTERN  ASIA 

The  age  of  metal  began  in  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia  early  in  the  fourth 
millennium  B.C.,  and  by  3000  B.C.  it  had  spread  to  the  Aegean  and  to 
Anatolia.  Crete  probably  received  metal  age  influences  from  Palestine  and 
Egypt  before  most  of  the  Anatolian  mainland.  Cyprus,  which  bears  the 
same  name  as  copper,  was  another  early  center,  In  the  diffusion  of  early 
metal  age  culture  westward  along  the  Mediterranean  and  northwestward 
up  the  Danube,  the  peoples  of  Asia  Minor,  Cyprus,  Crete,  and  the  Aegean 
played  an  important  r61e,  acting  as  transmitters  of  impulses  which  had 
originated  in  Egypt  and  Sumeria. 


136  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Let  us  first  examine  what  Bronze  Age  skeletal  material  there  is  in  Asia 
Minor.  So  far,  all  of  it  comes  from  two  sites,  Alishar  Hiiyiik,  which,  in  its 
later  periods,  was  a  Hittite  city,  and  Hissarlik,  the  seventh  level  of  which 
was  Homer's  Troy.  Both  were  important  centers  in  the  Bronze  Age.  At 
Alishar,  fifty-three  skulls  have  been  studied,  from  seven  archaeological 
periods,  ranging  from  the  earliest  Copper  Age,  dated  from  between  2600 
and  2300  B.C.,  to  the  Osmanli  invasion.2 

Ten  crania  from  the  earliest  period  (two  "Chalcolithic,"  eight  Copper 
Age)  are  uniformly  Danubian  in  type,  both  metrically  and  morphologi- 
cally. The  small,  high-vaulted,  somewhat  infantile  dolicho-  and  meso- 
cephalic  form,  with  small  face  and  mesorrhine  to  chamaerrhine  noses,  is 
no  different  from  that  found  at  roughly  the  same  time  at  Anau,  at  Mariu- 
pol, in  the  Kiev  Government,  and  in  the  Danube  Valley,  in  association 
with  Neolithic  cultures.  Two  others,  which  are  longer,  may  belong  to  a 
Megalithic  or  Corded  variety.  The  unity  of  the  early  food-producing  peo- 
ples on  both  sides  of  the  Caucasus  and  Black  Sea  is  therefore  indicated,  and 
from  the  racial  standpoint,  the  Danubians  could  have  come  to  central 
Europe  from  either  South  Russia  or  Anatolia,  or  both. 

In  the  second  and  third  periods  at  Alishar,  dated  between  2300  and 
1500  B.C.,  and  called  the  Early  Bronze  Age,  brachycephalic  skulls  ap- 
peared, and  these  persisted  through  the  period  of  the  Hittite  Empire,  for 
several  centuries  after  1500  B.C.  The  crania  are  large,  low  vaulted,  and 
only  moderately  brachycephalic,  with  lambdoid  flattening,  and  moderate 
browridges.  The  faces  are  of  medium  length,  and  narrow,  although  some- 
what broader  than  those  of  the  earlier  Danubian  type.  The  stature  of  the 
one  male  observed  was  tall,  174  cm.3 

Not  all  of  the  Hittite  Empire  crania  are  brachycephalic.  A  long-headed 
variety,  which  seems  to  have  replaced  or  outnumbered  the  brachycephals 
by  the  time  of  the  Phrygian  invasions,  is  both  longer  and  lower  vaulted 
than  the  Danubian  type  of  the  Copper  Age;  it  is  characterized  by  a  very 
prominent  nasal  skeleton  of  true  Near  Eastern  form,  with  little  nasion 
depression.  Bas-relief  sculptures  of  historic  Hittites  reproduce  this  hook- 
nosed, open-eyed  type  of  countenance. 

The  sequence  of  racial  types  in  Asia  Minor  during  the  metal  ages  prob- 
ably runs  somewhat  as  follows:  the  earliest  food-producing  people  were 
the  same  as  those  in  western  Turkestan  and  southern  Russia.  The  latter 
probably  came  in  earlier  times  from  the  highland  belt  of  which  Anatolia 

2Kansu,  Shevket  Aziz,  TAM,  vol.  6,  #10,  1930,  pp.  25-30;  ibid.,  vol.  10,  #15-16, 
1934  pp.  105  seq.;  BTTK,  vol.  1,  #1,  1937,  pp.  192-202. 

Krogman,  W.  M.,  POIC,  #20,  1933,  app.  #4,  pp.  123-138;  "Cranial  Types  from 
Alishar  Huyiik,"  in  H.  H.  von  der  Osten,  The  Ahshar  Huyuk,  POIC,  #30,  Chicago, 
1937,  Partiv,  pp.  213-293. 

8Kansu,  Shevket  Aziz,  1937,  Skeleton  #3. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE 


137 


forms  a  part.  Shortly  before  2000  B.C.,  a  moderately  brachycephalic  type, 
with  tall  stature,  entered  Anatolia  from  regions  yet  to  be  determined, 
followed  by  a  low-vaulted,  hawk-nosed  Mediterranean  form,  which  we 
have  named  "Cappadocian,"  and  which  is  well  known  in  the  present  day 
Near  East.  True  Armenoids  or  Binaries  were  not,  apparently,  common 
in  early  times. 

During  the  third  millennium  B.C.,  the  city  of  Troy,  located  strategically 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Bosporus,  grew  from  a  village  to  a  city,  and 
acted  as  the  most  important  center  of  diffusion  for  Bronze  Age  culture  to 
the  north  and  west,  especially  to  the  Danube  Valley.  Troy  II,  the  first 
real  city,  lasted  through  much  of  the 
third  millennium,  and  was  razed  soon 
after  2000  B.C.  The  skull  of  one 
young  female .  from  this  level  4  seems 
to  represent  the  same  brachycephalic 
type  found  at  Alishar,  with  which  it 
was  probably  contemporaneous.  If 
craftsmen  and  immigrants  were  pass- 
ing over  the  Bosporus  at  that  time, 
carrying  metal  techniques  to  central 
Europe,  we  may,  therefore,  suppose 
that  some  of  the  few  round-heads 
found  in  sites  in  the  Balkans,  who 
were  at  last  entering  Europe  from  the 
east,  came  from  this  quarter. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  second  mil- 
lennium was  built  the  Ilium  which 
the  fair-haired  Achaeans  were  later 
to  lay  waste;  and  the  settlements  be- 
tween the  important  third  millennium  city  and  that  of  Homer's  heroes 
were  but  minor  villages.  Troy  III  (Schliemann's  sequence),  which  existed 
through  the  first  century  or  more  of  the  second  millennium,  has  yielded  two 
male  and  one  female  skulls.6  These  three  belong  to  one  type;  a  large  doli- 
chocephal,  with  low  to  medium  vault,  and  a  face  of  moderate  size.  In  gen- 
eral, they  resembled  the  "  Eurafrican"  type  prevalent  in  Mesopotamia  at  the 
same  time,  and  the  Long  Barrow  or  Megalithic  Neolithic  form.  Homer's 
Troy,  which  falls  wholly  within  the  Bronze  Age,  is  sterile  of  skeletons. 

In  Palestine,  at  the  city-site  of  Megiddo,  twenty-seven  skulls  have  been 
taken  from  the  Copper  Age  or  Chalcolithic  level,  dated  before  3000  B.C., 
and  five  more  from  the  immediately  following  Early  Bronze  Age  horizon, 

4  Schliemann,  H.,  Ilios,  City  and  Country  of  the  Trojans,  pp.  270-272. 
*  Schliemann,  H.,  op.  cit,,  pp.  509-512. 


FIG.  26.  HITTITE. 

After  Schafer,  H.,  and  Andrae,  W., 
Die  Kunst  des  alien  Orients,  1925,  p.  554. 


138  THE  RAGES   OF  EUROPE 

which  lasted  until  about  2600  B.C.6  The  crania  from  both  levels  are  small 
dolichocephals,  of  a  Mediterranean  type;  they  are  delicate  and  feminine 
in  aspect,  and  sexing  is  difficult.  The  nose  is  prominent,  with  a  high  root, 
which  often  springs  directly  from  glabella  without  nasion  depression.  Yet 
in  many  cases  a  break  in  the  lateral  profile  is  formed  by  a  bulbousness  of 
the  forehead  above  glabella.  The  occipital  development  is  great,  and 
prognathism  is  not  uncommon. 

The  high-nosed  Cappadocian  element  found  in  Alishar  Hiiyuk  from  the 
time  of  the  Hittite  Empire  onward  was  also,  therefore,  the  prevailing 
racial  type  of  at  least  one  important  city  of  Palestine  during  the  same 
period.  Four  Bronze  Age  skulls,  two  each  from  the  Mount  of  Olives  and 
Am  Jebrul,  may  be  included  in  the  same  category.7  One  br  achy  cephalic 
skull,  however,  has  been  found  in  Bronze  Age  Palestine;  in  the  cave  of 
Umm  Qatafa,  in  the  Wady  Khreitum.8  This  belonged  to  an  adolescent, 
presumably  a  male,  with  a  vertical  forehead,  small  browridges,  and  a  ver- 
tical occiput.  With  him  was  a  large,  prognathous  dolichocephal.  These 
two  were  not  buried  in  the  cave,  but  had  been  trapped  by  a  fall  of  rock. 

Returning  to  Megiddo,  we  are  told  that  "the  skulls  from  the  Hyksos  and 
Late  Bronze  Age  burials  differ  markedly  from  the  Early  Bronze  and  Chal- 
colithic  specimens,  and  altogether  appear  to  form  another  major  physical 
group."  9  What  the  features  of  this  later  group  may  have  been,  we  cannot 
determine  without  further  information.  But  we  have  one  other  indication 
of  racial  types  in  the  Bronze  Age  Near  East,  and  that  is  the  pictures  on 
Egyptian  monuments,  which  almost  without  exception  show  western 
Asiatics  as  white-skinned,  bearded,  and  aquiline-nosed.  Some  are  blond, 
but  most  are  brunet. 

After  Alishar,  our  next  good  series  of  Near  Eastern  Bronze  Age  crania 
comes  from  Cyprus.  The  Bronze  Age  culture  which  flourished  in  this 
island  is  divided  into  three  periods;  Early,  Middle,  and  Late  Cypriote; 
from  3000-2100,  2100-1600,  and  1600-1000  B.C.10  Three  skulls  from  the 
early  period  include  two  brachycephals,  which  are  too  fragmentary  for 
further  study,  and  one  high-vaulted  mesocephalic  example.  In  the  early 
and  middle  periods  combined,  twenty  skulls  have  been  studied.  Of  these, 
forty  per  cent,  mostly  from  the  middle  period,  are  brachycephalic.11  (See 
Appendix  I,  col.  20.)  The  population  was  clearly  mixed,  with  a  long- 

6  Ehgberg,  R.  M.,  and  Shipton,  G.  M.,  Notes  on  the  Chalcolithic  and  Early  Bronze  Age 
Pottery  of  Megiddo,  pp.  44-46. 

7  Henckel,  K.  O.,  ZFMA,  vol.  28,  1930,  pp.  238-243. 

s  Neuville,  R,,  and  Boureau,  R.,  BSAP,  ser.  8,  vol.  1,  1930,  pp.  33-36. 
9  Engberg  and  Shipton,  p.  46.  ' 

NFttrst,  C.  M.,  LUA,  N.  F.  Bd.  29/6,  1933. 

11  Furst's  3  EG  and  2  MG  crania,  and  Buxton's  15  EC  +  MC.  See  Fiirst,  op.  cit.; 
Buxton,  L.  D.,  JEAI,  1920,  vol.  50,  pp.  183-235;  Massari,  C.,  APA,  vol.  59,  1929, 
pp.  65-75. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE 


139 


headed  hook-nosed  Hittite-like  element,  and  a  brachycephalic  one.  In 
the  Late  Cypriote  period,  seventy  per  cent  of  forty-seven  skulls  were 
brachycephalic.  The  round-headed  element  was  clearly  on  the  increase 
during  the  Bronze  Age,  and  it  may  have  begun  entering  the  island  at  any 
time  between  3000  and  2100  B.C.  Judging  from  the  evidence  of  Asia 
Minor  and  Palestine,  we  may  suppose  that  this  took  place  nearer  the  late 
than  the  early  date.  At  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age,  iron-using  invaders  re- 
established dolichocephaly. 

The  long-headed  element  in  Bronze  Age  Cyprus  was,  apparently,  the 
typical  Cappadocian,  or  Near  Eastern  variety  of  Mediterranean.    In  the 

FACIAL  TYPES   IN   BRONZE   AGE   CYPRUS 


FIG.  27  FIG.  28 

Gjerstadt,  J.;  Lindros,  J.;  Sjoqvist,  E.;  Wcstholm,  A.;  Swedish  Cyprus  Expedition, 
Stockholm,  1935.   Vol.  ii,  plates  CCXVI  and  CLXXXIX. 

Late  Cypriote  period,  during  the  prevalence  of  brachycephaly,  an  attempt 
was  made  through  artificial  deformation  to  lengthen  the  head  form,  pro- 
ducing the  so-called  "Hittite"  style  of  deformation.  In  Egypt,  Ikhnaton's 
head  was  similarly  deformed,  as  were  those  of  his  two  daughters. 

The  round-headed  element  in  Cyprus,  which  appears  identical  with  that 
from  Alishar,  is  numerous  enough  to  warrant  statistical  comparisons. 
Fiirst  calls  the  skulls  Armenoid,  and  they  do  resemble  Iron  Age  and 
modern  Armenians  quite  closely  in  vault  size  and  proportions,  but  the 
faces  and  noses  of  the  Cypriotes  are  smaller  in  both  height  and  breadth. 


140  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

At  the  same  time,  they  resemble  modern  Alpines  in  vault  size,  while  the 
faces  are  narrower.  The  bloc  of  early  brachycephals  of  western  Europe 
and  North  Africa  which  includes  Afalou,  Ofnet,  and  the  Borreby  skulls 
is  quite  different,  being  much  larger  in  vault  size  and  in  facial  dimensions 
as  well.  The  Cypriotes  notably  lack  the  heavy  mandible  of  western  Euro- 
pean brachycephals. 

The  position  of  the  Cypriotes  in  the  modern  racial  scheme  falls  into  the 
brachycephalic  group  of  moderate  vault  size,  including  Alpines,  Arme- 
noids,  and  Dinarics;  the  most  notable  feature  is  the  small  face,  notable  for 
its  narrowness,  and  the  light  jaw.  It  is  more  like  the  modern  Dinarics  than 
anything  else,  since  it  diverges  from  the  Armenian  standard  in  the  same 
way  as  do  modern  Albanians.  The  stature  12  was  tall,  as  with  modern 
Dinarics,  and  the  long  bones  slender.  The  brachycephalic  people  who 
entered  the  Anatolian — Eastern  Mediterranean  region  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  third  millennium  B.C.  were,  therefore,  ari  early  form  of  Dinaric;  as, 
one  suspects,  were  the  so-called  "Armenoids"  who  came  into  Mesopo- 
tamia at  the  same  time.  This  is  our  first  meeting  with  the  Dinaric  race. 
Its  appearance  in  western  Asia  seems  quite  abrupt,  but  was  probably  the  re- 
sult of  a  gradual  development,  followed  by  an  overflow  or  evacuation  from 
the  seat  of  its  characterization.  Where  this  may  have  been  is  still  unknown. 

Nevertheless,  we  may  eliminate  a  number  of  possibilities.  It  did  not 
come  from  Egypt  or  Mesopotamia,  and  it  could  not  have  come  from  the 
northern  steppes,  which  were  occupied  by  dolichocephals.  Its  place  of 
origin  was  probably  not  far  from  Cyprus.  Despite  the  Anatolian  evidence, 
it  may  have  developed  somewhere  in  the  highlands  of  Asia  Minor  or  in  the 
mountains  of  Syria,  for  it  is  especially  numerous  in  both  these  places  today. 

It  could  not,  presumably,  have  been  an  unreduced  and  unmixed  Upper 
Palaeolithic  survival.  It  lacks  the  size  of  vault,  the  width  of  face,  and  the 
lowness  of  orbit  which  characterize  all  groups  so  derived.  In  face  and  nose 
form  and  in  size,  it  resembles  the  common  Mediterranean  types  of  Asia 
Minor,  Mesopotamia,  and  the  Irano- Afghan  plateau.  It  may,  therefore, 
have  been  a  local  and  specialized  Near  Eastern  form,  brachycephalized 
by  some  agency  and  mechanism  which  will  be  explained  later.13  From 
its  point  of  dispersal  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean,  it  spread  by 
sea  into  far  distant  lands. 

(3)   THE  MINOANS 

The  earliest  land  to  receive  metal  which  is  considered  part  of  Europe 
was  Crete,  and  there  the  Bronze  Age  Minoan  civilization  began  a  century 

18  Mean  for  13  males  =168  cm. 

18  The  biological  status  and  origin  of  the  Dinaric  race  will  be  explained  in  the  chap- 
ters on  the  living,  particularly  in  Chapter  VIII,  Section  6,  and  Chapter  XII,  Sec- 
tions 11,  12,  and  17. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  141 


or  two  before  3000  B.C.  Crete  had  been  occupied  in  earlier  times  by  Neo- 
lithic peoples,  of  whom  unfortunately  no  physical  traces  remain.  The 
Metal  Age  was  introduced  by  immigrants  from  two  directions — from  the 
Egyptian  Delta,  about  the  time  that  Menes  was  extending  his  power  north- 
ward, and  from  the  mainland  of  Asia,  presumably  from  Palestine.  The 
Cretan  manner  of  metal-working  was  largely  of  Asiatic  rather  than  of 
Egyptian  inspiration.14 

Although  Neolithic  remains  are  absent,  the  Minoan  Age  is  represented 
by  one  hundred  and  more  skulls,  and  a  smaller  number  of  long  bones,15 
as  well  as  a  considerable  body  of  very  realistic  fresco  painting  and  sculpture 
in  the  round. 

The  Cretan  skulls  found  at  various  sites  on  the  island  belong  to  a  fairly 
uniform  type;  this  is  a  small  Mediterranean  variety  with  a  mean  cranial 
index  of  about  72.  Metrically,  they  could  fit  perfectly  into  a  number  of 
Egyptian  collections,  from  the  Naqada  predynastic  to  the  Middle  Empire. 
On  the  whole,  these  Cretan  crania  are  a  little  smaller,  shorter-faced,  and 
less  leptorrhine  than  the  majority  of  the  Egyptian  series,  and  show  leanings 
in  the  direction  of  the  Copper  Age  skulls  from  Alishar,  and  the  Early 
Bronze  Age  ones  from  Palestine.  The  mean  type  was  somewhere  between 
Danubian,  Cappadocian,  and  Egyptian  forms. 

That  this  was  a  short-statured  variety  of  Mediterranean  race  is  shown  by 
the  long  bones;  local  means  vary  from  156  to  162  cm.  Hence,  the  Cretans 
were  shorter  than  the  Egyptians  as  well  as  lower  faced.  The  bodily  build 
of  the  Cretans  is  well  known  from  fresco  painting  and  sculpture;  the  local 
ideal  of  a  small  waist  and  wiry,  light,  but  vigorous  musculature,  which 
occurs  so  constantly  in  the  Minoan  art,  must  have  been  based  to  a  large 
extent  on  reality.  Nevertheless,  there  was  a  variant  minority  with  broad 
bodies,  and,  in  the  women,  large  breasts;16  this  departure  from  the  usual 
Mediterranean  form  was  also  seen  in  Egypt,  and  does  not  necessarily 
imply  the  presence  of  an  alien  race. 

The  Minoans  were  prevailingly  brunet  in  hair  and  eye  color,  but  in  Late 
Minoan  times,  at  least,  blondism  was  known,  but  apparently  not  com- 
mon.17 The  skin  is  represented  by  Minoan  painters  as  a  deep  terra  cotta 
for  men,  and  white  for  women.  This  exaggerates  the  difference  between 
outdoor  and  indoor  habits  of  life.  It  again  reflects  Egyptian  influence.  The 

i*  Ghilde,  V.  G.,  The  Bronze  Age,  pp.  19-20. 

16  Evans,  Sir  A.,  Palace  of  Minos  at  Knossus,  vol.  1,  pp.  7-13. 

Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,  ARBS,  vol.  9,  1902-03,  pp.  344-355. 

Hawcs,  G.  H.,  and  H.  B.,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  pp.  23-26. 

Luschan,  E.  von,  ZFE,  vol.  45,  1913,  pp.  307-393. 

Rosinski,  B.,  Kosmos,  vol.  50,  1925,  pp.  584-637. 

Sergi,  G.,  AJA,  second  ser.,  vol.  5,  1901,  pp.  315-318. 

M  Myres,  J.  L.,  Who  Were  The  Greeks?  pp.  74-76. 

»  Myres,  J.  L.,  op.  cit.9  pp.  198-199. 


142  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

Egyptians,  however,  rarely  colored  the  wall  paintings  of  their  women 
purely  white;  except  in  the  case  of  goddesses  and  such  rare  mortals  as 
Hetep  Heres  II,  the  usual  color  is  a  pinkish  yellow. 

The  facial  features  of  the  Cretans,  if  one  discounts  the  conventions  of 
the  artists,  were  purely  Mediterranean;  the  straight,  prominent  nose,  with 
its  high  root,  the  smooth  profile  of  the  forehead,  and  the  lightness  of  the 
mandible  are  all  clearly  shown.  The  hair  form  is  wavy  or  lightly  curled, 
and  the  beard,  usually  clean  shaven,  was  apparently  scanty.  A  variant 
racial  type,  which  may  indicate  an  Alpine  element  similar  to  that  found  in 
Greece  (see  following  section),  is  seen  in  a  broad-faced  fofm,  associated 
with  a  lateral  bodily  habitus,  and  an  occasional  snub  nose.  Although  the 
physical  type  of  the  Cretans  has  changed  somewhat  since  the  fall  of  the 
Minoan  power,  the  features  of  the  happy  and  athletic  people  shown  on 
the  frescoes  at  Knossus,  and  the  preoccupied  frown  of  the  snake  goddess, 
are  still  familiar  to  us,  for  they  reflect  the  common  heritage  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean race  elsewhere. 

Most  of  the  Early  Minoan  skulls  belong  to  the  Mediterranean  type  just 
described,  which  shows  a  blending  between  the  usual  Neolithic  variety 
and  the  convex-nosed  type  prevalent  in  the  Near  East.  In  some  sites,  as  at 
Hagios  Nikolas  and  Patema,  the  population  was  exclusively  Mediter- 
ranean. In  others,  a  few  brachycephalic  examples  occur,  and  these  ap- 
parently belong  to  the  same  type  found  at  Cyprus. 

In  the  later  Minoan  periods  the  brachycephals  increased  in  numbers, 
but  never  formed  more  than  a  minor  element  in  the  population,  probably 
not  more  than  a  sixth  at  most.  Since  70  per  cent  of  the  population  of  Cy- 
prus may  have  belonged  to  this  type,  the  Cretans  must  have  kept  them- 
selves fairly  free  from  eastern  admixture  after  the  initial  establishment  of 
their  national  culture  and  power.  At  the  time  of  the  Dorian  invasions,  as 
today,  the  Cretans  were  still  predominantly  Mediterranean. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  Early  Minoan  period,  somewhat  before  2100 
B.C.,  strong  Cycladic  influences  entered  Crete,  and  it  is  possible  that  some 
of  the  Middle  and  Late  Minoan  skulls  of  unusual  size  and  Megalithic  con- 
formation may  be  derived  from  this  movement.  The  present  population  of 
Crete  belongs  largely  to  a  tall  Mediterranean  type,  which  may  partially 
antedate  the  Dorian  arrival.18 

(4)  THE   GREEKS 

The  question  of  the  origin  of  the  Greeks  has  long  been  an  apparently 
insoluble  enigma.  For  centuries,  before  the  development  of  archaeology 

18  Our  data  on  which  is  based  the  assumption  that  all  Cretans  were  of  short  stature 
are  not  numerous.  The  Philistines,  presumably  Cretan  relatives  in  Palestine,  are 
thought  to  have  been  tall,  while  some  of  the  Mycenaeans  in  Greece  were  of  large  stature. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  143 


as  a  scientific  discipline,  history  began  with  Herodotus,  and  Homer  was  a 
small  window  permitting  tantalizing  glimpses  into  the  most  distant  past. 
In  recent  years,  however,  great  advances  have  been  made  toward  the 
solution  of  this  problem,  by  the  linguistic  and  historical  researches  of 
Myres,19  and  by  the  publication  of  skeletal  material  by  Fiirst  and  Kou- 
rnaris. 

The  historical  reconstruction  may  be  briefly  summarized  as  follows: 
During  the  Neolithic,  Greece  was  culturally  connected  with  North  Africa 
and  the  rest  of  the  Mediterranean  basin.  The  one  skull  which  is  known 
is  of  normal  Mediterranean  racial  type.  In  the  early  Metal  Age,  immi- 
grants from  the  Cycladic  islands,  of  Asia  Minor  origin,  introduced  copper 
to  Greece,  with  the  mother  goddess  cult,  and  settled  on  either  side  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Corinth.  In  the  meanwhile,  Painted  Pottery  people  of  Danu- 
bian  cultural  origin  came  down  to  Greece  from  the  north,  driven  by 
Corded  people.  Thus,  by  2000  B.C.,  there  were,  from  the  cultural  stand- 
point, three  elements  in  the  Greek  population:  (a)  local  Neolithic  Medi- 
terranean; (b)  Danubian  from  the  north;  (c)  Cycladic  people  of  eventual 
Asia  Minor  origin. 

Between  2000  B.C.  and  the  period  of  Homer,  Greece  was  invaded  three 
times  more;  (a)  by  Corded  people  (Myres  calls  them  "Kurgan"  people), 
who  came  from  the  north  about  1900  B.C.,  and  who,  Myres  thinks,20  may 
have  brought  the  Indo-European  basis  of  Hellenic  speech;  (b)  by  Minoans 
from  Crete,  who  founded  the  "long  genealogies";  dynasties  of  rulers  at 
Thebes,  Athens,  Mycenae,  and  elsewhere.  Most  of  these  entered  Greece 
about  1400  B.C.,  although  some  may  have  dated  back  to  1700  B.C.;  (c)  by 
"divine  born"  foreigners,  such  as  Atreus,  Pelops,  etc.,  who  came  from 
across  the  Aegean  in  ships,  learned  Greek,  usurped  thrones,  and  married 
the  daughters  of  the  kings  of  Minoan  ancestry. 

These  foreigners,  whom  Myres  likens  to  the  Normans  in  English  history, 
begat  the  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war.  The  war  itself  reflects  the  close  re- 
lationship between  these  adventurers  and  Priam's  Troy.  In  the  wars, 
the  Homeric  heroes  formed  the  nuclei  of  small  groups  of  "companions"; 
these  were  homeless  adventurers,  refugees,  and  poor  relatives,  who  had 
attached  themselves  to  the  heroes  in  a  close  personal  bond.  The  bulk  of 
the  Greek  army  was  composed  of  local  conscripts  from  the  various  king- 
doms of  Greece,  who  were  of  a  different  ethnic  origin  and  who,  like 
Thersites,  had  no  especial  interest  in  destroying  Troy. 

The  post-Homeric  and  Iron  Age  Dorians,  long  regarded  as  fresh  in- 
vaders from  the  north  were,  according  to  Myres's  reconstruction,  but 

19  Myres,  J.  L.,  op.  cit.,  1930. 

20  In  view  of  evidence  to  be  presented  later,  it  is  more  likely  that  the  Danubiaiis 
brought  it  (Chapter  VI). 


144  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Greek  speakers  who  had  been  isolated  in  the  Mt.  Olympus  region  by  the 
warlike  activities  of  the  Thebans,  and  who  had  obtained  iron  from  Asia 
Minor. 

The  Greeks  of  the  great  period  of  Athenian  civilization  were  thus  the 
product  of  much  mixture  from  diverse  ethnic  sources,  as  the  study  of  the 
origin  of  the  Greek  language  also  reveals. 

The  skeletal  record  can,  in  part,  supplement  the  evidence  of  recon- 
structed history.  Six  skulls  from  Hagias  Kosrnas  near  Athens  represent 
the  period  of  amalgamation  of  Neolithic  Mediterranean,  Danubian,  and 
Cycladic  elements,  between  2500  and  2200  B.C.21  Three  are  dolicho- 
cephalic, one  mesocephalic,  and  two  br  achy  cephalic.  The  faces  of  all  are 
narrow,  the  noses  leptorrhine,  the  orbits  high.  One  may  conclude  that 
a  Cretan  type  of  Mediterranean  and  the  Cypriote  Dinaric  form  were  both 
present. 

Twenty-five  Mid-Helladic  crania  represent  the  period  after  the  arrival 
of  the  Corded  or  "Kurgan"  folk  from  the  north,  and  during  the  seizure  of 
power  by  the  Minoan  conquerors  from  Crete.22  Of  these,  twenty-three 
come  from  Asine,  and  two  from  Mycenae.  Needless  to  say,  the  population 
of  this  time  was  very  mixed.  Only  two  skulls  are  brachycephalic;  they 
are  both  male,  and  both  associated  with  very  short  stature.  One  is  of 
medium  size,  high- vaulted,  and  narrow-nosed  and  narrow-faced;  the  other 
extremely  broad-faced  and  chamaerrhine.  They  seem  to  represent  two 
different  broad-headed  types,  both  of  which  can  probably  be  found  in 
Greece  today. 

The  long  heads  are  not  of  uniform  type;  some,  with  large  vaults  and 
strong  browridges,  with  deep  nasion  depressions,  remind  one  of  the  larger 
varieties  of  Neolithic  dolichocephals,  of  both  Long  Barrow  and  Corded 
types;  and  Fiirst  feels  that  a  number  of  them  are  very  similar  to  the  Late 
Neolithic  crania  from  Scandinavia,  of  about  equal  age.  Needless  to  say, 
both  Corded  and  Megalithic  people  were  present  in  Denmark  and  Sweden 
at  about  this  time. 

The  rest  of  the  long-headed  crania,  which  are  probably  more  truly 
representative  of  the  bulk  of  the  Mid-Helladic  population,  are  of  the  slight- 
browed,  high-nosed  type  familiar  in  Crete  and  Asia  Minor  during  the 
same  epoch.  They,  too,  are  short  statured,  while  the  few  examples  of  the 
larger-headed  variety  are,  as  is  expected,  taller.  It  is  impossible,  with 
present  data,  to  isolate  from  the  main  body  of  these  crania  a  Danubian 
type,  although  the  latter  may  well  have  been  present. 

Forty-one  Late  Helladic  skulls,  dated  between  1500  and  1200  B.C.,  and 
coming  likewise  from  Argolis,  may  include  those  of  some  of  the  "divine- 

21  Koumaris,  J.,  RA,  vol.  44,  1934,  pp.  248-251. 

^Ftirst,  C.  M.,  LUA,  N.  F.,  vol.  26,  #8,  1930;  VHPA,  vol.  4,  1930,  pp.  3-14. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  145 


born"  invaders.  Among  these,  one-fifth  are  brachycephalic,  and  appar- 
ently largely  of  the  Cypriote  Dinaric  type.  Of  the  long-headed  skulls,  a 
large  number  belongs  now  to  the  larger,  more  heavily  marked  varieties, 
and  fewer  to  the  smaller  Mediterranean.  The  similarity  to  the  northern 
types,  and  especially  to  the  Corded,  is  even  stronger  than  before.  This 
increase  in  a  non-Minoan  direction  may  perhaps  be  attributed  to  the 
arrival  of  the  ancestors  of  Homer's  heroes. 

This  survey  carries  us  through  the  Bronze  Age.  The  racial  history  of 
Greece  in  full  classical  time  is  not  as  well  documented  as  that  of  the  periods 
just  studied.  Until  the  inception  of  the  slave  trade  23  in  Athens  and  other 
centers  of  manufacture  and  export,  there  can,  however,  have  been  little 
population  change.  In  Argolis,  the  Mediterranean  racial  element  is  the 
only  one  clearly  shown  in  six  pro  to-geometric  and  "Hellenic"  crania.24 
According  to  Koumaris's  compilation  of  cranial  indices,25  mesocephaly 
reigned  everywhere  in  Greece  during  the  classical  period,  and  into  Hellen- 
istic and  Roman  times.  The  mean  index  for  Athens  in  the  great  period  was 
75.6,  on  30  crania.  This  mesocephaly  probably  conceals  the  presence  of  a 
varied  racial  amalgam,  with  Mediterranean  strains  predominant.  The 
Greek  colonies  in  Asia  Minor  show  much  the  same  combination  of  types 
which  we  have  seen  in  Greece  itself.26  Mixture  with  Asiatics  must  have 
been  masked  by  the  essential  racial  similarity  of  the  populations  on  either 
side  of  the  Aegean. 

Greek  literature  and  Greek  art  furnish  an  abundance  of  evidence  as 
to  the  pigmentation  and  the  characteristic  facial  features  of  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Hellas.  The  Olympian  gods,  ancestors  of  the  semi- 
divine  heroes,  were  for  the  most  part  blond,  with  ivory  skins  and  golden 
hair.  Athene  was  gray  eyed.  Poseidon,  however,  was  black  haired. 
These  gods  were  little  different,  if  we  may  believe  Homer,  from  their 
descendants  the  heroes,  most  of  whom  were  white  limbed  and  golden 
haired.27 

Odysseus's  herald  Eurybates  was  dark  skinned  and  curly  haired; 
Achilles's  son  Neoptolemos,  perhaps  by  a  brunet  mother,  was  rufous.  The 
Spartans  were  said  to  be  blond,  and  in  fifth-century  Athens  women 
bleached  their  hair  with  an  herb  which  turned  it  golden  yellow,  in  pur- 
suance of  a  blond  ideal.  Vase  painters  of  the  sixth  to  fourth  centuries  were 
able  to  distinguish  blond  and  brunet  color  by  conventional  glazes,  and 

23  Zaborowski,  S.,  ARSI  for  1912,  1913,  pp.  597-608. 
^Furst,  G.  M./LUA,  vol.  26,  #8,  1930,  pp.  92-95. 
26  Koumaris,  J.,  ACAP,  1931,  pp.  218  seq. 

26  Schumacher,  O.,  ZFMA,  vol.  25,  1926,  pp.  435-463. 
Zaborowski,  S.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  3,  1881,  pp.  234-238. 

27  Myres  has  conclusively  demonstrated  that  the  much  disputed  word  f  av36s  actu- 
ally did  mean  "yellowish"  or  "sandy."    Pp.  192-194. 


146  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

applied  this  distinction  to  representations  of  living  models  as  well  as  of 
heroes. 

Greek  terminology  included  words  for  blue  and  brown  eyes,  and  for 
green  ones,  the  color  of  an  olive  leaf,  as  well;  in  skin  color  it  recognized 
rosy  vascularity,  a  pallid  hue  resembling  cream  cheese  or  the  skin  of  un- 
ripe apples,  a  honey  color,  and  a  deep  brunet.  To  Phoenician  merchants 
and  tanned  sailors  of  other  nationalities,  they  gave  the  name  "phoinix," 
comparable  to  the  color  of  a  ripe  date,  or  a  bay  horse.  Thus  within  the 
Greek  commonwealth  as  without  it,  all  variations  of  pigmentation  known 
to  modern  Europeans  were  probably  to  be  found. 

The  Minoan  convention  of  a  high-rooted  nose  and  a  lithe  body  passed 
over  into  classical  Greece  as  an  artistic  ideal,  but  the  portrait  busts  of  in- 
dividuals show  that  it  cannot  have  been  common  in  life.  Villains,  com- 
ical characters,  satyrs,  centaurs,  giants,  and  all  unpleasant  people  and 
those  not  to  be  admired,  are  often  shown  in  sculpture  and  in  vase  painting 
as  broad-faced,  snub-nosed,  and  heavily  bearded.  Socrates,  who  belonged 
to  this  type,  was  maliciously  compared  to  a  satyr.  This  type  may  still  be 
found  in  Greece,  and  is  an  ordinary  Alpine.  In  the  early  skeletal  remains 
it  is  represented  by  some  of  the  brachycephalic  crania. 

On  the  whole,  one  is  impressed,  after  looking  at  the  portrait  busts  of 
Athenians,  and  the  clay  masks  of  Spartans,  with  their  resemblance  to  pres- 
ent-day western  Europeans.  This  resemblance  becomes  less  marked  in  the 
art  of  the  Byzantines,  however,  where  modern  near  Eastern  faces  are  more 
frequent;  but  the  Byzantines  lived  mostly  outside  of  Greece.  As  will  be 
shown  later  (Chapter  XII,  section  14),  the  modern  inhabitants  of  Greece 
itself  differ  surprisingly  little  from  their  classical  predecessors. 

(5)    COPPER  AND  BRONZE   IN  THE  WESTERN  MEDITERRANEAN 

In  early  Metal  Age  times  influences  from  Crete  and  the  Aegean,  in- 
cluding those  from  the  second  city  of  Troy,  spread  westward  to  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  Italy,  and  Spain,  reaching  also  the  smaller  islands  of  the  western 
Mediterranean.  This  maritime  diffusion  was  probably  carried  by  sea- 
farers in  search  of  new  sources  of  metal  as  well  as  markets  for  their  products, 
and  the  traders  and  adventurers  followed  the  old  Megalithic  routes.  In 
the  beginning  the  bringers  of  metal  and  the  Late  Megalithic  colonists  may 
well  have  been  the  same  people. 

The  evidence  of  the  racial  composition  of  the  Copper  Age  sailors  who 
reached  Italy  and  the  Italian  islands  is  simple  and  direct.  The  moderately 
tall,  long-headed,  and  narrow-nosed  Megalithic  people  who  were  im- 
planted, during  the  Late  Neolithic,  upon  the  smaller  Mediterranean  type 
which  had  preceded  them,  were  followed,  during  the  Aeneolithic,  by  others 
of  the  same  kind,  in  the  company  of  equally  tall  brachycephals.  The  latter 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  147 


resembled  the  people  of  the  same  Dinaric  head  form  in  Cyprus,  Crete, 
and  the  Aegean,  and  without  doubt  formed  a  westward  extension  of  the 
same  movement. 

In  Sicily,  which  probably  received  metal  earlier  than  most  of  the  main- 
land or  the  islands  farther  west,  Copper  Age  skulls  of  one  series  from 
Isnello28  are  all  of  general  Mediterranean  type,  with  the  Megalithic 
variety  predominant,  as  shown  by  excessive  skull  lengths,  moderate  vault 
heights,  and  narrow  noses.  The  mean  stature  for  twenty-four  males,  pre- 
sumably of  this  type,  was  169  cm.  Other  Sicilian  series,  however,  do  in- 
clude brachycephals,  as  at  Chiusella  and  Villafratti,  with  cranial  indices 
ranging  as  high  as  9 1.29  These  form,  however,  no  more  than  one-third  of 
the  total  Aeneolithic  series  from  Sicily.  In  the  true  Bronze  Age  which 
followed,  the  incidence  of  these  brachycephals  increased. 

In  Sardinia  a  large  series  of  sixty-three  Copper  Age  skulls  from  Anghelu 
Ruju  30  includes  sixteen  per  cent,  or  ten  individuals,  of  the  new  brachyce- 
phalic  type,  while  the  others  resemble  the  long  heads  of  Sicily,  The  group 
as  a  whole,  irrespective  of  head  form,  was  tall.81  The  racial  composition 
of  Corsica  during  these  periods  is  known  only  through  the  presence  of  one 
small,  short-statured,  long-headed  female  skeleton  of  either  Neolithic  or 
Aeneolithic  age,  and  two  brachycephalic  crania  from  the  Bronze  Age.32 

It  would  be  interesting  to  supplement  this  survey  of  the  Italian  islands 
with  a  study  of  the  crania  found  in  the  elaborate  burial  chambers  of  Malta, 
of  late  Neolithic  or  early  Metal  Age  date,  but  the  excavators  of  these 
vaults,  professional  and  otherwise,  literally  threw  away  what  was  probably 
the  longest  unified  series  of  human  crania  ever  found,  numbering  over 
seven  thousand.  We  are  told  that  these  early  Maltese  were  "Mediterra- 
neans," and  know  little  else  about  them.33 

On  the  mainland  of  Italy,  Aeneolithic  skeletons,  which  are  found  mostly 
on  the  western  side  of  the  central  portion  of  the  peninsula,  belong  to  the 
same  types  found  on  the  islands,  but  brachycephals  are  more  abundant, 
being  equal  in  number  to  the  dolicho-  and  mesocephals.84  Some  of  the 
Aeneolithic  Italians  of  the  Campagna  and  of  Latium  were  very  tali  and 
large  headed,  with  both  mesocephalic  and  brachycephalic  forms.85  In 

28  Giuffrida  Ruggeri,  V.,  ASRA,  vol.  11,  1905,  pp.  56-103. 
Zaborowski,  S.,  BMSA,  ser.  5,  vol.  6, 1905,  pp.  196-199. 

29  Sergi,  G.,  Grant  Preistorici  della  Sicitia;  Europa,  pp.  270-289. 

80  Sergi,  G,,  Crani  Antichi  della  Sardegna, 

81  Bruni,  E.,  RDAR,  vol.  26,  1924-25,  pp.  235-250. 

82  Bloch,  A.,  BSAP,  ser.  5,  vol.  3,  1902,  pp.  333-363. 

83  Tagliaferro,  N.,  Man,  vol.  11,  1911,  pp.  147-150. 

84  Sabatini,  A.,  RDAR,  vol.  29,  1930-32;  pp.  577-582. 
Sergi,  Europa ,  loc.  cit. 

Mochi,  A.,  APA,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp,  330-347. 

36  Genna,  G.  E.,  PICP,  1932,  pp.  60-64;  RDAR,  vol.  30,  1933-34,  pp.  235-262. 


148  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

Istria,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  the  Dinaric  population  which  is  dom- 
inant in  that  peninsula  today  had  begun  to  arrive  in  the  Copper  and 
Bronze  Ages,36  judging  by  a  series  of  six  female  crania  which  bear  definite 
indications  of  this  type,  such  as  flattening  of  the  occiput,  narrow  face, 
and  projecting  nasal  bones.  The  new  invaders  may,  therefore,  have 
travelled  up  the  Adriatic  as  well  as  over  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.87 

Reviewing  the  Italian  material,  on  both  metrical  and  morphological 
grounds  we  may  determine  that  the  round-headed  racial  type  which  came 
into  the  middle  Mediterranean  with  the  introduction  of  metal  was  of  a 
general  Dinaric  character,  and  without  doubt  came  from  Asia  Minor 
and  the  Aegean,  where  it  first  appeared  in  the  last  centuries  of  the  third 
millennium  B.C.  Since  the  metal  ages  of  the  middle  and  western  Mediter- 
ranean were  later  than  those  farther  east,  the  chronological  aspect  of  this 
theory  presents  no  contradictions. 

The  Balearic  Islands,  Spain,  and  Portugal  were,  of  course,  the  next 
stops  in  the  westward  spread  of  the  metal-carrying  seafarers  through  the 
Mediterranean.  During  the  Early  Copper  Age  in  Spain,  the  distinctive 
Bell  Beaker  culture  arose,  which  was  soon  to  spread  northward  and  east- 
ward into  central  Europe,  and  eventually  to  Britain,  as  an  important 
racial  movement;  and  another  culture  of  equal  local  importance,  that  of 
Los  Millares  in  Almeria,  developed  from  eastern  beginnings,  with  an  em- 
phasis on  the  importation  of  Egyptian  and  Near  Eastern  materials,  such 
as  hippopotamus  ivory,  ostrich  egg  shells,  and  actual  Near  Eastern 
pottery.88  The  center  of  Early  Bronze  Age  civilization  again  lay  in  Al- 
meria, with  el  Argar  as  the  principal  site,  and  began  about  2000  B.C. 
During  this  period,  which  lasted  until  the  Iron  Age,  there  was  again 
much  Egyptian  and  Aegean  influence. 

Unfortunately,  in  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  as  elsewhere,  the  human 
record  is  not  sufficient  to  support  the  complexity  of  the  cultural.  The 
craniologist  cannot  keep  pace  with  the  archaeologist;  we  cannot,  without 
more  numerous  and  more  accurately  correlated  skeletons,  tell  in  all  cases 
what  physical  types  went  with  each  archaeological  entity. 

In  the  Balearic  Islands,  for  a  beginning,  a  few  dolichocephalic  crania, 
and  one  brachycephal,  have  been  found  in  the  talayots,  or  corbelled  stone 
towers  resembling  the  Sardinian  nuraghes  and  Scottish  brochs,  which 
were  first  built  in  the  Copper  Age  but  which  were  used  until  the  advent  of 
iron.39  Fifty-eight  adult  and  five  juvenile  crania  with  long  bones  from  a 

86  Battaglia,  R.,  PICP,  1932,  pp.  57-60. 

87  Unless  these  particular  Binaries  came  overland  from  Central  Europe. 

88  Childe,  The  Bronze  Age,  pp.  146-153. 

89  Aranzadi,  T.  de,  BAC,  vol.  1,  1923,  pp.  134-140. 
Cameron,  John,  The  Skeleton  of  British  Neolithic  Man. 
Comas,  Juan,  Aportaciones  al  Estudio  de  la  Prehistoria  de  Menorca. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  149 


naveta>  or  long  barrow,  in  Menorca,  are  said  to  have  represented  a  homo- 
geneous group  of  people  with  short  stature,  long-heads  (all  cranial  indices 
being  under  75),  low  faces,  prominent,  aquiline  noses,  and  projecting 
chins.  The  form  of  the  scapulae  and  humeri  of  the  males  showed  that 
they  had  developed  great  shoulder  and  arm  muscles  from  slinging,  the 
activity  from  which  the  islands  derived  their  name.  Three  other  skulls 
from  an  ossuary  at  Biniatap  are  brachycephalic.40 

In  the  Copper  Age  groups  from  mainland  Spain  and  Portugal,  the  old 
long-headed  types  overwhelmingly  prevail:  out  of  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
four  crania,  which  represent  all  that  could  be  assembled  for  this  survey, 
only  fifteen,  or  nine  per  cent,  were  brachycephalic.41  If  one  includes 
Ariege,  Basses  Pyrenees,  and  Aveyron  in  the  south  of  France,  twenty-eight 
crania  may  be  added,  of  which  only  two  are  brachycephalic.42  One  of 
these,  from  a  site  near  the  city  of  Narbonne,  possesses  all  of  the  cranial 
and  facial  features  typical  of  the  Bronze  Age  brachycephals  of  Cyprus, 
Italy,  and  the  Italian  islands.  In  few  of  the  Spanish  instances  are  extensive 
details  given,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  brachycephalic  crania  there  are 
also  of  the  same  type. 

Many  of  the  dolichocephalic  Copper  Age  skulls  are  of  Megalithic  or 
Long  Barrow  type,  while  others  are  of  a  smaller,  less  rugged,  Mesolithic 
or  Neolithic  Mediterranean  variety.  Among  the  mesocephalic  crania, 
some  may  again  be  small  Mediterraneans,  while  others,  with  larger  vault 
dimensions,  may  in  many  instances  be  mixtures  between  Megalithic  and 
brachycephalic  types.  The  statures  of  the  large  dolichocephalic  group 
average  about  167  or  168  cm.;  taller  than  most  living  Spaniards  and  as 
tall  as  the  Neolithic  Long  Barrow  population  in  Britain.  Other  dolicho- 
cephalic crania  go  with  short  stature,  with  a  mean  of  about  160  cm.  Un- 
fortunately, it  is  not  possible  to  determine  the  approximate  proportions 
of  Megalithic  and  Mediterranean  types,  but  the  former  seem  to  be  at 
least  one-half  of  the  total. 

A  special  development  of  the  Copper  Age  in  Spain  was  the  Bell  Beaker 
culture,  about  which  more  will  be  said  later,  since  its  chief  influence  in  the 
racial  sense  fell  upon  areas  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  at  present  the 
general  belief  of  archaeologists  that  the  Bell  Beaker  culture  arose  in  central 

40  Cameron,  John,  PICP,  1932,  p.  60. 

41  Aguilo,  Juan  C.,  AMSE,  vol.  1,  1922,  pp.  23-36. 
Aranzadi,  T.  de,  BAC,  vol.  3,  1925,  pp.  177-206. 

Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  AMSE,  vol.  12, 1933,  pp.  90-123;  vol.  9, 1930,  pp.  59-64. 

Batista  i  Roca,  J.  M.,  BAC,  vol.  1,  1923,  pp.  104-133. 

Mendes-Correa,  A.  A.,  Os  Povos  Primitives  da  Lusitania. 

Tormo,  I.  Ballester,  APL,  vol.  1,  1928,  pp.  44-53. 

*2H616na,  Th.  and  Ph.,  BAC,  vol.  3,  1925,  pp.  1-35. 

Lapouge,  G.  V.  de,  Anth,  vol.  2,  1891,  pp.  681-695. 

Vallois,  H.,  Anth,  vol.  37,  1927,  pp.  277-303,  473-489. 


150  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

Spain,  shortly  before  2000  B.C.,  from  local  beginnings.43  A  North  African 
origin  is  rendered  unlikely  by  the  supposed  absence  of  a  Bronze  Age 
south  of  Gibraltar,  although  recent  work  in  Morocco  has  revealed  some 
supposedly  early  metal.44  Where  Bell  Beaker  burials  are  found  in  central 
Europe,  the  skeletons  are  almost  always  of  the  same  tall  brachycephalic 
type  which  we  have  already  studied  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean  and 
Italy.  In  Spain,  however,  they  are  frequently  of  the  Megalithic  race. 
The  basis  for  the  belief  that  the  Bell  Beaker  people  of  Spain  were  Binaries 
rests  largely  upon  three  cranial  fragments  from  the  type  site  of  this  culture 
at  Ciempozuelos,  near  Madrid,  and  upon  one  complete  mesocephalic 
skull  from  Cerro  de  Tomillo  some  forty  miles  away.46 

The  measurements  of  the  three  fragments  are  uncertain,  and  their 
allocation  to  a  definite  type  impossible.46  However,  all  three  fragments 
appear  to  be  brachycephalic,  and  one  to  have  a  high  vault.  One  has 
strong,  another  weak,  browridges.  One  seems  to  have  a  slight  lambdoid 
flattening.  In  the  only  fragment  which  possesses  facial  bones,  the  orbits 
are  high  and  the  nose  narrow.  The  Cerro  de  Tomillo  skull  is  not,  however, 
a  pure  dolichocephal,  and  does  resemble,  in  a  partial  sense,  the  Dinaric 
brachycephalic  variety  which  was  common  in  the  Mediterranean  at 
that  time. 

Although  there  seems  to  be  little  doubt  in  the  minds  of  the  archaeologists 
that  the  Bell  Beaker  culture  developed  in  Spain,  and  although  eastern 
Mediterranean  brachycephals  came  there  at  about  the  same  time,  the 
manner  in  which  the  physical  type  and  the  culture  became  identified  with 
each  other  is  still  obscure. 

During  the  Early  Bronze  Age,  after  the  efflorescence  of  the  Bell  Beaker 
people,  Spain  became  a  great  center  of  metallurgy  and  trading  activity, 
rivalling  the  Aegean  in  importance.  The  colonists  from  the  east,  who 
had  originally  located  themselves  in  Spain  merely  as  miners  and  forward- 
ing agents  of  metal,  now  settled  down  to  producing  the  finished  products 
of  the  Bronze  Age  in  Spain  itself,  for  local  sale,  since  disorders  in  the 
Mycenaean  and  Minoan  realms  had  apparently  cut  them  off  from  their 
homelands.47  Furthermore,  the  introduction  of  fresh  cultural  elements 
from  the  east  suggests  that  new  people  had  joined  them. 

The  principal  site  of  the  Early  Bronze  Age,  el  Argar  in  the  province  of 
Almeria,  is  located  near  the  silver  mines  of  Herrerias,  which  were  worked 
in  ancient  times.  From  some  thirteen  hundred  flexed  urn  burials,  seventy 

48  Bosch-Gimpera,  P.,  Real,  vol.  4,  pp.  345-362. 
"Ruhlman,  A.,  Hesp^ris,  vol.  15,  1932,  No.  1,  pp.  79-119. 

45  Childe,  The  Danube  in  Prehistory,  Chapter  X,  pp.  190-201. 

46  Anton,  M.,  BRAH,  vol.  30,  1897,  pp.  267-283. 
Deslaers,  M.  H.,  BRAH,  vol.  71,  1917,  pp.  18-38. 

47  Childe,  The  Bronze  Age,  p.  146. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  151 


skulls  have  been  recovered,  of  which  twenty-nine  are  those  of  adult  males, 
and  forty  of  adult  females,48  The  el  Argar  series  shows  quite  definitely 
that  the  Early  Bronze  Age  people  of  Almeria  were  not  descendants  of 
previous  inhabitants,  but  to  a  large  extent  a  new  population,  with  definite 
Near  Eastern  relationships,  as  one  might  suppose  from  the  cultural  in- 
dications. 

The  series  as  a  whole  is  one  of  small  people,  with  a  mean  male  stature 
of  1 58  to  1 60  cm. ;  the  earlier  Copper  Age  immigrants,  for  the  most  part, 
were  ten  centimeters  taller.  The  skulls  gravitate  around  the  indices  of  76 
and  77;  for  sixty  per  cent  of  male  and  fifty-eight  per  cent  of  female  crania 
are  mesocephalic.  Of  the  remaining  skulls,  long  heads  outnumber  round 
heads  two  to  one.  The  series  is  not  very  homogeneous,  and  the  cranial 
index  and  most  other  criteria  of  form  show  modalities  which  make  it 
certain  that  the  el  Argar  people  included  at  least  two  types  which  had 
not  become  completely  amalgamated. 

The  principal  cranial  element  is  a  normal,  rather  small  variety  of  Med- 
iterranean, which  seems  to  resemble,  both  metrically  and  in  description, 
predynastic  or  early  dynastic  Egyptian  forms,  or  at  the  same  time,  ele- 
ments which  entered  Spain  in  the  Neolithic.  Prominence  of  the  brow- 
ridges  at  glabella,  and  a  considerable  nasion  depression,  make  this  type 
of  Mediterranean  rather  unlike  the  Cappadocian  variety  common  in 
Asia  Minor,  although  metrically  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  such  a  rela- 
tionship. 

The  second  type  is  the  new  brachycephalic  element,  which  seems  to 
have  been  the  dominant  one  politically,  in  that  two  female  skulls  found 
wearing  silver  crowns  both  belonged  to  it.  It  was  apparently  some  form 
of  Near  Eastern  brachycephal  with  which  we  are  already  in  a  general  way 
familiar — the  skull  is  short,  rather  than  broad;  the  vault  is  medium  or 
low;  the  forehead  is  narrow,  the  lambdoid  region  often  flattened,  while 
the  greatest  breadth  of  the  vault  comes  well  to  the  rear.  The  nose  is  high 
and  narrow,  and  the  nasal  bones  join  the  frontal  with  little  depression, 
while  a  smooth  glabella  heightens  the  impression  of  a  high-bridged,  Near 
Eastern  type  of  nose.  Although  the  orbits  are  high  and  rounded,  the  face 
is  rather  low,  but  the  mandible  is  surprisingly  broad,  often  with  everted 
gonial  angles.  There  is  also  a  perceptible  amount  of  alveolar  prognathism, 

Although  this  is  not  exactly  the  brachycephalic  type  which  we  met  in 
the  Copper  Age,  and  which  became  identified  with  the  Bell  Beaker  people, 
it  is,  nevertheless,  definitely  a  Near  Eastern  variety  of  brachycephal  which 
is  familiar  in  Asia  Minor  and  Syria  today.  The  el  Argar  people  represent 
a  mixture  of  elements  which  could  be  duplicated  in  the  modern  Near 
East,  but  not  one  with  which,  in  our  ignorance  of  most  of  that  end  of  the 

« Jacques,  V.,  BSAB,  vol.  6,  1887-88,  pp.  210-236. 


152  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Mediterranean,  we  are  already  familiar.  Some  of  the  Mediterranean 
racial  contingent  may  well  have  been  of  earlier  Spanish  derivation,  but 
if  so  the  absence  of  Megalithic  and  Copper  Age  forms  is  surprising. 

In  other  parts  of  Spain  no  such  change  of  population  as  that  of  Almeria 
is  manifest.  Mediterraneans,  both  large  and  small,  are  carried  over  from 
the  Neolithic  and  Copper  Ages,  while  the  larger  variety  of  brachycephal 
also  continues,49  Out  in  Mallorca  and  Menorca,  the  dolichocephalic  ele- 
ment seems  to  remain  as  the  exclusive  or  predominant  one,  for  the  most 
part  tall  and  of  Long  Barrow  vault  form.50 

The  westward  migrations  of  peoples  from  the  Aegean  and  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Mediterranean,  during  the  Late  Neolithic,  the  Aeneolithic,  and 
the  Early  Bronze  Age,  must  have  affected  the  populations  of  Italy,  Sicily, 
Sardinia,  Corsica,  the  Balearics,  and  the  Iberian  Peninsula  to  a  consid- 
erable degree.  These  were  real  colonizations  which  added  new  racial 
elements  to  the  Mesolithic  and  Early  Neolithic  Mediterranean  sub-stratum. 
By  the  middle  of  the  Bronze  Age,  the  central  and  western  Mediterranean 
lands  had  assumed  the  racial  characteristics  which  they  still,  for  the  most 
part,  bear.  Except  for  northern  and  central  Italy,  later  migrations  were 
to  bring  little  that  was  new. 

(6)   BASQUES,   PHOENICIANS,   AND  ETRUSCANS 

Since  the  western  Mediterranean  lands  have  changed  little  racially 
since  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age,  it  may  perhaps  be  forgiven  us  if  we  break 
the  continuity  of  the  present  chapter,  as  was  done  earlier  in  the  cases  of 
Mesopotamia,  Egypt,  and  Greece,  to  discuss,  at  this  point,  the  origins  and 
racial  characteristics  of  certain  non-Indo-European-speaking  peoples  who 
are  or  were  in  later  times  known  by  specific  names — the  Basques,  the 
Phoenicians  (as  Carthaginians),  and  the  Etruscans. 

In  regard  to  the  Basques,  it  has  been  observed  that  the  skeletons  from 
dolmens  of  Guipuzcoa,  probably  of  Early  Metal  Age,  resemble  those  of 
the  modern  Euskarians  of  the  same  province,  in  stature,  in  head  size  and 
form,  and  in  characteristic  facial  peculiarities.61  Since  the  northern  shore 
of  Spain,  in  the  country  occupied  by  the  Basques  since  the  beginning  of 
history,  is  rich  in  metal  ores  and  was  a  favorite  haunt  of  Copper  and 
Bronze  Age  sea  migrants,  it  is  very  likely  that  a  numerically  strong  western 
Asiatic  element,  including  both  Megalithic  and  Dinaric  types,  became  a 
permanent  factor  in  the  local  population.  When  we  come  to  discuss 
the  physical  anthropology  of  living  Basques,  the  probability  of  such  an 
influence  will  be  of  assistance. 

49  Aranzadi,  T.  de,  Excavacio  de  Sepulcres  Megalitics,  pp.  31—39. 

Ban-as  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  various  articles  in  AMSE,  1921,  1926,  1930. 

60Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  AMSE,  vol.  9,  1930,  pp.  38-51. 

11  Serra  i  Vilaro,  after  Mendes-Correa,  1924. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  153 


The  second  people,  the  Phoenicians,  who  established  their  principal 
colony  at  Carthage  at  the  end  of  the  second  millennium  B.C.,  and  posted 
trading  garrisons  at  various  points  on  the  North  African  coast,  both  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  Atlantic  sides,  also  settled  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  Spain,  where  they  founded  the  city  of  Cartagena.  Except  for  the  Greeks, 
they  formed  the  last  of  the  groups  to  migrate  westward  from  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  by  sea,  but  the  first  to  do  so  in  full  historical  light. 

The  physical  type  of  the  Phoenicians  is  well  known  from  the  skeletal  re- 
mains found  in  tombs  at  Carthage.52  A  series  of  117  skulls,  of  which  68 
are  male,  belong  for  the  most  part  to  one  characteristic  type;  dolicho-  to 
mesocephalic,  with  the  cranial  index  at  75;  fairly  long  vaulted,  and  hence 
moderately  broad;  with  a  very  low  vault,  a  moderately  broad  forehead,  a 
short  face,  high  orbits,  and  a  narrow,  projecting  nose  which  often  springs 
directly  from  the  frontal  bone  with  little  or  no  nasion  depression.  These 
skulls  are  in  many  ways  similar  to  the  Megalithic  or  Long  Barrow  type  of 
the  preceding  millennium;  but,  as  is  to  be  expected  in  view  of  their  late 
eastern  Mediterranean  origin,  show  modifications  toward  a  shortening 
and  widening  of  the  vault,  and  a  beaking  of  the  nose. 

A  few  related  brachycephals,  of  Dinaric  form,  are  incidental  to  this 
type,  while  a  number  of  less  characteristic  skulls,  with  lower  orbits  and 
less  prominent,  wider  noses,  may  be  those  of  North  African  natives.  The 
Carthaginians  were  apparently  rather  tall,  with  a  mean  male  stature  of 
168  cm.  The  Greek  evidence,  already  quoted,  indicates  that  they  were 
brunet. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  majority  of  the  Carthaginians  who  were 
buried  in  these  tombs  were  either  the  descendants  of  seafarers  from  Pales- 
tine and  Syria,  or  at  least  immigrants  from  the  east  of  similar  race.  Nine 
skulls  of  important  men,  taken  from  elaborate  stone  sarcophagi,  belong 
to  exactly  the  same  type  as  the  majority  of  the  others,  except  that  these 
representatives  of  the  privileged  classes  had  larger  heads  in  all  or  most 
dimensions  than  those  of  the  masses.  This  correlation  between  size  and 
status,  or  size  and  opportunity,  is  a  familiar  human  trait  wherever  there 
are  social  and  nutritional  differences,  and  has  no  coincident  racial  signifi- 
cance. Single  Phoenician  skulls  from  two  points  in  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean, Melilla  in  the  Moroccan  Rif,  and  Ibiza  in  Spain,53  conform  exactly 
to  the  standard  set  by  the  Carthaginians. 

The  last  of  the  three  non-Indo-European  speaking  ethnic  groups,  the 
Etruscan,  probably  came  to  Italy  as  early  as  the  first  quarter  of  the  tenth 

62  Bertholon  and  Chantre,  Rtcherches  Anthropologiques  dans  La  Berberie  Orientale,  pp.  251- 
266.  Also: 

Gollignon,  R.,  Anth,  vol.  3,  1892,  pp.  163-172. 
Mantegazza,  P.,  APA,  vol.  6,  1876,  pp.  17-29. 
68  Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  AMSE,  vol.  9,  1930,  pp.  35-64;  79-105. 


154  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

century  B.C.  Another  wave  is  said  to  have  arrived  in  the  eighth  century. 
The  colonists  apparently  kept  up  contacts  with  their  homeland  until 
about  650  B.C.  This  homeland,  according  to  the  classical  tradition,  main- 
tained by  all  Greek  and  Roman  historians  from  Herodotus  to  Pliny,  was 
Lydia  in  Asia  Minor.  That  this  tradition  is  accurate  is  the  belief  of  most 
modern  classical  scholars.54 

The  cranial  evidence  from  Etruscan  tombs  55  substantiates  the  belief 
that  these  non-Indo-European,  non-Semitic  speakers  were  typical  ex- 
amples of  the  earlier  Bronze  Age  population  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 
As  with  the  earlier  el  Argar  people  of  Spain,  a  mesocephalic  mean  for 
the  cranial  index  covers  the  presence  of  pronounced  long  heads  and  round 
heads,  with  the  two  extremes,  in  this  case,  forming  about  equal  propor- 
tions. Actually,  the  metrical  characteristics  of  the  two  series  are  much 
alike,  but  the  Etruscan  skulls  were  a  little  larger,  which  is  not  surprising, 
for  the  el  Argar  crania  were  for  the  most  part  rather  small. 

The  Etruscan  skulls  are  notably  smooth  in  surface  relief,  with  little  in 
the  way  of  browridges;  the  side  walls  of  the  vaults,  seen  from  above,  are 
not  parallel,  as  with  the  longer  Mediterranean  forms,  but  converging, 
with  the  greatest  breadth  in  the  parietals  and  a  narrow  forehead;  the 
orbits  are  high  and  rounded,  and  the  nose  narrow.  The  Etruscans,  with 
a  typically  Near  Eastern  cranial  form,  resemble  both  the  Cappadocian 
type  found  in  the  Hittite  period  at  Alishar,  and  the  planoccipital  brachy- 
cephals  which  appeared  in  the  Bronze  Age  cemeteries  of  Cyprus.  By 
Roman  times  these  two  varieties  had  blended,  to  a  large  extent,  into  a 
variable  mesocephalic  form,  to  which  the  Phoenicians  as  well  largely  be- 
longed. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  overemphasize  the  importance  of  the  migrations 
of  eastern  Mediterranean  peoples  by  sea  to  Italy,  Spain,  and  the  islands 
between  these  two  peninsulas  in  protohistoric  as  well  as  in  prehistoric 
times.  Especially  in  Spain  and  Italy,  large  numbers  of  peoples  immi- 
grated, who  added,  to  the  basic  Mediterranean  population  of  Neolithic 
origin,  Near  Eastern  elements  which  may  still  be  discerned  among  Italians 
and  Spaniards  today.  The  debt  of  the  Romans  to  the  Etruscans,  genet- 
ically as  well  as  culturally,  was  especially  great. 

(7)    THE    COPPER   AGE    IN    EUROPE   NORTH   OF   THE   MEDITER- 
RANEAN LANDS:  DANUBIAN  MOVEMENTS  AND  BELL  BEAKERS 

While  the  earliest  Metal  Age  culture  was  being  carried  westward 
through  the  Mediterranean  by  sea,  other  agencies  conveyed  it  overland 
into  central  Europe.  As  before,  the  main  highroad  was  the  Danube  Val- 

64  Schachermeyer,  Fritz,  Etmskische  Fruhgeschichte. 
68  Sergi,  G.,  AFA,  vol.  41,  1915,  pp.  309-313  ff. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  155 


ley,  but  this  time  the  center  of  earliest  diffusion  was  not  Bohemia,  but  Hun- 
gary. A  series  of  crania  from  Bodrogkeresztur  in  that  country  M  are  uni- 
formly dolichocephalic,  with  the  highest  individual  cranial  index,  out  of 
more  than  fifty  examples,  only  76.  This  is  too  low  for  Danubians  of  the 
usual  Neolithic  type,  and  one  suspects  a  movement  from  the  northeast  of 
peoples  of  Corded  origin.  The  common  presence  of  copper  battle-axes,  red 
ochre,  tumulus  burials,  and  other  south  Russian  cultural  traits  in  Copper 
Age  sites  in  Hungary  57  would  tend  to  confirm  this  deduction.  In  the  west 
Corded  people  brought  the  first  metal  to  Switzerland,  and  in  this  case 
crania  of  definitely  Corded  type  are  involved.58 

The  inhabitants  of  Yugoslavia  during  the  Copper  Age  were,  like  those 
of  Hungary,  also  uniformly  dolichocephalic.59  Unfortunately,  here  also 
we  have  no  further  information  of  racial  significance.  As  one  approaches 
the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  however,  this  dolichocephalic  uniformity  dis- 
appears. Four  skulls  from  Russe,  in  Bulgaria,  include  one  male  of  Corded 
type,  a  mesocephalic  male,  and  two  brachycephalic  females.**0 

From  this  evidence,  such  as  it  is,  we  may  deduce  that  the  people  who 
brought  copper  into  the  Danube  Valley  at  the  close  of  the  Neolithic  period 
came  from  two  centers,  southern  Russia  and  the  Caucasus,  and  Anatolia, 
by  way  of  Troy.  The  chief  carriers  were  the  Corded  people  or  some 
others  equally  dolichocephalic,  while  brachycephals  from  Asia  Minor 
were  of  little  importance  from  the  racial  standpoint. 

While  Copper  Age  civilization  was  thus  spreading  westward  along  the 
Danube  and  the  lands  to  the  north,  a  countermovement  in  the  form  of  the 
Bell  Beaker  invasion  travelled  eastward  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube, 
and  as  far  as  Poland  and  Hungary.  The  remains  of  these  Bell  Beaker  peo- 
ple occupy  single  graves  or  groups  of  graves,  rather  than  whole  cemeteries; 
they  were  apparently  wandering  traders,  trafficking  in  metals,  for  their 
gold  spirals  have  been  found  in  Danish  graves  of  the  corridor- tomb  period. 
They  were  thus  in  all  likelihood  rivals  of  the  Battle-Axe  people  in  their 
search  for  amber. 

It  is  not  known  how  they  went  from  Spain  to  central  Europe.  Sporadic 
finds  in  France  and  northern  Italy  suggest  the  Rh6ne-Rhine  and  the 
Brenner  Pass  routes  as  alternatives.61  In  neither  case  is  the  evidence  very 
satisfactory,  and  neither  excludes  the  other.  From  the  Rhine  Valley  as  a 

M  Bartucz,  L.,  MAGW,  vol.  57,  1927,  pp.  126-130. 

67  Hillebrand,  J.,  AH,  vol.  4,  1929,  pp.  1-51. 

68  Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  17,  1885,  p.  288.    (2  adult  female,  and  I  juvenile,  skulls 
from  Vinelz). 

B»  iupanifc,  N.,  RA,  vol.  29,  1919,  p.  28. 

60  Drontschilow,  K.,  Mitt.  Arch.  Inst.  Sofia,  1924,  pp.  187-201,  quoted  by  Sailer,  K., 
ZFAE,  vol.  77,  #5/6,  1925,  pp.  515-571. 

61  Childe,  The  Danube  in  Prehistory,  p.  196. 


156  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

center,  Bell  Beaker  expeditions  moved  eastward  into  Bohemia,  Austria,  Po- 
land, and  Hungary;  those  who  took  part  in  these  movements  were  even- 
tually absorbed  into  the  local  populations.  The  Bell  Beaker  people  who 
remained  in  the  Rhinelands,  however,  came  into  intimate  contact  with  the 
Corded  people,  who  had  invaded  from  the  east  and  northeast,  and  with  the 
corridor-tomb  megalithic  population  to  the  north,  whose  domain  ex- 
tended down  into  the  Netherlands.  These  three,  of  which  the  Bell  Beaker 
element  formed  perhaps  the  dominant  one,  amalgamated  to  form  an 
Early  Bronze  Age  cultural  unit,  the  so-called  Zoned  Beaker  people,  who 
invaded  England  and  Scotland  as  the  first  important  carriers  of  metal. 

The  Bell  Beaker  physical  type  is  known  to  us  from  sixty  or  more  skulls 
from  scattered  burials  in  Germany,  Austria,  Poland,  Czecho-Slovakia,  and 
Hungary.62  Of  these,  about  one-third  are  truly  brachycephalic,  while 
the  others  are,  almost  without  exception,  mesocephals.  In  the  Rhine 
country  around  Worms,  three-fourths  or  more  of  the  Bell  Beaker  crania  are 
brachycephalic;  in  Austria,  one  finds  an  equally  high  ratio;  but  in  Bo- 
hemia and  Poland  the  high  brachycephaly  becomes  less  frequent,  and  at 
Tokol  in  Hungary,  in  a  series  of  ten  crania,  four  are  mesocephalic  and 
six  are  dolichocephalic.63 

So  high  is  the  mesocephalic  ratio,  and  except  for  Hungary,  so  infre- 
quent the  truly  long-headed  crania  associated  with  this  type,  that  the 
mesocephals  are  clearly  one  branch  of  the  main  type,  and  not  the  product 
of  local  mixture  with  long  heads.  Morphologically,  the  mesocephals  are 
essentially  Bell  Beaker. 

The  series  of  skulls  from  the  Rhineland,  including  nine  adult  males,  is 
the  most  suitable  for  comparison  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  21).  It  is  identical 
in  the  cranial  index  mean  with  that  of  Furst's  forty-four  male  Bronze  Age 
skulls  from  Cyprus,  which  have  already  been  studied,  and  which  have 
been  called  Dinaric.  The  Rhenish  crania  are  a  little  larger  in  vault  dimen- 
sions, and  particularly  in  height;  but  are  almost  identical  facially.  Mor- 
phologically, the  two  groups  are  also  similar,  but  the  Bell  Beaker  group  is 
more  extreme  in  many  ways;  the  browridges  are  often  heavy,  the  general 
ruggedness  frequently  greater.  The  faces  are  characteristically  narrow,  the 
orbits  medium  to  high,  the  nasal  skeleton  high  and  aquiline;  the  occiput 
frequently  flat.  The  stature  for  six  males  reached  the  high  mean  of  177  cm. 

«2  Bartels,  P.,  PZ,  vol.  5,  1912,  pp.  67-82. 
Jankowsky,  W.,  AAnz,  vol.  8,  1932,  pp.  104-115. 
Palliardi,  J.,  WPZ,  vol.  6,  1919,  pp.  41-56. 
Sailer,  K.,  ZFAE,  vol.  77,  #5/6,  1925,  pp.  515-571. 
Schliz,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  35,  1908,  pp.  239-267. 

Sedlaczek-Komorowski,  L.,  BAPS,  ser.  B,  vol.  2,  1932,  pp.  253-257. 
Stocky,  A.,  and  Matiegka,  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  3,  #2,  1925,  pp.  138-155. 
Trauwitz-Hellwig,  J.  von,  MAGW,  vol.  53,  1923,  pp.  251-265. 
«8Bartucz,  L.,  MAGW,  vol.  57,  1927,  p.  128. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  157 


The  deviation  of  the  Rhenish  Bell  Beaker  skulls,  such  as  it  is,  from  the 
Aegean  and  eastern  Mediterranean  Dinaric  form,  lies  in  a  Borreby  direc- 
tion. It  is,  therefore,  more  than  likely  that  the  invaders  mixed  with  the 
descendants  of  the  earlier  Neolithic  brachycephals,  whose  territory 
stretched  along  the  North  Sea  coast  from  southern  Sweden  to  Belgium. 
On  the  whole,  however,  at  the  period  represented  by  the  Worms  crania, 
the  eastern  or  Dinaric  element  was  the  more  important. 

The  Spanish  Bell  Beaker  problem  now  stands  in  a  somewhat  clearer  light 
than  before.  The  Dinaric  type,  with  which  the  Rhenish  Bell  beakers  are 
associated,  is  one  which  entered  the  western  Mediterranean  by  sea  from 
the  east,  and  eventually  moved,  by  some  route  yet  to  be  determined  in 
an  accurate  manner,  to  the  north,  and  eventually  to  central  Europe. 
The  paucity  of  brachycephals  in  Spain  may  be  due  to  the  paucity  of  re- 
mains of  this  culture  in  general.  It  is  still  possible,  one  might  add,  that 
certain  North  African  elements  became  involved  in  the  Bell  Beaker  racial 
type,  but  such  an  accretion  is  unnecessary  and  hardly  likely. 

The  Bell  Beaker  people  were  probably  the  first  intrusive  brachycephals. 
to  enter  the  Austrian  Alps,  and  the  mountains  of  northeastern  Bohemia, 
for  the  push  of  Lake  Dwelling  Alpines  southeastward  toward  the  Balkans 
happened  later  in  the  Bronze  Age.  It  is,  therefore,  possible  that  the  present 
Dinaric  populations  of  the  Dinaric  Alps  and  the  Carpathians  may  be 
derived  in  part  from  this  eastward  invasion.  The  small  numbers  and  scat- 
tered burial  habits  of  the  Bell  Beaker  people  on  the  more  densely  popu- 
lated plains  of  Europe  must  have  made  them  of  much  less  ethnic  impor- 
tance there  than  in  the  mountains. 

In  their  Rhineland  center,  the  more  numerous  Bell  Beaker  people  had 
constant  relationships  with  the  inhabitants  of  Denmark,  who  were  still 
burying  in  corridor  tombs.  Furthermore,  the  Corded  people,  one  branch 
of  whom  invaded  Jutland  and  introduced  the  single-grave  type  of  burial, 
also  migrated  to  the  Rhine  Valley,  and  here  amalgamated  themselves 
with  the  Bell  Beaker  people,  who  were  already  in  process  of  mixing  with 
their  Borreby  type  neighbors.  The  result  of  this  triple  fusion  was  a  great 
expansion,  and  a  population  overflow  down  the  Rhine,  in  the  direction 
of  Britain. 

(8)   THE  BRONZE  AGE   IN  BRITAIN 

The  consideration  of  the  Bell  Beaker  problem  leads  naturally  to  that  of 
the  Bronze  Age  in  the  British  Isles,  where  the  Beaker  people  found  their 
most  important  and  most  lasting  home.  Coming  down  the  Rhine  and  out 
into  the  North  Sea,  they  invaded  the  whole  eastern  coast  of  England  and 
of  Scotland,  and  also  the  shore  of  the  Channel. 

The  Beaker  invasion  of  Britain  was  not  a  simple  affair.  Not  only  did  the 


158  THE  RACES    OF  EUROPE 

newcomers  land  in  many  places,  but  they  brought  with  them  somewhat 
different  traditions.  Although  most  of  them  brought  zoned  beakers  and 
battle  axes,  in  consequence  of  their  blending  with  the  Corded  people  in 
the  Rhinelands,  others,  with  the  older  type  of  bell  beakers  and  with  stone 
wrist-guards  of  Spanish  inspiration,  seem  to  have  entered  unaffected  by 
Corded  influence. 

Like  their  predecessors  the  Long  Barrow  people,  the  new  invaders  who 
went  to  England  chose  open  lands  for  settlement,  and  eschewed  the  forest 
of  the  Midlands,  and  the  Weald  of  Surrey,  Sussex,  and  Kent.  Yorkshire 
with  its  moors  was  a  favorite  spot,  while  other  centers  were  Wiltshire  and 
Gloucestershire  in  the  south,  and  Derbyshire  and  Staffordshire  in  be- 
tween.64 On  the  whole,  the  Beaker  people  chose  the  same  regions  which 
had  attracted  the  builders  of  the  long  barrows,  except  that  the  concen- 
tration in  Yorkshire  was  an  innovation.  The  Beaker  people  did  not  ex- 
terminate the  Long  Barrow  people,  who  continued  for  a  while  to  build 
their  characteristic  earth-covered  vaults,  in  some  of  which  Beaker  pots 
have  actually  been  found.  The  remains  of  the  newcomers,  however,  are 
always  buried  singly  under  round  barrows,  of  a  type  which  the  Corded 
people  contributed  to  the  Zoned  Beaker  complex. 

In  comparison  with  the  Continent,  Great  Britain  contains  a  great  plenty 
of  Beaker  skeletal  material.  The  invasions  which  reached  this  island 
brought  the  wholesale  migration  of  a  large  population.  Over  two  hundred 
and  sixty  crania  from  England  alone  have  been  preserved  and  studied. 
Out  of  a  series  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  exhaustively  analyzed  by  Morant, 
the  brachycephals  exceed  the  pure  long  heads  in  the  ratio  of  three  to  one, 
while  the  intermediate  forms  are  about  equal  in  number  to  the  latter. 
This  segregation  would  indicate  that  the  blending  between  the  Corded 
racial  element  and  its  round-headed  companions  was  incomplete  at  the 
time  of  invasion,  as  well  as  afterward.  In  all  the  regions  from  which  a 
considerable  number  of  skulls  have  been  taken,  the  proportion  between 
round  heads  and  long  heads  is  constant,  and  this  would  indicate  that  the 
survivors  of  the  Long  Barrow  people  were  not  buried  in  the  tombs  of  the 
invaders. 

The  Bronze  Age  people  of  England,  as  represented  by  this  Beaker 
series,  were  clearly  heterogeneous.  The  three  ancestral  elements  which  met 
in  the  Rhinelands  may  be  distinguished  easily.  All  three  were  tall,  and 
the  mean  stature  of  the  whole  group  was  about  174  cm.68  The  Corded  ele- 
ment, however,  was  the  tallest,  and  the  Borreby  element,  about  170  cm., 
the  shortest.  On  the  whole,  the  heavy-boned,  rugged  quality  of  the 

454  Morant,  G.  M.»  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  56-98. 

65  Obtained  by  applying  Pearson's  formula  to  27  adult  male  femora  listed  by  Thur- 
man.  Thurman,  J.,  MASL,  vol.  1,  1865,  pp.  120-168,  459-519;  vol.  3,  1867,  pp.  41-80. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  159 


Borreby  type  seems  to  have  influenced  the  bodily  build  of  the  total  group. 

The  Beaker  skulls  as  a  whole  are  large,  long,  and  high  vaulted,  whatever 
their  shape.  They  form  one  of  the  rare  groups  in  the  world  with  a  cranial 
length  of  184  mm.  and  an  index  of  over  80.  This  peculiarity  they  share 
with  the  few  known  brachycephalic  crania  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic. 
Again  reminiscent  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  skulls  is  the  ruggedness  of  muscu- 
lar markings,  the  prominence  of  browridges  and  occipital  lines,  and  the 
depth  and  breadth  of  the  mandible. 

In  the  Crania  Britannica  are  engravings  of  seventy- three  male  crania 
of  this  group;  by  observing  them  morphologically  it  is  possible  to  segregate 
them  into  their  component  elements.  Twenty-four,  or  one-third  of  the 
whole,  are  planoccipital.  This  ratio  is  probably  about  the  correct  propor- 
tion of  the  original  Bell  Beaker  element  in  the  blend,  with  the  Corded 
group  one-fourth,  and  the  rest  Borreby.  The  planoccipital  skulls  are,  as 
one  would  expect,  the  most  brachycephalic;  for  over  sixty  per  cent  of  all 
crania  over  the  index  point  83  possess  some  posterior  flattening. 

When  seriated  by  index  groups  and  occipital  form,  the  planoccipital 
brachycephalic  male  crania  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  22)  approach  metrically 
the  series  already  discussed  from  Worms,  as  well  as  that  from  Bronze  Age 
Cyprus.  The  British  planoccipitals  are  larger  vaulted,  in  all  three  dimen- 
sions, than  their  continental  and  Near  Eastern  prototypes;  they  are  also 
wider  faced;  but  in  total  and  upper  face  heights  and  in  nasal  dimensions, 
they  are  much  the  same.  The  curvoccipital  brachycephalic  crania  (see 
Appendix  I,  col.  23)  are  much  larger;  and  it  is  this  element  which  contrib- 
utes the  combination  of  a  truly  long  vault  with  a  high  index.  They  like- 
wise have  large  faces,  of  great  width,  and  of  great  mandibular  size.  One 
of  the  most  striking  differences  between  the  two  brachycephalic  British 
sub-groups  lies  in  the  disproportion  of  face  heights.  Both  have  the  same 
upper  face  height;  but  the  total  face  height,  from  nasion  to  men  ton,  is  five 
mm.  greater  in  the  curvoccipital  group.  The  lower  jaw  of  the  planoccipi- 
tal skulls  is  more  nearly  of  a  normal  Dinaric  form,  while  that  of  the  Borreby 
element  is  nearly  equal  to  Upper  Palaeolithic  standards. 

The  dolichocephalic  crania  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  24),  forming  the  least 
numerous  of  the  three  elements,  are  of  pure  Corded  type,  and  furnish  an 
opportunity  to  study  this  form  in  greater  numbers  than  elsewhere.  The 
vault  is  very  long,  and  extremely  high,  with  a  breadth-height  ratio  of  105, 
and  extremely  long  faces,  with  deep,  narrow  mandibles.  There  can  be  no 
question  that  these  most  extreme  variants  from  the  fundamental  Mediter- 
ranean stock  came  to  England  as  part  of  the  Zoned  Beaker  racial  complex, 
and  do  not  represent  accretions  of  megalithic  Long  Barrow  survivors, 
although  both  elements,  in  England  as  in  Scandinavia,  entered  into  the 
ultimate  composition  of  the  living  population. 


160  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

In  Scotland  the  progress  of  events  in  the  Early  Bronze  Age  was  quite 
different  from  that  in  England,  and  more  complicated.  The  Beaker  peo- 
ple who  arrived  on  the  eastern  shore  came  in  part  directly  from  Holland, 
and  in  part  from  England.  A  few  may  have  approached  from  the  west, 
by  way  of  Wales.  At  the  time  of  the  Beaker  arrival,  or  not  long  after  it, 
another  group  of  people,  named  after  the  so-called  Food  Vessels  which 
they  placed  in  their  tombs,  seem  to  have  arisen  in  the  west,  or  to  have 
arrived  there  from  Ireland,  where  they  were  also  prevalent  during  the 
Early  Bronze  Age.  These  Food  Vessel  people  buried  their  dead  in  in- 
dividual cists,  as  did  the  Beaker  people,  but  often  incinerated,  for  which 
reason  their  skeletal  remains  are  relatively  rare.  The  two  groups — Beaker 
and  Food  Vessel — had  close  relationships  and  interchanged  material  pos- 
sessions and  ideas.  In  many  Scottish  cist  graves,  neither  type  of  pottery  is 
present,  and  it  is  not  always  possible  to  tell  to  which  original  complex  the 
burial  belongs.66 

The  short  cist  skeletons  of  Scotland  have  been  lumped  together  regard- 
less of  original  cultural  affiliation,  which  in  many  cases  may  have  been  im- 
possible to  determine.  By  this  means  a  series  of  seventy-seven  crania  has 
been  assembled  for  study.67  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  25.)  In  general,  the 
Scottish  Short  Cist  people  resembled  the  Beaker  invaders  of  England,  but 
were  by  no  means  identical  with  them.  The  means  of  the  cranial  dimen- 
sions are  in  many  cases  smaller,  and  the  larger  elements  in  the  blend  seem 
to  be  less  in  evidence.  Furthermore,  the  stature  seems  to  have  been  shorter, 
with  a  mean  of  165.0  cm.68  for  seventeen  males.  The  group  as  a  whole  is 
more  purely  Beaker  in  the  continental  sense,  or  Dinaric,  than  is  that  in 
England;  metrically,  the  Scottish  series  resembles  the  non-Borreby  brachy- 
cephalic  element  in  the  British  Beaker  population,  and  also  approximates 
the  skulls  from  the  Rhineland.  In  several  features,  such  as  a  lower  vault,  it 
comes  closer  to  the  Cypriote  Bronze  Age  group  than  does  any  wholly 
Beaker  series  which  we  have  studied. 

The  reasons  for  the  difference  between  the  Scottish  and  English  series 
are  not  difficult  to  discover.  The  Borreby  element  is  less  prominent  in 

68  Childe,  V.  G  ,  The  Prehistory  of  Scotland,  pp.  81-95. 

67  Morant,  G.  M.,  and  Reid,  R.  W.}  Biometrika,  vols.  3-4,  1928.  Later  publications, 
mostly  in  the  PSAS  scries,  would  swell  this  number  by  at  least  twelve,  but  would  in  no 
way  alter  the  conclusions. 

**  Calender,  J.  G.,  PSAS,  vol.  58,  1924,  pp.  23-27. 

Callander,  J.  G.,  and  Low,  A.,  PSAS,  vol.  64,  1930,  pp.  191-199. 

Craw,  J.  H.,  and  Low,  A.,  PSAS,  vol.  67,  1933,  pp.  308-311. 

Edwards,  A.  J.  H.,  PSAS,  vol.  65,  1931,  p.  421. 

Edwards,  A.  J.  H.,  and  Low,  A.,  PSAS,  vol.  66,  1932,  pp.  418-426;  vol.  67,  1933, 
pp.  164-176. 

Gordon,  J.  T.,  and  Waterston,  D.,  PSAS,  vol.  67,  1933,  pp.  354-361. 

Low,  A.,  PSAS,  vol.  67,  1933,  pp.  176-186. 

Ritchie,  J.,  and  Dow,  D.  R.,  PSAS,  vol.  69,  1935,  pp.  401-415. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  161 


Scotland,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Corded.  In  fact,  three  out  of  four 
dolichocephalic  male  crania  from  short  cists  seem  to  be  of  a  Megalithic 
type,  while  only  one  has  the  characteristic  vault  form  of  the  Battle-Axe 
people.  Long  heads  are  less  frequent  here  than  in  England,  and  the  orig- 
inal eastern  Mediterranean  brachycephalic  type  is  in  the  majority.  Log- 
ically, one  would  expect  that  the  Food  Vessel  people  belonged  to  this  racial 
variety. 

It  is  impossible,  however,  to  determine  with  any  certainty  the  physical 
type  of  the  Food  Vessel  people  in  Scotland,  for  only  four  complete  skeletons 
have  been  associated  with  this  pottery  form.  Three,  however,  which  are 
males,  are  all  brachycephalic  and  of  medium  stature,  and  belong,  in  the 
totality  of  their  features,  to  a  small  Beaker  variety,69  as  does  the  single 
female.  Two  other  individuals,  represented  only  by  long  bones,  were, 
respectively,  166  and  173  cm.  tall.  Little  is  to  be  learned,  unfortunately, 
from  the  members  of  this  small  group,  except  that  they  were  no  different 
from  the  Beaker  people  who  occupied  the  same  type  of  cist. 

There  is,  however,  one  far  better  way  to  discover  the  physical  affinities 
of  the  Food  Vessel  people,  and  that  is  by  a  study  of  the  Bronze  Age  remains 
from  Ireland.  As  far  as  we  know  from  published  evidence,  the  Beaker 
people  never  went  to  Ireland  at  all.  The  thirty  odd  known  Irish  skeletons 
of  the  Bronze  Age,  taken  from  short  cists,  were  associated  with  food  ves- 
sels in  most  cases,  or  at  least  when  there  is  known  to  have  been  any  pottery. 

The  series  as  a  whole  70  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  26)  is  tall  and  slender 
boned;  the  skulls,  almost  exclusively  brachycephalic,  are  often  thin  walled; 
the  bony  relief  is  rarely  as  prominent  as  in  the  British  specimens.  Metri- 
cally, the  Irish  crania  are  narrower  headed  and  narrower  faced  than  the 
Scottish,  and  are  almost  identical  with  the  Adlersburg  group  in  Germany, 
and  quite  close  to  the  series  from  Cyprus.  Their  most  notable  difference 
from  the  British  group,  which  confirms  their  similarity  to  the  skulls  from 
Cyprus,  is  in  their  narrow  facial  breadth.  In  this  and  in  many  other  ways, 
the  Scottish  skulls  are  intermediate  between  the  English  and  the  Irish. 

«9Dow,  D.  R.,  PSAS,  vol.  69,  1935,  pp.  401-415. 

Low,  A.,  PSAS,  vol.  64,  1930,  pp.  191-195;  vol.  65,  1931,  pp.  418-426.  PAAS, 
1904-06,  pp.  133-142. 

Waterston,  D.,  PSAS,  vol.  67,  1933,  pp.  354-361. 

70  A  composite  group  from  the  following  sources : 

Haddon,  A.  C.,  PRIA,  vols.  3-4,  1896-98,  pp.  570-585. 

Martin,  C.  P.,  JSAI,  vol.  62,  1932,  p.  55;  vol.  64,  1934,  pp.  87-89. 

Martin,  C.  P.,  Price,  L.,  and  Mitchell,  G.  F.,  PRIA,  vol.  63,  1936,  sec.  C,  #7. 

Movius,  H.  L.,  PRIA,  vol.  61,  1934,  pp.  258-284;  JSAI,  vol.  59,  1929,  pp.  99-115; 
vol.  64,  1934,  pp.  73-85;  vol.  65,  1935,  pp.  213-222. 

Shea,  S.,  JGAS,  vol.  12,  1925,  pp.  13-22. 

See  also: 

Martin,  C.  P.,  Prehistoric  Man  in  Ireland. 

Morant,  G.  M.,  JRAI,  vol.  66,  1936,  pp.  43-55. 


162  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  Irish  Bronze  Age  people  who  were  buried  in  association  with  food 
vessels  were,  therefore,  members  of  the  racial  type  which  was  originally 
linked  with  the  Beaker  complex,  without  the  associated  Borreby  and 
Corded  elements.  Childe  finds  possible  prototypes  of  the  food  vessels  both 
in  Germany  and  in  Spain.71  Without  doubt,  in  any  case,  there  were  move- 
ments from  northern  Spain  and  the  western  end  of  the  Pyrenees  during 
the  Bronze  Age,  which  brought  halberds  to  Ireland,  and  thence  to  Scot- 
land, along  with  other  cultural  innovations.  These  movements  were  quite 
late,  but  so,  in  all  probability,  was  the  spread  of  the  Food  Vessel  people, 
who  often  incinerated. 

It  is  necessary  to  choose  between  two  routes  of  invasion  for  the  Food 
Vessel  people,  for  they  were  obviously  not  indigenous.  The  first,  from 
Germany  and  Holland,  would  be  somehow  separate  from  the  Beaker  in- 
vasions, but  yet  would  bring  the  most  basic  Beaker  physical  element.  The 
second  is  from  Spain,  where  the  Beaker  people  were  probably  only  one  of 
a  number  of  related  brachycephalic  groups.  The  latter  seems  the  more 
likely,  purely  on  racial  grounds;  furthermore,  on  the  Scottish  food  vessels 
there  are  often  cord  impressions,  on  the  Irish  there  are  none.  The  direc- 
tion, therefore,  was  probably  from  Ireland  to  Scotland  and  not  vice  versa. 

(9)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN  CENTRAL  EUROPE 

In  the  Early  Bronze  Age  there  were,  aside  from  the  Aegean,  three  im- 
portant cultural  centers  in  Europe — southeastern  Spain,  Britain,  and  cen- 
tral Europe.  We  have  already  dealt  with  the  first  two  and  studied  the 
racial  derivations  of  their  peoples.  In  central  Europe,  the  center  of  civili- 
zation was  again  on  the  Danube;  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  Silesia,  Lower 
Austria,  and  Saxo-Thuringia.  The  Bronze  Age  culture  of  this  Danubian 
region  is  called  Aunjetitz  (Unetice)  after  an  important  site  in  Bohemia. 

The  origins  of  this  Aunjetitz  culture  were  multiple.  The  elements  of 
which  it  was  composed  include:  the  basic  local  Neolithic  and  Copper  Age; 
northern  influences  which  were  mostly  Corded;  the  Bell  Beaker  invasion; 
and  metallurgy  from  Anatolia  and  the  Aegean,  coming  directly  over- 
land.72 

The  evidence  as  to  the  racial  composition  of  this  culturally  heteroge- 
neous population  is  fortunately  abundant  and  clear.  A  number  of  large 
and  well-analyzed  series  makes  it  possible  to  determine  its  nature  without 
much  doubt.  On  the  whole,  the  group  is  moderately  varied.  Three  major 
elements  are  involved:  the  short,  moderately  dolichocephalic,  high- 
vaulted,  small-faced  Danubian  Neolithic  type;  the?' familiar  Corded  form, 
and  some  brachycephals,  in  moderate  numbers,  which  are  probably  for 

n  Childe,  The  Prehistory  of  Scotland,  pp.  89-95. 
72  Childe,  The  Bronze  Age,  pp.  139-140. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  163 


the  most  part  of  Bell  Beaker  origin,  although  the  same  racial  type  may 
have  come  up  the  Danube  from  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Aegean.  Dinaric  in- 
fluence is  most  evident  in  the  earliest  Aunjetitz  sites  of  Lower  Austria,  as  at 
Hainburg-Teichtal,73  but  it  disappeared  shortly  through  absorption. 

One  of  the  most  fruitful  groups  for  examination  is  that  of  the  skeletons 
from  the  Lower  Austrian  cemetery  of  Gemeinlebarn.74  Here  fifty-one 
adult  crania  were  found  which  were  in  condition  for  study,  to  which  have 
been  added  twenty-five  others  from  smaller  sites  in  Lower  Austria  and 
Moravia,  making  a  total  of  forty-seven  male  and  fifty- two  female  skulls, 
as  well  as  a  large  number  of  associated  long  bones. 

The  mean  stature  of  the  males  is  165  cm.,  a  moderate  figure,  lying 
between  that  of  the  earlier  Neolithic  Danubians  and  the  Corded  people, 
as  represented  in  the  larger  series  in  which  the  latter  appear,  in  Scandi- 
navia and  England.  The  limb  proportions  show  a  greater  length  of  the 
distal  segments  in  both  arms  and  legs  than  is  the  case  with  most  historic 
Germanic  or  Nordic  skeletons — the  Lower  Austrian  Aunjetitz  people 
resembled  their  Neolithic  ancestors  in  this  respect.  The  bones,  however, 
are  quite  heavy  and  powerful,  and  show  that  they  must  have  had  wide 
and  heavy  shoulders. 

The  crania  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  27)  belong  metrically  about  half-way 
between  the  Corded  and  Danubian  Neolithic  means  in  almost  every 
character;  the  only  exception  being  a  slight  addition  in  the  head  breadth 
dimension  which  might  be  attributed  to  the  inclusion  of  a  few  brachy- 
cephals.  The  cranial  index,  which  varies  individually  from  64  to  85, 
centers  about  a  mean  of  74;  and  dolichocephaly  is  the  prevailing  form. 
The  profile  of  the  skull  as  seen  from  above  usually  takes  one  of  two  forms — 
a  long  oval  with  almost  parallel  sides,  which  is  the  Corded  type,  and  a 
pentagonoid,  or  "shield  shape,"  which  is  the  Neolithic  Danubian.  The 
vaults  are  high,  in  most  cases  higher  than  the  breadth,  a  feature  which  is 
derived  from  both  of  the  principal  ancestral  types.  The  face  is  quite  long 
in  both  segments,  and  narrow.  Although,  the  mean  nasal  index  is  mesor- 
rhine,  a  little  less  than  half  of  the  series  is  leptorrhine.  The  orbits,  like 
those  of  both  earlier  strains,  are  of  moderate  height. 

In  the  male  series,  only  four  crania  have  indices  over  78,  and  all  of  these 
are  curvoccipital.  One  of  them,  with  heavy  browridges,  a  wide  interorbital 
distance,  a  wide,  deep  jaw  with  everted  gonial  angles,  and  no  canine  fossa, 
looks  like  some  intruder  from  the  northern  European  forests,  such  as  we 
have  already  met  in  the  Neolithic;  while  another,  which  is  hyperbr achy- 
cephalic,  has  an  extremely  narrow  face  and  jaw,  and  may  be  either  an 
Anatolian  or  a  Beaker  remnant. 

78  Geyer,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  60,  1930,  pp.  65-140. 
w  Szombathy,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  64,  1934,  pp.  1-101. 


164  THE  RACES   OF  EUkOPE 

The  group  as  a  whole  has  a  normal  to  excessive  development  of  the 
browridges,  and  a  narrow-rooted  form  of  the  nasal  bbnes,  which  spring 
prominently  from  a  considerable  nasion  depression.  The  continuous 
fron to-nasal  profile  of  Near  Eastern  Bronze  Age  skulls  is  apparently  alien  to 
this  composite  type. 

The  above  discussion  could  be  applied  without  much  change  to  other 
Austrian  Aunjetitz  series,  notably  that  from  Stillfried,76  which  includes 
nine  males.  Here  the  ratio  of  factors  involved  may  be  slightly  differ- 
ent, for  the  cranial  index  mean  is  mesocephalic,  and  the  nasal  index 
purely  leptorrhine — however,  the  group  contains  no  brachycephals. 

Nearly  a  hundred  crania  from  Bohemia,  collected  from  a  number  of 
sites 76  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  28),  are  on  the  whole  extremely  dolichocephalic, 
with  a  mean  index  of  71.  A  series  of  thirty-two  males  77  (see  Appendix  I, 
col.  29),  like  the  Austrian  group,  is  again  intermediate  in  most  if  not  all 
measurements  between  the  Corded  and  Danubian  Neolithic  means.  As 
with  the  Gemeinlebarn  series,  the  longest  crania  are  the  highest,  and 
possess  the  longest  faces.  A  Corded-Danubian  cross,  with  a  very  little 
Dinaric  (since  the  highest  indices  go  up  to  83)  is  indicated.  This  hybrid 
form,  as  will  be  seen  later,  may  be  given  the  name  "Nordic"  in  the  skeletal 
sense,  since  it  seems  identical  with  that  of  historic  Nordic  peoples  living 
in  the  same  area. 

The  stature  of  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Aunjetitz  males,  as  with  those 
from  Lower  Austria,  is  about  167  cm.78  This  is  considerably  less  than  the 
Corded  stature  for  Scandinavia,  and  that  of  the  British  Bell  Beaker  long 
heads,  but  more  than  that  recorded  in  the  central  European  Corded  series 
of  Neolithic  date.  Either  our  groups  are  too  small  for  accuracy,  which  is 
quite  probable,  or  else  the  Corded  people  of  central  Europe  were  not  as 
tall  as  those  who  invaded  the  far  northwest.  At  any  rate,  the  Aunjetitz 
people  of  central  Europe  are  less  exaggerated  in  head  and  face  dimensions 
than  those  whom  we  have  previously  studied,  and  anticipate  the  "  Nordic" 
peoples  of  the  Iron  Age. 

Around  the  peripheries  of  the  Upper  Danubian  center,  modifications  of 
the  standard  Aunjetitz  racial  amalgam  occurred.  In  Saxony  and  Thu- 
ringia,  where  there  was  an  especially  strong  Corded  cultural  element,  the 
coincident  type  was  of  course  equally  strong.79  But  on  the  Rhine,  the  Bell 
Beaker -cultural  influence  continued,  and  brachycephals  also  persisted.80 
In  the  Tyrol  and  Upper  Austria,  Binaries  of  the  Bell  Beaker  type  re- 

™Schurer  von  Waldheim,  Hella,  MAGW,  vol.  39,  1919f  pp.  247-263. 

TC  Stockf,  A.,  AnthPr,  vol.  9, 1931,  pp.  225-275. 

77  Hellich,  B.,  Praehistorickl  lebky  v  &cMch  &  Sbirky  Musea  Kralovstvi  Ceskeho. 

7«  Matiegka,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  41,  1911,  pp.  348-387. 

TOHcberer,  G.,  VGPA,  vol.  8,  1937,  pp.  59-68, 

»  As  at  Rheinsheim.   Easier,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  55,  1925,  pp.  261-266. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  165 


mained  firmly  ensconced,81  where  their  survival  in  this  mountain  refuge 
was  destined  to  be  permanent. 

About  forty  skulls  are  known  from  the  Bronze  Age  sites  of  Switzerland.82 
The  most  important  fact  to  be  deduced  from  them  is  that  the  old  Neolithic 
elements  persisted  with  little  change.  An  infiltration  of  Aunjetitz  culture 
was  accompanied  by  the  addition  of  some  Corded  types  to  the  group,  and 
in  the  meanwhile  a  few  planoccipital  brachycephals  of  Bell  Beaker  type  ap- 
peared. On  the  whole,  the  Swiss  seem  to  have  become  slightly  longer 
headed  during  this  period,  probably  due  in  large  part  to  Aunjetitz  in- 
fluence. 

It  is  impossible  to  carry  this  survey  of  the  Early  and  Middle  Bronze  Age 
racial  types  in  central  Europe  much  farther  to  the  westward.  We  have 
already  seen  that  brachycephals  of  the  type  which  spread  through  the 
Mediterranean  during  the  Bronze  Age  entered  the  southern  departments 
of  France,  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Gulf  of  Lyons 
(page  149).  Aside  from  this  Spanish  overflow  in  the  south,  the  French 
Bronze  Age  was  largely  confined  to  two  other  peripheral  points-r-Savoie 
and  Franche  Comt6 — and  Brittany  in  the  extreme  west. 

On  the  northeastern  flank  of  France,  in  Franche  Comt6,  a  number 
of  skeletons  have  been  taken  from  tumuli  which  apparently  date  from 
the  Middle  Bronze  Age,  a  time  at  which  invasions  spread  over  the 
upper  Rhine  and  Jura  from  the  Bavarian  highlands  into  northeastern 
Gaul.88 

Seven  out  of  eight  skeletons  of  this  period  were  those  of  tall,  planoccip- 
ital, brachycephals,84  who  belonged,  as  far  as  one  can  tell,  to  a  Bell  Beaker 
type  familiar  in  earlier  times  in  the  Rhinelands.  Two  tumuli  of  later 
date  contained  high-vaulted  dolichocephalic  crania,  belonging  to  small- 
statured  individuals,  like  the  single  dolichocephalic  example  from  the 
earlier  group.  Thus,  as  far  as  we  can  tell,  a  Bell  Beaker  type,  associated 
with  an  older  Danubian  Neolithic  element,  entered  northeastern  France 
in  the  Middle  Bronze  Age  from  the  highland  belt  of  southern  Germany, 
south  of  the  central  Aunjetitz  range. 

In  Brittany,  the  earliest  metal  industry  was  mostly  of  the  Middle  Bronze 
Age;  round  barrows  were  built  apart  from  the  megalithic  tombs,  which 
were  still  used  by  the  descendants  of  the  bringers  of  that  cult  to  the  Atlantic 
seaboard.  In  one  cemetery,  that  of  Saint-Urnel  en  Plomeur  in  Finist&re, 

si  Meyer,  A.  B,,  MAGW,  vol.  15,  1885,  pp.  99-106. 

82  Pittard,  E.,  Anth,  vol.  10,  1899,  pp.  281-289;  vol.  17,  1906,  pp.  547-557;  ASAG, 
vol.  7,  #1,  1934,  pp.  1-7;  RA,  vol.  45,  1935,  pp.  5-12. 

Schenk,  A.,  BMSA,  ser,  5,  vol.  8, 1907,  pp.  218-228;  REAP,  vol.  15, 1905,  pp.  389-407. 
Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  BSGA,  vol.  2, 1926,  pp.  15-24;  MAGZ,  vol.  29, 1924,  pp.  220-241. 
w  Childe,  The  Bron&  Age,  p.  174. 
84  Piroutet,  M.,  Anth,  vol.  38,  1928,  pp.  51-60. 


166  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

tall,  dolichocephalic  people  with  large  heads,  narrow  noses,  and  robust 
jaws  were  buried  throughout  the  Bronze  Age.85  There  were  Beaker  people 
in  Brittany  as  well,  and  one  may  suppose  the  presence,  in  addition,  of  the 
usual  Beaker  physical  type. 

Aside  from  these  instances  there  are  no  Bronze  Age  remains  from 
France  which  give  us  a  definite  picture  of  the  population  of  any  specific 
part  of  the  country..  France,  for  the  most  part,  failed  to  participate  in  the 
great  cultural  movements  of  the  Bronze  Age,  and  was  a  backwater  in 
which  Neolithic  and  even  Mesolithic  peoples  survived  with  little  change 
in  their  manner  of  living. 

(10)  THE  BRONZE  AGE  IN  THE  NORTH 

During  the  Early  Bronze  Age,  Scandinavia  and  the  eastern  Baltic  coun- 
tries had  been  unable  to  obtain  enough  metal  for  tools  and  weapons,  and 
hence  had  enjoyed  the  Late  Neolithic  efflorescence  which  we  have  already 
studied.  Their  first  real  metal  period,  therefore,  was  the  Middle  Bronze 
Age,  later  than  the  first  Beaker  settlement  in  England,  or  the  Aunjetitz 
development  in  central  Europe. 

The  Scandinavian  Bronze  Age  probably  began  about  1500  B.C.,  and 
lasted  for  nearly  a  thousand  years.  It  was  a  period  of  great  prosperity,  for 
Jutish  amber  brought  bronze  and  gold  objects  to  the  north  in  trade.  The 
limits  of  this  cultural  center,  however,  were  restricted.  Most  bronze  has 
been  found  in  Denmark,  since  in  Sweden  and  southern  Norway  metal 
was  dear,  and  seldom  discarded  in  graves.  North  of  the  sixty-eighth 
parallel  of  north  latitude,  the  Arctic  stone  age  prevailed  throughout  this 
period  on  the  coasts  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  in  the  forests  and  mountains  86 
of  Norway  and  northern  Sweden,  as  well  as  in  Finland. 

During  the  Middle  Bronze  Age,  cremation,  which  had  begun  elsewhere 
as  early  as  Danubian  Neolithic  times,  gradually  crept  in  as  a  major  sub- 
stitute for  the  earlier  inhumation,  and  by  the  beginning  of  the  Late  Bronze 
Age,  it  had  become  the  only  method  of  disposing  of  the  dead.  For  this 
reason  skeletal  material  from  the  five  hundred  year  stretch  of  the  Middle 
Bronze  Age  becomes  progressively  scarce. 

In  Sweden  we  are  limited  to  some  twenty-one  skulls,  of  which  thirteen 
are  those  of  males.87  They  belong  to  types  already  familiar  to  us  from  the 
Neolithic,  and  show  no  change  of  population.  If  anything,  however,  the 
long-headed  elements  are  even  more  in  evidence,  and  the  head  form  is 
prevailingly  dolichocephalic.  In  Denmark  again, -twenty  seems  to  be  the 

86  Le  Pontois,  Bernard,  Le  Finistire  prSkistorique. 
88  Shetelig,  Falk,  and  Gordon,  pp;  170-172. 
wArbo,  G.,  FVO,  1901. 
Hillebrand,  B.  E.f  ATS,  1864. 
Retzius,  G.,  Crania  Suecica;  Ymcr,  1900. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  167 


limit; 88  and  here  the  old  Neolithic  population  survived  without  per- 
ceptible alteration.  The  Bronze  Age  men  were  as  tall  as  their  predecessors, 
with  a  mean  stature  of  172  cm.;  and  the  blend  of  long-  and  round-headed 
types  struck  the  same  high  mesocephalic  mean. 

There  is  evidence  that  some  of  the  Danes  of  this  period  were  blond,  since 
the  hair,  teeth,  and  clothing  of  a  young  woman,  buried  at  Egtved,  Jut- 
land, were  perfectly  preserved  by  the  tannic  acid  from  the  oak  coffin  in 
which  she  lay,  under  a  mound.  This  hair,  cut  short  on  the  forehead  and 
hanging  in  a  long  bob  at  the  rear,  was  apparently  straight  as  well  as  fair. 
Unfortunately,  the  bones  were  not  also  preserved,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
tell  to  which  of  the  prevalent  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Age  Danish  racial 
types  she  belonged.89 

On  the  whole  we  may  be  reasonably  confident  that  the  Middle  Bronze 
Age  in  Scandinavia  involved  no  important  racial  change.  The  same  blend 
of  at  least  three  peoples,  who  had  combined  to  create  a  brilliant  Late 
Neolithic,  were  carried  over  into  the  age  of  metal. 

In  the  far  north  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  out  of  reach  of  all  but 
the  most  remote  Bronze  Age  influences,  we  are  led,  on  archaeological 
grounds,  to  believe  that  the  older  peoples  continued  to  lead  their  simple 
existence.  Although  there  is  as  yet  no  direct  skeletal  evidence  of  their  sur- 
vival, a  body  of  collateral  evidence  from  across  the  Baltic  makes  this,  by 
parallel  inference,  certain. 

At  various  points  near  the  Esthonian  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  a  re- 
markable group  of  skeletons  has  been  found  in  cists  under  tumuli,  prob- 
ably dating  from  about  1200  B.C.,  near  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Bronze 
Age,  although  they  may  possibly  have  been  as  much  as  seven  hundred 
years  later.90  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  30.)  Ten  male  and  five  female  skulls 
belong  to  one  homogeneous  racial  type,  extremely  dolichocephalic,  with 
a  mean  cranial  length  of  195  mm.  The  faces  are  very  long,  and  also 
wide;  the  nose  is  of  great  height.  The  browridges  are  in  many  cases  heavy, 
and  the  nasal  bones  high  and  projecting,  but  deep-set  under  a  strong 
glabella.  These  skulls  are  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  Corded  racial 
type,  especially  as  exemplified  by  the  dolichocephalic  element  in  the 
British  Bronze  Age  population.  Like  the  latter,  they  are  associated  with 
long  bones  which  indicate  tall  stature.  The  males,  in  fact,  averaged  172 
cm.;  the  females  165. 

Unlike  the  Corded  group,  however,  these  Esthonian  skulls  are  as  large 
in  vault  and  face  size  as  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  group  from  central  Europe, 

88  Nielsen,  H.  A.,  ANOH,  II,  vol.  21,  1906;  III,  vol.  5,  1915,  pp.  360-365. 

Virchow,  R.}  AFA,  vol.  4,  1870,  p.  55. 

»  Coutil,  L.,  BSPF,  vol.  27,  1930,  pp.  187-189. 

M  Friedenthal,  A.,  ZFE,  vol.  63,  1931,  pp.  1-39. 


168  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  equal  the  latter  in  a  number  of  telltale  dimensions,  including  cranial 
length,  orbital  width,  and  bizygomatic  diameter.  In  the  height  dimen- 
sions of  the  vault  and  face,  the  Esthonian  crania  exceed  all  known  Euro- 
pean groups  of  any  age. 

This  is  a  clear  case  of  the  blending  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors,  who 
had  preserved  a  hunting  life  in  their  northern  forest,  with  Corded  horse- 
men and  cultivators  who  had  penetrated  their  fastness,  bringing  them 
their  first  direct  contact  with  food-producing  civilization.  If  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  group  survived  in  Esthonia,  it  could  have  done  so  in  Norway 
as  well.  It  is  worth  noting  the  exaggeration  of  the  Corded  facial  and 
cranial  heights  in  the  Esthonian  mixture,  along  with  the  Upper  Pa- 
laeolithic retention  of  gross  vault  size  and  of  face  breadth.  This  will  later 
be  encountered  in  several  living  North  European  populations. 

(11)   THE   BRONZE   AGE   ON  THE   EASTERN   PLAINS 

The  remaining  portions  of  Europe,  for  which  there  is  skeletal  docu- 
mentation of  Bronze  Age  date,  may  be  studied  as  a  single  unit.  This  con- 
sists of  the  grassy  plain  which  extends  from  northern  Germany  and  the 
Baltic  states,  south  of  the  forests,  across  Poland  and  southern  Russia  into 
Siberia.  It  must  be  remembered  that  during  the  Bronze  Age  this  plain 
was  drier  than  at  present,  and  that  the  agriculture  of  the  Neolithic  farmers 
had  been  discouraged  to  a  large  extent  both  by  drought  and  by  the  in- 
cursion of  Battle-Axe  people  who  had  first  appeared  in  the  Late  Neolithic 
in  central  and  western  Europe. 

The  evidence  from  Poland,  although  meager  91  shows  that  the  Corded 
concentration  which  had  taken  place  some  centuries  earlier  on  Polish 
soil  had  yielded  to  the  smaller  dolichocephalic  blend  already  observed 
in  Austria  and  Bohemia.  During  the  earlier  Bronze  Age,  there  had  been 
a  number  of  Bell  Beaker  settlers  in  Poland  as  well,  who  may  also  have  left 
descendants.92 

The  Bronze  Age  Ukrainians,  again,  belonged  to  the  same  "Nordic" 
type,  with  a  mean  cranial  index  of  74,93  without  the  excessive  vault  height 
of  the  Austrian  and  Bohemian  groups.  In  Russia  the  height  is  less  than 
the  breadth  in  most  instances. 

In  the  parts  of  southern  Russia  immediately  north  of  the  Black  Sea, 
from  the  Kiev  government  eastward,  Bronze  Age  remains  have  not  been 
studied  in  a  manner  sufficient  to  permit  the  formation  of  adequate  conclu- 

91  Nine  Bronze  Age  crania  have  been  published  by: 
Czortkower,  S.,  AiUhPr,  1932,  pp.  212-218. 
Stojanowski,  K.,  PAr,  vol.  3,  1925-27,  pp.  52-53. 
Tur,  Jan,  Swiatowit,  vol.  3,  1901,  pp.  85-93. 

92  Sediaezek-Komorowski,  L.,  BAPS,  ser.  B,  vol.  2,  1932,  pp.  253-257. 
MDebetz,  G.,  AntrM,  vol.  4,  1930,  pp.  43-105. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  169 


sions.  What  information  is  available  shows  that  the  population  was  pre- 
sumably long  headed  and  of  tall  stature.94  The  same  is  true  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  where  the  crania  are  for  the 
most  part  characterized  by  exceptionally  long  faces,  narrow  noses,  and 
vaults  of  considerable  height,  like  the  Corded  crania  farther  west,95 
although  some  Megalithic  forms  may  also  have  been  present.  Some  of  the 
Caucasian  crania,  however,  are  those  of  small  dolichocephals,  and  a  few, 
for  the  most  part  females,  are  brachycephalic.  In  the  latter  part  of  the 
Bronze  Age,  the  people  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus  practiced 
cranial  deformation  of  the  Hittite  variety,  which  reached,  in  its  southward 
diffusion,  to  Egypt. 

To  the  east  of  European  Russia,  in  western  Turkestan  and  south- 
ern Siberia,  there  was  a  nucleus  of  Bronze  Age  civilization,  which  had 
cultural  connections  with  the  Danube,  the  Caucasus,  Iran,  and  China.96 
That  the  participants  in  this  Bronze  Age  were  men  of  European  racial 
type  is  very  apparent  from  the  remarkable  series  of  one  hundred  and 
fifteen  adult  crania  from  kurgans  in  the  Minussinsk  district  of  southern 
Siberia97  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  31),  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Ye- 
nisei. 

This  country,  which  is  now  the  home  of  nomadic  tribes  of  Kirghiz  and 
Kalmucks,  was,  as  early  as  the  second  millennium  before  Christ,  occupied 
by  a  population  of  purely  European  character.  The  series,  coming  mostly 
from  the  first  millennium  B.C.,  while  reasonably  homogeneous,  shows  as 
much  variability  as  do  most  modern  groups.  The  range  of  the  cranial 
index  includes  all  head  forms,  among  which  are  a  few  planoccipital  brachy- 
cephals,  but  the  mean  is  dolichocephalic;  similarly  the  faces  are  prevail- 
ingly long,  the  noses  narrow.  In  general,  although  individual  crania 
are  as  large  and  as  long  as  the  most  extreme  Corded  form,  the  vaults  are 
of  moderate  size,  and  the  height  is  considerably  less  than  the  breadth. 

In  lowness  of  vault  and  breadth  of  face,  the  Minussinsk  skulls  resemble 
the  Ukrainian  Bronze  Age  group.  On  the  whole,  they  form  a  far  eastward 
wing  of  the  typical  Bronze  Age  population  which  reached  from  Austria 
and  Bohemia  to  central  Asia — and  the  term  "Nordic,"  in  the  skeletal 
sense,  is  as  applicable  in  the  east  as  in  the  west.  One  must  expect  regional 
differences  in  a  racial  type  covering  such  an  extensive  area.  In  this  case 

94  Gochkevitch,  quoted  by  Tallgren,  A.  M.,  ESA,  vol.  2,  1926. 

Rau,  P.,  ESA,  vol.  4,  1929,  pp.  41-57. 

8«  Broca,  P.,  BSAP,  ser.  2,  vol.  8,  1873,  pp.  572-578. 

Chantre,  E.,  RDAP,  ser.  2,  vol.  4,  1881,  pp.  247-254. 

Sinirnov,  M.,  BSAP,  vol.  12,  1877,  pp.  541-553. 

Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  22,  1890,  pp.  412  ff. 

M  Tallgren,  A,  M.,  ESA,  vol.  2,  1926. 

97  Goroshchenko,  K.,  Kurgannie  cherepa  Minusinskago  Okruga,  OMM,  #2,  1900. 

Debetz,  G.  F.,  AZM,  #2,  1932,  pp.  26-48. 


170  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

the  difference  is  simply  that  the  vaults  are  higher  and  the  faces  narrower  in 
the  west,  as  far  as  Poland,  and  the  reverse  from  the  Ukraine  on  eastward. 

The  Andronovo  or  Minussinsk  Kurgan  culture  lasted  from  about 
1000  B.C.  to  1  A.D.,  and  was  followed  by  other  cultures,  which  lasted  until 
the  eighth  century,  when  the  Kirghiz  came  in.98 

These  later  peoples  introduced  iron,  and  the  habit  of  making  plaster 
death  masks.  Not  only  do  these  masks  represent  in  many  cases  a  long- 
headed, narrow- nosed  and  often  aquiline,  and  narrow-faced  people,  but 
the  plaster  contains  in  some  instances  blond  hairs  pulled  out  of  the  beard. 
The  head  hair,  often  preserved  on  the  corpses,  is  usually  brown. 

During  the  fourth  century  A.D.,  the  physical  type  definitely  changed, 
as  one  can  tell  from  the  masks — the  face  is  now  wide  and  flat,  the  nose 
broad  and  flat,  with  a  very  low  bridge.  Eye  slits  are  painted  blue — and 
the  hair  blue  with  black  lines."  Thus  not  until  after  the  time  of  the  Huns 
were  the  Nordics  of  southwestern  Siberia  replaced  by  mongoloids. 

(12)  THE  FINAL  BRONZE  AGE  AND  CREMATION 

The  two  or  three  centuries  immediately  preceding  the  1000  B.C.  mark  in 
central  Europe,  and  a  little  later  in  more  backward  parts,  witnessed 
several  cultural  innovations  which  mark  the  beginning  of  the  Late  or  Final 
Bronze  Age.  To  the  physical  anthropologist,  the  most  important  of  these 
was  cremation,  on  account  of  which  our  knowledge  of  race  during  this 
most  important  period  is  nearly  at  the  zero  point.  This  hiatus  is  especially 
unfortunate,  since  the  findings  of  the  archaeologists  make  it  clear  that 
the  Late  Bronze  Age  was  a  time  of  considerable  shifting  and  expansion  of 
peoples. 

In  most  of  Europe,  the  Sub-Boreal  climate  gave  way  to  the  Sub- Atlantic, 
which  brought  an  increase  in  cold  and  dampness,  and  fostered  the  growth 
of  forest  on  former  grasslands.  The  area  of  soil  suitable  for  cultivation  grew 
smaller,  while  the  number  of  people  had  increased;  these  factors  alone 
were  enough  to  cause  displacements  of  population.  Across  the  plains  of 
Asia  as  well  as  of  Europe,  large  movements  took  place;  the  migrations  of 
the  Aryan  ancestors  into  northern  India  through  Afghanistan,  and  into 
the  Iranian  plateau,  were  Late  Bronze  Age  phenomena. 

Cremation  had  begun  in  Europe,  as  an  alternate  funeral  rite,  early  in 
the  Bronze  Age,  and  had  gradually  increased  in  popularity  in  the  plains 
north  of  the  Alpine  mountain  barrier.  Its  chief  center  of  expansion  seems 
to  have  been  the  central  and  eastern  grasslands,  from  eastern  Germany 
over  to  Russia,  where  it  was  particularly  useful  fdt  nomadic  peoples  faced 
with  the  problem  of  disposing  of  their  dead  on  frozen  ground. 

98  Golomshtok,  E.,  AA,  vol.  35,  1933,  pp.  319-322. 
wGolomshtok;  E.,  BUMP,  vol.  2,  #4,  1933,  pp.  40-45. 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  171 


The  vehicles  which  diffused  this  trait  over  most  of  Europe  during  the 
Late  Bronze  Age  are  called  Urnfields  cultures,  which  arose  on  the  plain 
north  of  the  Carpathians,  from  Silesia  to  the  Ukraine.  From  this  center 
they  spread  in  all  directions.  Some  went  southward  over  the  Alps  to  Italy, 
while  cremation  was  introduced  into  Greece  before  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war.  From  a  secondary  center  of  expansion  in  the  Alpine  highlands,  a 
special  Urnfields  diffusion  entered  the  British  Isles  as  a  major  invasion. 

For  obvious  reasons,  the  skeletal  remains  associated  with  the  Urnfields 
cemeteries  may  be  disposed  of  very  briefly.  Cremated  bones  which  have 
survived  the  rite  are  usually  so  fragile  that  little  in  the  way  of  racial 
identification  has  been  attempted,  although  it  has  been  shown  by  ex- 
periment that  they  shrink  little  or  none  in  the  fire.100  Those  from  the 
British  Isles  indicate  in  general  that  the  invaders  of  this  time  may  have 
been  smaller  and  slighter  than  their  predecessors.  A  small  series  of  crania 
from  southern  England  which  escaped  cremation  were  those  of  Alpines 
of  the  brachycephalic  Lake  Dwelling  type,101  brought  from  the  secondary 
Urnfields  center  in  Switzerland.  On  the  other  hand,  eight  Late  Bronze  Age 
skulls  from  northwestern  France  102  are  all  meso-  or  dolichocephalic;  and 
may  have  come  directly  from  Germany  with  the  vanguard  of  the  Keltic 
migrations.  Eight  other  skulls,  from  the  Ukrainian  urnfields,103  are  long 
headed,  and  similar  to  the  immediately  preceding  "Nordic"  type  of  the 
same  region. 

Some  of  the  south  Russian  and  Caucasian  remains  already  studied  are 
of  Late  Bronze  Age  date,  as  are  those  from  Siberia,  both  having  escaped 
cremation.  The  general  time  scale  of  cultural  phenomena  in  central 
Asia  as  compared  with  Europe  would  indicate  that  important  ethnic  move- 
ments were  not  passing  from  east  to  west  at  that  time.  By  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Bronze  Age,  the  ethnic  elements  which  were  to  form  the  popula- 
tion of  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the  Iron  Age  had  all  arrived;  during  the 
period  of  cremation,  no  new  ingredients  were  added,  but  those  already 
there  participated  in  a  considerable  readjustment  and  recombination. 

(13)   SUMMARY  AND   CONCLUSIONS 

The  Bronze  Age  covered,  in  most  of  Europe,  the  brief  span  of  some  six 
centuries,  as  compared  with  an  expanse  three  times  as  long  in  Egypt  and 
Mesopotamia.  During  these  six  centuries,  however,  important  racial 
changes  took  place  in  many  parts  of  the  European  world,  while  in  the 
two  valleys  from  which  European  civilization  emanated,  the  personnel 

100  Movius,  H.  L.,  Jr.,  PRIA,  vol.  61,  1934,  pp.  282-283. 

101  Keith,  Sir  A.,  JA,  vol.  11,  1931,  pp.  410-418. 

102  Bouchet,  Dr.,  Anth,  vol.  16,  1905,  pp.  309-316. 
Piroutet,  M.,  Anth,  vol.  38,  1928,  pp.  51-60. 

i«  Debetz,  G.,  AntrK,  vol.  4,  1930,  pp.  93-105. 


172  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

remained  constant.  The  parts  of  Europe  most  affected  by  Bronze  Age 
movements  of  people  were  the  north  and  west;  and  hence  these  activities 
may  be  interpreted  as  a  late  phase  of  the  displacements  initiated  by  the 
retreat  of  the  last  glacier,  and  continued  by  the  discovery  of  the  principles 
of  food  production.  By  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age,  the  centers  of  civiliza- 
tion had  begun  their  movement  northward  and  westward,  toward  Greece 
and  Italy,  movements  which  were  later  to  push  much  farther  in  the  same 
direction.  It  is  perhaps  no  coincidence  that,  since  the  beginning  of  the 
Neolithic,  people  from  the  east  and  south  had  migrated  to  the  north  and 
west  ahead  of  this  progression. 

Among  the  problems  left  over  from  the  Neolithic  which  the  evidence 
of  the  Bronze  Age  has  helped  to  clarify  is  that  of  the  immediate  origin  of 
the  Danubians.  In  the  Neolithic  Danubian-like  peoples  cultivated  the 
rich  soil  of  southern  Russia  and  of  western  Turkestan.  We  now  know  that 
they  must  have  formed  a  large  bloc  of  agriculturalists  occupying  Asia 
Minor  as  well,  and  probably  also  the  Caucasus.  Thus  they  may  have 
come  into  the  Danube  Valley  from  either  southern  Russia  or  Anatolia, 
or  both;  and  their  earlier  derivation  from  the  agricultural  highlands  is 
established. 

A  second  problem,  which  arose  only  during  the  Bronze  Age,  is  the  origin 
of  the  new  racial  type  which  appeared,  shortly  before  2000  B.C.,  apparently 
from  nowhere,  in  Asia  Minor,  Palestine,  and  Cyprus.  This  new  type  was 
tall,  round  headed  and  frequently  planoccipital;  its  nose  was  prominent 
and  narrow;  its  face  triangular  and  of  moderate  length.  In  its  associated 
morphological  features,  it  forecast  the  appearance  of  the  Dinaric  race. 

Brachycephals  of  this  type  followed  the  old  Megalithic  sea  route  to 
Italy,  the  Italian  islands,  and  Spain.  In  Spain  some  of  them  seem  to  have 
associated  themselves  with  cultural  phenomena  known  as  the  Bell  Beaker 
complex.  As  the  Bell  Beaker  people,  these  newcomers  travelled  from  Spain 
to  the  Rhinelands  and  to  central  Europe,  where  they  were  the  first  dis- 
seminators of  metal.  Having  appeared  in  the  Rhineland  in  considerable 
numbers,  they  mixed  with  the  older  Borreby  sub-stratum  which  had  re- 
mained there  since  the  Mesolithic,  and  with  Corded  people  coming  from 
the  east.  This  triple  combination  moved  bodily  down  the  Rhine  and 
across  the  North  Sea  to  Britain.  Thus,  during  the  Early  Bronze  Age, 
England  and  Scotland  were  invaded  by  people  of  entirely  new  types, 
who  came  in  numbers  sufficient  to  change  the  population  of  these  coun- 
tries in  a  radical  manner.  At  the  same  time,  other  movements  of  these 
brachycephals  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean  passed  by  sea  from  Spain 
to  Ireland  and  from  Ireland  across  to  Scotland. 

The  appearance  of  these  early  Binaries  on  the  Asiatic  and  European 
scene  marks  the  advent  of  the  third  important  brachycephalic  racial  type 


THE  BRONZE  AGE  173 


which  we  have  encountered  in  our  survey  of  the  post-glacial  prehistory  of 
the  white  race.  Unlike  the  Borreby  and  Alpine  types,  it  cannot  be  easily 
or  plausibly  explained  as  a  simple  Palaeolithic  survivor.  Facially  it  is 
basically  Mediterranean;  it  seems  to  be  a  Mediterranean  type  brachy- 
cephalized  by  some  non-Mediterranean  agency.104 

These  Binaries  did  not  come  from  central  Asia,  nor  from  Mesopotamia 
or  Egypt.  Facially,  they  resemble  the  dolichocephalic  residents  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  eastern  Mediterranean  coast  lands  of  the  period  during 
which  they  first  appeared,  in  that  both  have  in  common  a  high-bridged, 
high-rooted  nose,  high  orbits,  and  a  sloping  forehead.  Until  further  evi- 
dence is  found,  it  is  safer  to  hold  that  the  culture-bearing  Binaries  of  the 
Bronze  Age  developed  in  the  Syrian  highlands,  where  a  similar  type  of 
brachycephaly  is  now  present,  than  to  try  to  bring  them  from  a  distance. 

Another  Bronze  Age  event  of  racial  moment  was  the  gradual  disappear- 
ance through  amalgamation  of  the  Corded  people  and  of  the  Banubians, 
and  the  emergence  of  an  intermediate  long-headed  form.  This  latter, 
which  inhabited  the  immense  stretch  of  territory  from  Germany  and 
Austria  to  the  Altai  Mountains,  occupied  an  intermediate  position  in  the 
total  roster  of  greater  Mediterranean  racial  variations. 

In  Austria  and  Bohemia  the  high  vault  and  narrow  face  of  both  Corded 
and  Banubian  strains  persisted,  but  from  southern  Russia  over  to  the 
Altai,  the  vaults  were  lower  and  the  faces  broader.  Two  variants  thus 
appeared,  a  western  and  an  eastern.  There  is  evidence  that  the  eastern 
group,  at  least,  was  partly  if  not  prevailingly  blond.  Both  eastern  and 
western  divisions  may  with  some  confidence  be  compared  to  the  "Nordic" 
peoples  who  appeared  historically  during  the  Iron  Age. 

At  the  end  of  the  Bronze  Age,  for  a  period  of  two  or  three  centuries,  the 
pall  of  cremation  falls  over  the  racial  history  of  Europe.  When  the  smoke 
has  lifted  during  the  Early  Iron  Age,  we  shall  see  what  changes  have  taken 
place  during  this  period  of  darkness. 

104  The  principle  of  Dinaricization  will  be  explained  in  Chapter  VIII,  section  6, 
and  Chapter  XII,  sections  11,  12,  and  17.  See  also  legend,  Plate  35. 


Chapter  VI 
THE   IRON  AGE 

(1)    RACE,   LANGUAGES,  AND   EUROPEAN  PEOPLES 

In  the  preceding  chapters,  we  have  found  it  necessary  to  use  archaeol- 
ogy as  a  system  of  landmarks  by  which  to  chart  the  movements  of  human 
groups  and  their  relationships  with  one  another;  this  study  of  race  in 
terms  of  culture  was  essential.  Ideas  are  originated,  diffused,  and  con- 
served by  people,  and  people  interbreed.  A  complete  and  sudden  re- 
placement of  one  culture  by  another  implies  a  drastic  change  of  per- 
sonnel, while  a  gradual  merging  of  a  new  culture  with  an  old  one  must 
equally  imply  the  survival,  at  least  in  part,  of  the  older  population.  By 
following  these  rules  we  have  seen  that  racial  and  cultural  movements 
are  truly  connected,  and  in  no  instance  in  which  the  skeletal  record  is 
adequate  could  any  contradiction  be  seen. 

The  subject  of  this  book,  however,  is  race,  not  culture;  although  culture 
in  the  archaeological  sense  has  been  a  valuable  guide.  But  once  we  arrive 
at  the  period  of  history  it  is  no  longer  necessary  to  deal  exclusively  with 
pots  and  axes  and  methods  of  burial;  we  may  consider  people  as  linguistic 
and  political  groups,  with  known  names  and  ethnic  relationships.  This 
has  already  been  possible  with  the  civilized  nations  of  preclassical  antiq- 
uity, such  as  the  Egyptians,  the  Sumerians,  the  Babylonians,  and  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  with  the  Cretans  and  Hittites,  whose  writings  have  so  far  fur- 
nished little  or  nothing  in  the  way  of  documentary  information,  as  well  as 
with  the  early  ancestors  of  the  Greeks. 

The  peoples  of  central  and  northern  Europe  did  not  learn  to  write 
until  relatively  recent  times — in  most  instances  well  after  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era,  and  in  some  cases  only  within  the  current  millennium. 
But  their  identities  are  in  many  instances  known  to  us  from  the  writings 
of  the  classical  geographers  and  historians,  and,  in  the  Dark  Ages,  from 
Arabic  sources  as  well.  Farther  east,  in  central  Asia,  the  diligence  of 
Chinese  historians  has  been  of  great  assistance.  In  our  study  of  the  early 
part  of  the  Iron  Age,  archaeology  will  still  be  needed;  but  by  the  time  of 
the  Christian  era  it  will  be  possible,  for  our  purposes,  to  dispense  with  it 
almost  completely,  for  in  treating  fully  historical  and  living  cultures, 
language  serves  as  the  best-known,  most  easily  designated,  and  most  con- 
venient framework  available  for  the  creation  of  units  suitable  for  racial 
study. 

174 


THE   IRON  AGE  175 


Heretofore,  we  have  said  little  about  language.  The  speech  of  the 
peoples  with  whom  we  have  dealt  has  been  unknown  to  us  in  almost  all 
instances.  The  exceptions  are  few:  The  Egyptians,  as  we  well  know,  spoke 
a  language  of  the  Hamitic  stock,  with  considerable  Semitic  influence.  The 
Babylonians  and  Assyrians  spoke  Semitic,  while  the  Sumerian  language, 
although  it  can  be  read,  has  not  yet  been  related  with  certainty  to  any 
other  known  tongue  or  linguistic  family.1  During  the  third  millennium, 
therefore,  Hamitic  and  Semitic  languages  were  used  by  civilized  peoples, 
as  was  the  still  unclassified  Sumerian. 

Besides  these  known  linguistic  groupings  found  in  antiquity,  there  was 
another  group  or  rather  collection  of  languages  spoken  in  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  and  Asia  Minor.  These  included  Lydian,  and  its  probable 
derivative  Etruscan;  languages  of  the  Caucasus,  some  of  which  still  sur- 
vive; a  few  languages  of  the  Himalayas,  such  as  Burushaski;2  and  a  whole 
group  in  Greece  and  the  Aegean  Islands,  if  not  farther  west,  known  to  us 
almost  entirely  by  place  names.  Cretan  may  possibly  have  also  belonged 
to  this  class  of  languages. 

A  school  of  linguistic  experts  headed  by  the  late  Professor  Marr,  and 
championed  in  the  English-speaking  world  by  Dr.  Ephraim  Speiser,3 
would  group  all  of  these  languages  together,  including  a  whole  row  of  ex- 
tinct tongues  stretching  around  the  so-called  "Fertile  Crescent"  from 
Syria  to  Elam.  The  name  given  this  group  is  "Japhetic,"  coined  to  com- 
plete, with  Hamitic  and  Semitic,  a  Biblical  trinity.  The  living  examples 
of  this  alleged  class  or  family  of  languages,  notably  Georgian  and  Circas- 
sian, employ  a  number  of  sounds  unfamiliar  to  the  Indo-European,  Se- 
mitic, and  Hamitic  families,  and  reminiscent  of  American  Indian  languages. 

No  one  denies  the  wide  distribution  and  importance  of  these  languages 
in  ancient  times,  but  there  is  serious  doubt  that  they  may  be  united  into 
a  single  stock  comparable  to  Semitic,  Hamitic,  Indo-European,  etc.  It  is 
more  likely  that  this  grouping  includes  a  number  of  independent  families, 
but  at  present  it  is  too  early  to  say  what  these  may  be;  especially  since 
most  of  them  are  extinct  and  will  never,  in  all  likelihood,  be  resuscitated. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  probable  that  some  of  the  seafarers  of  the  Late  Neolithic 
and  of  the  Bronze  Age  who  migrated  westward  along  the  Mediterranean 

1  The  supposed  kinship  between  Sumerian  and  Finno-Ugrian  cannot  easily  be  eval- 
uated, owing  largely  to  the  gap  of  over  three  millennia  between  the  known  forms  of  each. 
Both  groups  are  agglutinative,  but  the  grammatical  structure  of  Sumerian  also  has  ver- 
bal prefixes,  often  with  personal  tone,  unknown  in  modern  Finnic  or  Ugric.   Sumerian, 
like  modern  Finnic,  Ugric,  and  Turkish,  seems  to  have  vowel  harmony.  In  vocabulary 
there  are  few  similarities.    On  the  whole,  this  relationship  cannot  at  the  moment  be 
proved  or  disproved. — Personal  communication  from  Dr.  J.  Dyneley  Prince.   See  also 
the  Prolegomena  of  his  Materials  for  a  Sumerian  Lexicon. 

2  Lorimer,  D.  L.,  The  Burushaski  Language. 
8  Speiser,  E.,  Mesopotamian  Origins. 


IRON  AGE  RACES 
OP  EUROPE 


BEFORE  HUNS  AND 

B  m  e  a  Borreby     \ 
Mordic  oooo  Alpine 

+KJWW*,.   .  ,..,.  A^AAQjnaric 

^,^,,^1^16^11^10 


(Mediterranean 


.*.  -Northern        / 
.  ;  Forest  people/ 


MAP 


176 


177 


178  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

to  Italy,  the  Italian  islands,  and  Spain,  and  thence  to  Britain,  France, 
and  Scandinavia,  spoke  languages  derived  from  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean. It  is  furthermore  possible  that  modern  Basque  may  be  the  only 
survivor  of  this  linguistic  migration;  but  this  suggested  relationship, 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  chapter,  must  by  no  means  be  accepted  as  a 
certainty. 

We  do  not  know  the  languages  of  the  Early  Neolithic  swineherds  who 
introduced  a  food-producing  economy  to  Spain  and  western  Europe,  in- 
cluding the  lake  shores  of  Switzerland,  and  we  are  not  likely  to  find  out. 
We  do  not,  furthermore,  know  what  medium  the  Danubians  who  per- 
formed the  same  pioneering  function  in  another  quarter  used.  The 
speech  of  the  Corded  people  is  equally  unknown,  and  the  oldldioms  of  the 
Palaeolithic  survivors  in  the  far  north,  of  the  midden  dwellers  of  Denmark, 
and  of  the  Azilian  survivors  in  Switzerland,  are  far  past  reconstruction.  In 
Europe  we  must  start  as  late  as  the  Iron  Age  in  our  attempt  to  allocate 
languages  to  cultural  or  racial  groups. 

Today  the  members  of  the  white  race  speak  languages  of  the  following 
linguistic  stocks:  Semitic,  Hamitic,  Indo-European,  Ural-Altaic,4  Euska- 
rian  (Basque),  and  various  languages  of  the  Caucasus  and  Himalayas, 
which  it  would  be  futile  to  attempt  to  classify  here.  At  present  the  two 
most  important  are  Indo-European  and  Ural-Altaic.  Yet  in  antiquity, 
while  civilization  of  the  first  water  was  in  the  hands  of  Hamites,  Semites, 
and  Sumerians,  all  Indo-European  and  probably  most  Ural-Altaic  speak- 
ers, if  they  existed  as  such,  were  illiterate  barbarians. 

Indo-European  languages  are  spoken  by  more  white  people  today  than 
are  all  of  the  others  put  together,  several  times  over.  People  speaking 
Indo-European  languages  have  monopolized  the  cultural  advances  of 
modern  science;  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that,  as  late  as  the  Middle 
Ages,  Semites,  Turks,  and  Chinese  were  more  advanced  than  the  majority 
of  Indo-European  speakers.  The  linguists  tell  us  that  the  Indo-European 
speakers  did  not  initially  domesticate  one  useful  animal,  or  one  cultivated 
plant. 

Linguistically,  Indo-European  is  probably  a  relatively  recent  phenom- 
enon, which  arose  after  animals  had  been  tamed  and  plants  cultivated. 
The  latest  researches  find  it  to  be  a  derivative  of  an  initially  mixed  lan- 
guage, whose  principal  elements  were  Uralic,  called  element  A,  and  some 
undesignated  element  B  which  was  probably  one  of  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean or  Caucasic  languages.5  The  plants  and  animals  on  which  the 

» 

4  Concerning  the  question  of  Ural-Altaic  unity,  see  Chapter  VII,  p.  223. 
6  Uhlenbeck  (AA  *37)  refuses  to  identify  element  B,  or  to  call  it  specifically  Caucasic. 
Nehring,  however  (Nehring,  A.,  WBKL,  vol.  4,  1936,  pp.  7-229),  feels  certain  that  B 
is  one  of  the  group  of  which  Caucasic  may  form  a  part. 


THE  IRON  AGE  179 


economy  of  the  early  Indo-European  speakers  was  based  were  referred  to 
in  words  derived  mainly  from  element  B.  Copper  and  gold  were  known, 
and  the  words  for  these  commodities  come  from  Mesopotamia. 

Somewhere  in  the  plains  of  southern  Russia  or  central  Asia,  the  blend- 
ing of  languages  took  place  which  resulted  in  Indo-European  speech. 
This  product  in  turn  spread  and  split,  and  was  further  differentiated  by 
mixture  with  the  languages  of  peoples  upon  whom  it,  in  one  form  or  other, 
was  imposed.  Some  of  the  present  Indo-European  languages,  in  addition 
to  these  later  accretions  from  non-Indo-European  tongues,  contain  more 
of  the  A  element  than  others,  which  contain  more  of  the  B.  The  unity  of 
the  original  " I ndo- Europeans,"  could  not  have  been  of  long  duration,  if 
it  was  ever  complete. 

They  split,  perhaps  very  early,  into  two  groups,  designated  by  the  treat- 
ment of  the  palatal  explosives  of  the  K  group.  Among  one  branch,  the 
so-called  Satem,  this  was  changed  to  spirants  (5);  the  other,  called  Cen- 
tum, preserved  the  original  form  of  this  sound,  which  also  prevailed 
in  the  A  or  Finno-Ugric  element.  Centum  speech  became  divided  into  a 
number  of  branches,  of  which  surviving  members  are  Keltic,  Germanic, 
Italic,  and  Hellenic;  Satem  includes  Slavic  and  Baltic,  Armenian,  Indie 
and  Iranian,  and  probably  Thracian,6  in  the  sense  of  a  contributing  factor 
in  modern  Albanian.  Others,  such  as  Ligurian,  Illyrian,7  and  Tokharian 
B  (all  Centum),  have  long  been  extinct. 

On  the  whole,  the  Indo-European  languages  have  been  spoken  by 
people  who  combined  agriculture  with  animal  husbandry,  who  were 
organized  into  a  patrilineal  society  with  at  least  the  germs  of  a  differential 
class  system,  and  who  worshipped  an  Olympian  pantheon  of  Gods.  The 
initial  formation  of  the  Indo-European  linguistic  stock  by  blending  does 
not  antedate  the  age  of  metal;  the  common  culture  of  the  earliest  Indo- 
European  speakers,  insofar  as  it  existed  as  a  unit,  had  much  in  common 
with  those  of  both  the  peoples  of  the  Aegean  and  Asia  Minor  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  central  Asia  on  the  other.  The  mythology  of  the  Altaian 
Turks,  for  example,  is  so  nearly  identical  with  that  of  the  early  Scandina- 
vians that  some  close  association  in  the  not  far  distant  past  is  necessary.8 
Furthermore,  the  ritual  of  the  horse  sacrifice  9  is  so  integral  a  part  of  the 
religion  of  both  Indo-European  and  Altaic-speaking  peoples  that  recent 
diffusion  alone  cannot  explain  the  identity. 

Indo-European  languages  as  we  know  them  must  have  come  from  east- 
ernmost Europe  or  western  central  Asia  at  no  very  remote  time.  Their 

6  Lowman,  G.  S.,  Language,  vol.  8,  1932,  p.  271. 

7  This  may  also  be  a  factor  in  modern  Albanian. 

s  Chadwick,  Nora  K.,  JRAI,  vol.  66,  1936,  pp.  75-112. 

'Koppers,  W.,  Anthropos,  vol.  24,  1929,  pp.  1073-1089;  WBKL,  vol.  4,  1936, 
pp.  279-411. 


180  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

spread  over  most  of  Europe,  and  subsequently  over  the  western  hemi- 
sphere, Australia,  and  large  segments  of  Asia  in  which  they  were  origi- 
nally not  at  home,  is  part  of  a  general  movement  of  expansion  in  which 
both  race  and  culture  have  played  their  r61es.  Yet  we  cannot  with  com- 
plete assurance  associate  any  one  culture  earlier  than  the  Iron  Age  with 
any  specific  form  of  Indo-European  speech.  Although  Homer's  heroes 
fought  with  bronze  weapons,  we  are  not  sure  exactly  when  and  by  what 
agency  the  pre-Dorian  Greek  dialects  arrived  in  the  racially  and  culturally 
composite  Hellenic  world;  nor  do  we  know  exactly  who  brought  Nasili 
speech  to  Asia  Minor. 

One  whole  school  of  European  archaeologists  and  linguists  associates 
the  Corded  people  with  the  diffusion  of  Indo-European  speech.10  Nehring, 
in  a  recent  work  of  great  detail  and  authority,  would  make  the  Danubians 
the  original  Indo- Europeans.11  He  would  explain  the  Altaic  cultural 
similarities  by  dividing  the  Indo-European  culture  and  vocabulary  into 
two  elements:  (1)  an  early  horizon  in  which  the  ox  was  the  most  important 
domestic  animal  economically,  and  agriculture  of  primary  importance; 
(2)  a  later  horizon  of  indirect  Altaic  inspiration,  in  which  the  horse  was 
supreme  and  agriculture  secondary. 

At  the  moment  the  evidence  is  growing  that  certain  forms  of  Indo- 
European  speech  were  very  ancient  in  more  than  one  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin.  Whatmough  has  definitely  identified  Ligurian  as  Indo- 
European,12  and  Ligurian  was  very  old  in  Italy  and  in  the  Rh6ne  Valley. 
Sapir  sees  in  Philistine  a  form  of  Indo-European; 13  and  would  make  the 
ark  of  the  covenant  a  spirit-placing  on  wheels  like  the  portable  wicker 
shrines  of  the  later  Mongols.  But  neither  of  these  identifications  need  carry 
us  back  earlier  in  history  than  the  time  of  the  troubles  in  Mesopotamia  at 
the  end  of  the  third  millennium,  when  northerners  caused  restless  nights  to 
the  Babylonian  kings,  and  the  Hyksos  invaded  Egypt.  It  was  after  these 
disturbances  that  the  chariot  first  appeared  in  Libya;  hence,  the  first 
southward  burst  of  horse-nomads  may  have  affected  both  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  whatever  languages  they  brought  with  them. 

The  dates  of  the  earliest  certain  appearances  of  Indo-European  are 
about  1900  B.C.,  when  the  Nasili  dialect  which  was  incorporated  into 
Hittite  entered  Asia  Minor.  The  earliest  Greek  probably  entered  Hellas 
at  the  s^me  time.  About  1400  B.C.,  the  ancestors  of  the  Aryans  of  India 
were  crossing  the  passes  of  Afghanistan  into  the  Indus  Valley,  and  some 
six  hundred  years  later,  their  relatives  the  Iranian  ancestors  were  founding 

10  That  headed  by  Kossinna,  who  would  likewise  derive  Indo-European  speech  from 
the  Baltic.    See  Kossinna,  G.,  Vr sprung  und  Verbreitung  der  Germanen. 
"  Nehring,  A.,  WBKL,  vol.  4,  1936. 
12  Whatmough,  J.,  The  Foundations  of  Roman  Italy. 
™  Sapir,  E.,  JAOS,  vol.  56,  1935,  #2,  pp.  272-281. 


THE  IRON  AGE  181 


the  Persian  empire.  From  roughly  1000-900  B.C.  onward,  as  the  earliest 
possible  date,  the  bearers  of  the  Hallstatt  culture  in  central  Europe  were 
spreading  the  use  of  iron,  and  the  Hallstatt  people  almost  certainly  spoke 
lllyrian.  In  Italy,  the  Villanova  people  were  without  reasonable  doubt 
diffusing  Italic  speech  in  the  peninsula,  while  some  forms  of  lllyrian  were 
introduced  by  a  number  of  peoples,  among  whom  were  probably  the 
Veneti. 

All  of  these  Indo-European  speakers,  from  900  B.C.  onward,  were  asso- 
ciated in  some  way  with  the  diffusion  of  iron  metallurgy  from  a  center 
which  is  still  to  be  determined.  The  most  commonly  proposed  location 
is  northern  Anatolia  and  the  Caucasus;  u  whatever  the  history  of  the 
diffusion  of  Indo-European  speech  in  the  past,  with  the  advent  of  iron, 
certain  branches  of  it  seem  to  have  spread  with  great  rapidity.  The 
Hallstatt  period  in  central  Europe  was  followed  by  that  of  La  Tene,  the 
Late  Iron  Age,  which  lasted  from  500  B.C.  to  the  time  of  Christ;  and  this 
was  the  period  of  Keltic  expansion  and  Keltic  dominance,  earlier  than 
but  parallel  to  the  spread  of  Roman  power  and  of  Latin  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. After  the  phenomenal  and  immoderate  scattering  of  the  Kelts, 
who  were  destined  to  survive  linguistically  only  on  the  western  European 
fringe,  far  from  their  center  of  dispersion — the  Germanic  peoples  began, 
in  the  days  of  the  Roman  empire,  their  swelling  and  pushing,  from  Den- 
mark, southern  Sweden,  northern  Germany,  Holland,  and  the  Norwegian 
coast.  This  reached  every  country  in  Europe  and  also  North  Africa.  Un- 
like the  spread  of  the  Kelts,  it  was  to  achieve,  in  many  quarters,  linguistic 
and  cultural  permanence. 

The  expansion  of  the  Germans  was  followed  by  that  of  the  Slavs,  the 
youngest  of  the  Indo-Europeans  to  effervesce  in  an  orgy  of  numerical 
increase  and  of  migration.  This  took  place  in  full  historic  time,  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries  of  our  era,  but,  unfortunately,  the  light  of 
history  was  dim  in  the  part  of  Europe  in  which  most  of  their  expansion 
occurred. 

The  foregoing  digression  into  the  field  of  comparative  linguistics  has  a 
direct  bearing  upon  the  problem  of  the  racial  complexion  of  present  day 
Europe.  While  it  is  not  our  primary  purpose  to  discover  the  physical  type 
or  types  of  the  undivided  Indo-European  ancestors,  if  they  were  ever 
actually  undivided,  it  will  be  possible  to  find  the  common  racial  denom- 
inator, homogeneous  or  mixed,  of  the  Iron  Age  spreaders  of  Indo- 
European  speech  and  the  accompanying  cultures  over  Europe  and  parts  of 
Asia.  Once  we  have  isolated  the  common  factor,  we  may  hope  to  locate 
its  position  in  the  roster  of  racial  types  previously  known  to  us — for  it 
must  have  been  some  type  or  types  with  which  we  have  already  become 

"  Wainwright,  G.,  Antiquity,  vol.  10,  1936,  pp.  5-24. 


182  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

familiar  in  the  earlier  part  of  our  study,  and  not  a  deus  ex  machina  con- 
jured  up  by  linguists  and  politicians. 

(2)   THE   ILLYRIANS 

In  beginning  our  survey  of  Iron  Age  Indo-European  peoples,  it  may 
be  well  to  choose  the  earliest  instance  in  which  we  can  definitely  identify  a 
language  with  a  culture  and  a  racial  entity.  This  is  true  of  the  so-called 
Hallstatt  culture  associated  with  the  Illyrian  branch  of  Indo-European 
speech.  Although  usually  classified  with  Centum,  Illyrian,  like  Tokharian 
B,  belonged  to  an  ancient  form  of  Indo-European  which  perhaps  ante- 
dated the  clear  segregation  into  Centum  and  Satem.15 

This  culture  arose  in  central  Europe,  with  southern  Germany  and 
Austria  as  a  focus,  sometime  shortly  after  the  beginning  of  the  first  millen- 
nium B.C.  It  developed  out  of  local  Bronze  Age  origins  carried  over  from 
the  Urnfields,  and  in  turn  from  Aunjetitz.  Other  Middle  and  Late  Bronze 
Age  influences  reached  it,  particularly  that  of  the  tumulus  culture  of  the 
south  German  highlands;  likewise  both  cremation  and  the  use  of  iron  were 
introduced  from  outside.  Still,  whatever  the  complexity  of  archaeological 
detail,  the  Hallstatt  civilization  may  be  considered  primarily  the  work  of 
the  indigenous  central  European  population,  with  little  if  any  accretions. 

The  Hallstatt  culture  spread  in  many  directions,  including  the  south- 
east, where  it  penetrated  Bosnia,  and  eventually  Albania.  It  moved  slowly 
northward,  until  it  reached  the  Scandinavian  and  North  German  area, 
bringing  iron  to  these  regions  relatively  late;  while  to  the  southwest,  it 
crossed  France  and  penetrated  Catalonia.  To  the  immediate  south,  it 
likewise  spread  over  the  Alps  into  Italy,  where  the  invading  Illyrians  split 
into  a  number  of  local  tribal  groups,  including  the  Veneti.  It  would  be 
foolish  to  claim  that  every  site  with  Hallstatt  cultural  remains  carries  the 
bones  or  ashes  of  Illyrian  speakers.  This  may  only  with  certainty  be  as- 
serted for  the  central  area,  and  for  the  regions  immediately  adjacent,  while 
in  the  west  it  is  fairly  certain  that  some  of  the  peoples  in  a  Hallstatt  level  of 
culture  were  actually  Kelts. 

The  Hallstatt  crania  from  Austria,  including  those  from  the  type  site 
itself,  form  a  reasonably  homogeneous,  entirely  long-headed  group.16 
(See  Appendix  I,  col.  32.)  This  group  is  the  legitimate,  local  successor  to 
the  Aunjetitz,  and  like  the  latter  it  resembles  the  Danubian  Neolithic 

16  Whatnaough,  J.,  The  Foundations  of  Roman  Italy  >  p.  177. 

16  Through  combining  several  series,  24  adult  male  crania  may  be  assembled. 

Hochstetter,  F.  von,  MAGW,  vol.  7,  1878,  pp.  297-318. 

Rosensprung,  L.  M.,  MAGW,  vol.  66,  1936,  pp.  338-344. 

Schliz,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  37,  1910,  pp.  201-251. 

Schurer  von  Waldheim,  Hella,  MAGW,  vols.  48-49,  1919,  pp.  247-263. 

Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  51-52. 

Zuckerkandl,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  13,  1883,  pp  89-118. 


THE  IRON  AGE  183 


series  in  many  respects.  In  certain  characters,  however,  it  leans  in  a 
Corded  direction,  and  these  include  a  heightening  of  the  orbits  and  a 
narrowing  and  lengthening  of  the  nose.  Certain  of  the  individual  crania 
are  of  definitely  Corded  type.  Morphologically,  as  well  as  metrically, 
most  of  these  skulls  may  without  difficulty  be  designated  as  "Nordic55;  the 
browridges  are  moderate,  the  foreheads  moderately  sloping,  the  occiputs 
protruding,  the  parietals  flattened,  the  malars  compressed,  the  mandibles 
deep.  The  stature  was  apparently  moderately  tall.17 

The  Austrian  Hallstatt  series  has  close  connections  in  two  directions: 
first,  with  the  local  Bronze  Age  and  Neolithic  populations  of  central 
Europe  which  preceded  it,  and  second,  with  the  Germanic  "Reihen- 
graber"  people  who  followed  it  after  a  Keltic  interruption.  The  similarity 
between  Hallstatt  and  Germanic  crania  is  a  commonplace;  and  if  the 
Reihengraber  people  were  "Nordic,"  as  is  generally  conceded,  then  so,  in 
all  likelihood,  were  the  Hallstatt  people. 

The  significance  of  this  double  continuity  is  great.  It  traces  the  Nordic 
racial  type,  in  its  skeletal  form,  back  to  the  Early  Iron  Age,  and  derives 
this  with  little  alteration  from  the  preceding  Age  of  Bronze.  The  Bronze 
Age  population  which  was  thus  the  ancestral  Nordic  one  was  in  turn  de- 
rived from  a  mixture  between  the  local  Danubian  Neolithic  people,  who 
came  from  the  east,  and  the  later  Corded  invaders.  The  complexity  of 
the  Middle  and  Late  Bronze  Age,  therefore,  and  the  disturbances  caused 
by  the  introduction  of  cremation,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  epoch,  did 
not  interrupt  the  racial  continuity  of  central  Europe,  where  racial  move- 
ments, during  the  Late  Bronze  Age,  seem  to  have  been  somewhat  simpler 
than  those  of  culture. 

Let  us  return  to  the  specific  problem  of  the  Illyrian  racial  composition. 
So  far,  we  have  been  dealing  entirely  with  the  Hallstatt  remains  from 
Lower  Austria.  The  Hallstatt  cemetery  itself  dates  from  the  middle  and 
later  thirds  of  the  period;  but  the  neighboring  Early  Hallstatt  site  of  Stat- 
zendorf,  from  which  a  series  of  five  crania  have  been  taken,  contains  noth- 
ing but  long-headed  examples,  and  these  are  the  same  as  those  from  the 
type  site  itself.  So  the  Hallstatt  site  is  racially  typical  of  the  entire  period. 

When  we  move  to  southern  Germany,  however,  which  was  equally 
involved  in  the  development  of  this  culture,  we  find  no  such  racial  uni- 
formity. Crania  from  Wurttemburg,  Bavaria,  and  the  Bavarian  Palatinate 
include,  with  the  usual  Austrian  Hallstatt  type,  a  large  minority  of  brachy- 
cephals  which  may  be  considered  as  survivals  from  the  Bronze  Age.18 

J7  Matiegka,  H.  (MAGW,  vol  41, 1911,  pp.  348-387),  fails  to  segregate  Hallstatt  from 
Aunjetitz  long  bones,  implies  that  both  are  the  same,  with  a  mean  stature  of  168  cm* 
18  Schliz,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  37,  1910,  pp.  202-251. 
Schultz,  B.  K.,  VGPA,  vol.  3,  1929,  pp.  5-12. 


184  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

These  include  both  planoccipital  crania  of  the  original  Bell  Beaker  type, 
and  a  curvoccipital  brachycephalic  type  which  shows  a  Borreby  relation- 
ship. It  would  appear,  then,  that  in  southwestern  Germany,  Hallstatt  Nor- 
dics had  invaded  the  region  and  had  mixed  with  the  Bell  Beaker  Binaries 
and  the  old  Borreby  sub-stratum. 

A  large  series  from  the  Spreewald,  situated  to  the  north  of  this  area 
and  on  flat  land,  consists  entirely  of  purely  dolichocephalic  crania  of  the 
regular  Austrian  Hallstatt  type,19  which  was  apparently  at  home  in  the 
lowlands  of  central  Europe,  but  not  in  the  highlands,  which  had  already 
given  shelter  to  a  tenacious  brachycephalic  population.  In  Bohemia  and 
Silesia,  as  one  would  expect,  Schliz  finds  typical  Hallstatt  dolichocephalic 
forms  in  small  collections  from  each  of  these  regions.  One  out  of  five  Bo- 
hemian crania  was  brachycephalic,  and  none  in  a  series  of  four  from 
Silesia. 

The  generalization  announced  in  the  preceding  paragraph  applies  like- 
wise to  Switzerland,  where  the  Hallstatt  culture,  like  that  of  the  Bronze 
Age,  penetrated  slowly,  while  the  older  economy  and  technique  which 
had  survived  in  part  from  the  Neolithic  persisted  in  large  measure.  Both 
long-headed  skulls  and  those  of  brachycephals  are  found,  as  is  to  be  ex- 
pected. In  the  available  Swiss  Hallstatt  material,  the  majority  of  crania 
are  brachycephalic.20 

Let  us  turn  southeastward  and  follow  the  Dinaric  Alpine  chain  in  the 
direction  of  the  Balkans.  In  the  mountainous  section  of  southern  Austria, 
the  Hallstatt  Nordic  type  is  in  the  minority.  Out  of  six  skulls  from  Carniola, 
three  are  round  headed  and  one  is  mesocephalic.  The  brachycephalic 
types  seem  without  question  to  be  predominantly  Dinaric.  In  Croatia, 
however,  seven  adult  skulls  are  all  long  headed,  of  the  usual  Hallstatt  type, 
while  two  infantile  skulls  show  brachycephaly. 

In  Bosnia,  we  come  to  the  famous  site  of  Glasinac,21  where  a  compar- 
atively large  series  of  relatively  late  Illyrian  remains  contains  again  a 
mixture  of  types.  The  majority  of  the  skulls  are  long  headed  and  these 
show  the  same  mixture  of  Danubian  and  Corded  elements  which  we  have 
already  seen  at  Hallstatt  itself.  A  few  of  the  individual  crania  are  very 
large,  and  reproduce  the  Corded  prototype  quite  accurately.  The  brachy- 
cephalic skulls,  although  in  the  minority,  are  numerous  enough  to  permit 
one  to  determine  their  racial  affiliation  with  some  accuracy.  Almost  all 

19  G6tze,  A.,  PZ,  vol.  4,  1912,  pp.  264-350.  This  cemetery,  unfortunately,  was  used 
at  two  periods;  from  1000  to  500  B.C.  when  it  was  a  Halls^att  graveyard,  and  from 
500  A.D.  on,  when  it  was  occupied  by  Slavic  Wends.  It  is  impossible  to  state  how  many 
of  the  crania  belong  to  the  Hallstatt  people,  and  how  many,  if  any,  to  the  Slavs,  but  in 
either  case  the  series  represents  one  unified  physical  type  of  Hallstatt  affinity. 

20  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  VNGZ,  vol.  79,  1934,  pp.  220-270. 
»  Weisbach,  A.,  WMBH,  vol.  5,  1897,  pp.  562-576. 


THE  IRON  AGE  185 


belong  to  what  might  be  called  a  modern  Dinaric  racial  type.  The  skulls 
are  moderately  large  with  flattened  occiputs,  straight  side  walls,  rather 
broad  foreheads,  and  a  very  prominent  nose,  in  the  one  instance  in  which 
the  nasal  bones  were  preserved.22  The  jaws  are  very  broad  with  an  ex- 
cessive bigonial  diameter,  but  not  noted  for  their  depth. 

Metrically,  these  brachycephalic  crania  resemble  the  Bronze  Age  series 
from  Cyprus,  but  are,  on  the  whole,  a  little  larger.  They  fall,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  into  an  intermediate  position  between  the  Cyprus  series  and  the 
Bell  Beaker  group  from  the  upper  Rhineland,  but  in  morphology  are  iden- 
tical with  both.  There  is  no  doubt  that  we  are  dealing  in  this  instance 
with  a  form  of  Dinaric  which  anticipates  the  modern  population  of  Bosnia. 

This  is  the  first  occurrence  of  crania  of  this  type  in  the  Dinaric  Alpine 
region  in  any  considerable  numbers.  We  have  already  seen,  however, 
that  this  same  type  had  entered  these  mountains  by  the  beginning  of  the 
Bronze  Age,  in  connection  with  the  eastward  movement  of  the  Bell  Beaker 
peoples.  The  round-heads  at  Glasinac  and  in  Carniola  may  have  been  the 
descendants  of  these  Bell  Beaker  refugees.  It  is  also  possible  that  this 
racial  type  may  have  been  reenforced  by  migrations  from  the  southeast, 
but  there  is  no  archaeological  evidence  to  favor  such  a  theory. 

As  the  Illyrians  spread  southwestward  along  the  Dinaric  Alps  into 
Montenegro  and  Albania,  they  apparently  blended  with  an  indigenous 
brachycephalic  mountain  population  which  may  have  been  more  numer- 
ous than  the  invaders;  for,  with  some  additions  and  modifications,  it  per- 
sists as  a  predominant  element  today.  In  a  small  series  of  early  Christian 
crania  from  a  site  near  Split  on  the  Dalmatian  coast,23  both  Dinaric 
brachycephals  and  a  few  long-headed  crania  are  represented.  In  Albania, 
a  country  which  is  almost  completely  unknown  archaeologically,  a  single 
skull  which  belonged  to  a  Romanized  Illyrian  group  has  been  found  in 
an  Iron  Age  site  in  the  tribe  of  Puka.24  This  skull  is  mesocephalic,  and 
seems,  insofar  as  we  may  judge,  intermediate  between  the  Illyrians  of  the 
old  type  and  Dinarics. 

The  significance  of  our  study  of  the  Illyrian  peoples  is  as  follows:  on  the 
plains  of  south  central  Germany  and  Lower  Austria,  where  the  Hallstatt 
culture  arose,  the  racial  type  involved  was  skeletally  a  Nordic  one.  By 
this  term  we  must  understand  that  the  Illyrian  central  type  was  similar  in 
crapial  dimensions,  proportions,  and  general  form  to  that  of  the  Germans 
of  the  Volkerwanderung  period.  Historical  evidence  as  to  the  pigmen- 
tation of  the  Illyrians  is  conflicting,25  and  insufficient  to  warrant  the 

22  In  all  of  the  Glasinac  crania  the  facial  bones  are  missing 
2»  Horvath,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  36,  1906,  pp.  239-248. 
*  Lebzelter,  V.,  AFA,  vol.  45,  1919,  pp.  143-146. 
"  Lebzelter,  V,,  MAGW,  1929,  vol.  59,  pp.  61-126, 


186  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

formation  of  an  opinion  on  this  matter.  This  "Nordic"  type  is  no  special 
or  separate  race,  but  merely  a  variant  of  the  larger  Mediterranean  family, 
of  an  intermediate  metrical  position. 

It  finds  a  ready  prototype  in  the  Bronze  Age  population  which  stretched 
from  Austria  to  Siberia,  and  which  was  in  turn  the  product  of  mixture 
between  Danubian  peasants  and  Corded  invaders.  It  seems  most  likely 
that  the  Illyrians  were  largely  the  descendants,  more  specifically,  of  the 
Aunjetitz  people,  through  an  Urnfields  medium,  or  of  some  similar 
physical  blend  composed  of  identical  racial  ingredients. 

(3)   THE   KELTS 

One  of  the  most  controversial  subjects  in  the  whole  of  European  history 
is  the  physical  composition  of  the  Keltic  peoples.  The  name  Keltic  has 
been  applied  to  many  racial  types,  real  and  imagined,  from  short,  brunet, 
round  heads  to  blond  brachycephals  and  Nordics.  Many  modern  prehis* 
torians  take  the  stand  that  the  Kelts  were  everywhere  a  small  minority  of 
aristocrats  and  conquerors,  and  that  no  special  racial  type  accompanied 
their  expansion  in  Europe.  This  position,  however,  becomes  invalid  when 
we  examine  the  actual  skeletons  of  Keltic  speakers.  There  was  a  Keltic 
physical  type,  which  the  Kelts  carried  to  their  primary  areas  of  coloniza- 
tion, and  which  will  be  described  shortly. 

Although  earlier  identifications,  however  likely,  are  still  questionable, 
we  may  state  that  the  Kelts  as  such  first  appeared  in  the  European  historical 
setting  about  the  year  500  B.C.,  with  the  beginning  of  the  La  T£ne  civiliza- 
tion. The  home  of  the  Kelts,  or  at  least  the  country  in  which  they  devel- 
oped this  brilliant  Iron  Age  culture,  lies  without  reasonable  doubt  in  south- 
western Germany,  in  the  upper  drainage  of  the  Rhine,26  a  country  which 
had  formed  the  western  section  of  the  original  Hallstatt  area.  The  eastern- 
most outposts  of  the  early  Keltic  domain  were  Bohemia  and  Galicia, 
while,  on  the  west  and  south,  it  touched  the  territory  of  the  Ligurians  and 
of  the  Rhaetians.  The  Kelts,  therefore,  were  situated  northwest  and  west 
of  the  Illyrians  proper,  and  south  of  the  Germans,  who  at  the  time  were 
confined  to  Scandinavia  and  northwesternmost  Germany. 

The  Keltic  languages  are  very  closely  related  to  the  Italic  group,  of 
which  Latin  was  a  derivative.  The  period  in  which  the  Keltic  languages 
became  differentiated  from  other  forms  of  Indo-European  speech  must, 
therefore,  be  as  old  as  the  departure  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Italici  for  Italy, 
and  therefore  must  lead  back  to  the  Bronze  Age.27  Keltic,  like  Italic,  is 
divided  into  two  branches — P-Keltic  and  Q-Keltic.  |t  is  considered  likely 

26  Hubert,  H.,  The  Rise  of  the  Celts,  p.  147. 

27  Although  one  school  of  Italic  scholars  derives  the  P-Italici  from  north  of  the  Alps 
.n  Iron  Age  times,  all  admit  the  Bronze  Age  dating  of  the  Q-Italic  arrival.  For  the  de- 
tails of  this  controversy,  see  Whatmough,  J.,  The  Foundations  of  Roman  Italy. 


THE  IRON  AGE  187 


that  the  phonetic  separation  which  split  both  of  the  linguistic  groups  took 
place  independently  in  each,  and  that  the  tendency  for  such  a  division  was 
inherent  in  both  Keltic  and  Italic  at  the  time  of  their  separation  from  one 
another.  We  do  not  know  at  what  time  the  Goidelic  or  Q-Keltic  dialect 
split  off  from  the  Brythonic  or  P  dialect,  but  this  cleavage  again  must  have 
occurred  at  a  reasonably  early  period,  since  the  division  was  complete  at 
the  time  of  our  earliest  knowledge  of  these  languages.  Q-Keltic  has  sur- 
vived only  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  on  the  Isle  of  Man.  All  other  known 
dialects,  living  and  extinct,  from  Asia  Minor  to  Wales,  have  been  of  the 
P  variety. 

The  Keltic  expansion,  which  began  about  500  B.C.,  was  a  rapid  and 
extensive  one.  The  Kelts  were  an  extremely  mobile  people  who  conquered 
and  wandered  far,  and  at  the  time  of  their  expansion  were  apparently 
numerous  as  well.  Their  well-known  migrations  carried  them  over  the 
Alps  into  Italy,  down  into  southeastern  Europe  where  they  invaded 
Greece,  and  even  over  into  Asia  Minor  where  they  established  the  short 
lived  Galatian  colony.  Their  main  expansion,  however,  lay  to  the  west. 
Belgium  and  northern  France  became  great  Keltic  centers,  from  which 
some  of  them  migrated  down  into  northern  Spain.  This  westward  move- 
ment carried  them  also  into  the  British  Isles,  where  the  Q-Keltic  people 
settled  Ireland,  and  their  P-Keltic  brethren  established  themselves  in 
England  and  Wales.  Large  sections  of  Scotland  were  to  remain  free  for 
the  most  part  from  these  Keltic  invaders  until  after  the  time  of  Christ, 
when  the  Goidels  crossed  over  from  Ireland. 

The  question  as  to  the  linguistic  identity  of  the  previous  inhabitants, 
the  Picts,  is  an  open  one.  At  present,  the  tendency  is  to  consider  them,  and 
the  pre-Goidelic  Cruithni  of  Ireland,  as  speakers  of  some  early  form  of 
Keltic.  The  further  question  as  to  whether  or  not  the  Goidels  crossed  Eng- 
land in  their  journey  to  Ireland  is  likewise  open,  but  the  prevailing  tend- 
ency is  to  bring  them  over  the  old  sea  road  from  northern  Spain,  which 
they  had  previously  entered  by  way  of  France,  and  to  deny  that  they  so- 
journed in  England  at  all. 

In  their  period  of  development  in  southwestern  Germany,  the  relation- 
ship between  the  Kelts  and  Illyrians  must  have  been  intimate,  for  the 
Kelts  received  iron  from  a  Hallstatt  source,  and  were  actually,  during  the 
Early  Iron  Age,  participants  in  a  Hallstatt  form  of  culture.  The  major 
factor  which  served  to  differentiate  La  T&ne  from  Hallstatt  culture  was 
the  incorporation,  by  the  former,  of  many  elements  derived  from  the  clas- 
sical Mediterranean  world.  The  Kelts  were  situated  at  a  favorable  spot 
for  the  reception  of  such  influences;  Greek  influences  moved  up  the  Rh&ne 
and  Sadne  from  Marseilles,  while  those  from  Rome  crossed  the  Alpine 
passes  into  Bavaria  and  Switzerland  and  thence  into  the  Keltic  homeland, 


188  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

In  addition  to  the  Hallstatt  Iron  Age  base  and  classical  accretions,  we 
must  further  acknowledge  the  influences  of  some  eastern  European  grass- 
land culture,  for  the  Kelts  rode  astride  as  well  as  in  chariots,  and  the 
P-Kelts  introduced  trousers  to  western  Europe.  This  garment  was  central 
Asiatic  in  origin,  and  was  typical  of  the  Scyths,  whose  period  of  cultural 
efflorescence  in  the  east  was  contemporary  with  and  parallel  to  that  of  the 
Kelts  in  the  west.  Philologically,  there  are  a  number  of  close  linguistic 
connections  between  the  Kelts  and  the  Indo-Iranians,  which  may  reflect 
this  or  an  earlier  cultural  contact.  It  is  most  likely,  however,  that  the 
principal  contact  between  the  Keltic-speaking  peoples  and  the  Iranian 
horsemen  of  the  eastern  European  plain  took  place  during  the  early  years 
of  the  great  Keltic  expansion. 

Turning  back  from  Keltic  expansions  to  Keltic  origins,  we  find  no 
cultural  disturbances  in  southwestern  Germany  which  would  permit  the 
arrival  of  the  Kelts  from  elsewhere  between  the  Hallstatt  epoch  and  the 
early  La  Tene.  Before  the  Hallstatt,  however,  the  spread  of  the  Late  Bronze 
Age  Lausitz  culture  into  this  region  from  eastern  Germany  may  conceiv- 
ably have  brought  a  large  number  of  people,  impossible  to  identify  because 
of  their  practice  of  cremation.  These  people  may  well  have  been  the 
bearers  of  Keltic  speech.  Since  the  related  Italici  were  themselves  Urn- 
fields  cremators  before  they  succumbed  to  indigenous  burial  rites  in  Italy, 
this  identification  is  rendered  more  than  likely.  Hubert  has,  indeed,  postu- 
lated an  earlier  Ligurian-speaking  population  in  the  Keltic  cradle-area.28 
The  derivation  of  the  Kelts  from  a  Hallstatt  cultural  horizon,  in  part  of 
the  earliest  region  of  Hallstatt  development,  while  the  main  current  of 
Hallstatt  cultural  expansion  was  borne  by  Illyrian  speakers,  seems  incon- 
gruous. One  must  remember,  however,  that  the  Nordic  skeletal  type  with 
which  the  Illyrians  were  identified  in  Lower  Austria  was  confined,  in  its 
purely  dolichocephalic  form,  to  the  lowland  country  north  of  the  Bavarian 
foothills,  while  the  Keltic  area  of  development  was,  in  its  strictest  limits, 
within  the  highland  zone.  Here  the  Kelts  developed  their  own  culture 
independently  of  the  Illyrians  and  retained  their  own  language. 

Keltic  cranial  material  from  the  southwest  German  center  of  Keltic 
development  is  surprisingly  scarce.  Schliz  has  described  six  skulls,  and 
notices  of  three  others  have  appeared  in  more  recent  publications.29  Of 
these  nine,  one  is  dolichocephalic,  four  are  mesocephalic,  and  four  are 
brachycephalic.  Although  this  small  group  is  far  from  sufficient  to  dis- 
close the  racial  type  of  the  Kelts  in  their  homeland,  it  is  enough  to  show 
us  that  a  round-headed  element  played  a  considerable  part  in  the  develop- 

28  Hubert,  H.,  The  Rise  of  the  Kelts,  p.  159. 

29  Jacob,  G.,  AFA,  vol.  20,  1891-92,  p.  181. 
Ortmann,  R.,  JVST,  vol.  15,  1927,  pp.  56-59. 
Schliz,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  37,  1910,  pp.  246-251. 


THE  IRON  AGE  189 


ment  of  this  ethnic  group.  The  brachycephals  involved  are  large  headed 
and  powerfully  built,  with  long  faces,  and  rather  high  orbits;  the  foreheads 
are  sloping  and  only  slightly  bowed  at  the  junction  of  the  facial  and  cranial 
planes.  The  inference  is  that  these  brachycephals  were  derived  from  the 
older  combination  of  Bell  Beaker  and  Borreby  types  which  was  formed  in 
the  upper  Rhine  country  at  the  beginning  of  the  age  of  metal,  and  which 
persisted  into  the  Hallstatt  period.  These  seem  to  have  mixed  with  the 
expected  intrusive  Nordics.  We  must  really  wait  until  we  examine  larger 
series  of  Keltic  crania  from  elsewhere,  however,  before  passing  judgment 
on  the  final  result  of  this  blend. 

A  better  picture  of  the  La  Tene  type  may  be  obtained  from  the  study  of 
its  early  eastern  extension.  Hellich's  series  from  Bohemia  30  (see  Appendix 
I,  col.  33)  is  the  only  single  group  of  central  European  La  Tene  crania  of 
any  consequence.  This  includes  27  male  crania,  most  of  which  are  dolicho- 
cephalic, but  which  contain  a  significant  minority  of  brachycephals.  In 
general,  the  La  Tene  skulls  are  not  in  any  important  metrical  way  distin- 
guishable from  those  of  the  preceding  periods  of  which  we  have  clear 
knowledge — that  is,  Aunjetitz  and  Hallstatt.  They  represent  merely  a  sub- 
variety  of  the  same  general  combination  of  types,  with  a  brachy cephalic 
accretion  which  makes  the  total  series  rnesocephalic.31  But  there  are  other 
features,  however,  which  render  them  as  a  group  slightly  different;  the 
vault  has  a  tendency  to  be  low  in  proportion  to  its  breadth,  and  the  upper 
face  is  long  in  proportion  to  the  total  face,  for  the  Keltic  jaw,  although 
broad  at  the  gonial  angles,  is  not  as  deep  as  that  of  other  Iron  Age  Nordics. 
A  composite  series  of  eleven  male  crania  from  the  type  site  of  La  Tene  on 
Lake  Neufchatel  in  Switzerland,  and  nearby  burial  places,32  is  almost, 
exactly  the  same  as  the  Bohemian  series;  the  vaults  of  the  Swiss  La  Tene 
people,  who  may  in  part  be  identified  with  the  Helvetii,  are  even  lower 
than  those  of  the  Bohemians.  As  one  might  expect,  the  Swiss  series  con- 
tains a  number  of  high  brachycephals,  with  cranial  indices  as  high  as 
90; 33  but  on  the  whole,  most  of  the  few  Kelts  whose  remains  have  been 
studied  in  Switzerland  were  no  different  from  those  in  Bohemia. 

Less  than  a  dozen  skulls  serve  to  identify  the  Keltic  racial  elements  in 
Austria  and  in  the  Dinaric  Alpine  mountain  zone.34  On  the  whole,  this 

80  Hellich,  B.,  Praehistoricke  lebky  v  &chach  &  Sbirky  Musea  Krdlovstvi  tfesktho. 
31  Schliz's  series  of  14  crania  from  Bohemia,  3  from  Moravia,  and  2  from  Silesia  do 
not  differ  from  those  measured  by  Hellich.  Schliz,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  37,  1901,  pp.  246-251. 

82  Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  16,  1884,  pp.  168-181;  ibid.,  vol.  18,  1886,  pp.  561-566. 
Lagotala,  H.,  BMSA,  ser  7,  vol.  3,  1923,  pp.  4-9. 

83  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  AFSA,  N.  F.  Bd.  38,  1936,  pp.  226-236. 

84  Poch,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  56,  1926,  pp.  255-270. 
Lebzelter,  V.,  WPZ,  vol.  22,  1935,  pp.  104-105. 
Luschan,  F.  von,  MAGW,  vol.  8,  1879,  pp.  85-89. 
Schliz,  A.,  loc.  at. 


190  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

evidence  is  not  satisfactory,  but  it  serves  to  indicate  that  the  regular 
mesocephalic  type  and  one  or  more  types  of  brachycephals  were  present. 
The  most  southeasterly  Keltic  skull  known  is  one  from  Kupinovo,  near 
Belgrade  in  Serbia,  which  belonged  to  a  Dinaric  brachycephal  similar  to 
those  found  at  Glasinac,  and  this  again  witnesses  the  persistence  of  this 
Dinaric  element  during  the  Iron  Age  in  or  near  the  modern  Dinaric 
area. 

Before  turning  to  the  abundant  remains  of  the  Kelts  in  France  and  the 
British  Isles,  it  may  be  well  to  review  what  evidence  we  have  for  their 
racial  type  in  central  Europe.  Here  the  Kelts  seem  to  have  been  a  com- 
posite people,  a  blend  of  the  different  brachycephalic  elements  left  over 
from  the  Bronze  Age  in  the  mountainous  zone  of  southern  Germany,  and 
invaders  of  Nordic  type  from  the  plains  to  the  north  and  east.  One  sup- 
poses that  the  Keltic  linguistic  element  came  with  the  later  group. 

Sculpture  from  Greece  and  Rome  gives  us  a  picture  of  the  living  Kelts  who 
reached  the  lands  of  classical  civilization  by  eastward  and  southward  move- 
ments. The  well-known  Dying  Gaul  and  similar  statues  show  a  strongly 
muscled  type  with  mesocephalic  or  brachycephalic  head  form,  a  rather 
short  face  with  a  square  jaw,  a  straight  and  rather  prominent  mesorrhine 
nose,  with  horizontal  or  elevated  tip  and  full  nostrils,  heavy  browridges, 
a  broad  forehead,  and  stiff,  bristly  hair.  This  type,  while  familiar  enough 
in  western  Europe,  is  not  one  which  accords  with  the  majority  of  the  Keltic 
skeletons.  The  typical  Keltic  face  was  long  in  the  upper  portion,  shallow 
in  the  mandible,  long  and  narrow  of  nose,  often  with  a  convex  profile,  and 
the  forehead  was  extremely  sloping  and  the  vault  low.  This  has  its  most 
frequent  counterpart  today  in  the  British  Isles.  While  the  type  selected  by 
the  classical  sculptors  to  represent  the  Kelts  must  have  had  its  living 
models,  these  may  have  been  drawn  from  the  brachycephalic  minority. 

Most  of  the  La  T&ne  material  from  France  comes  from  the  north,  from 
the  Marne  region,  where  the  Keltic  settlement  seems  to  have  been  par- 
ticularly strong.  Fortunately,  large  and  competent  series  of  the  Gauls  of 
this  district,  before  and  after  the  Roman  conquest,  furnish  adequate  in- 
formation.36 (See  Appendix  I,  col.  34.)  Both  groups  are  alike,  showing 
that  submission  to  Roman  rule  did  nothing  to  change  the  physical  type 
of  this  particular  people. 

The  Gauls  as  so  represented  were  mesocephalic,  mesoprosopic,  and  on 
the  upper  borders  of  leptorrhiny.  The  vault,  as  with  all  characteristic 

La  T£ne  Keltic  groups,  is  not  distinguished  for  its  height,  and  in  the  large 

tf 

**  Raymond,  P.,  RP,  vol.  2,  1907,  pp.  10-22,  includes  20  males. 

Wallis,  Mrs.  Ruth  Sawtell,  unpublished  measurements  in  Musee  Broca,  £cole 
d'Anthropologie,  and  Mus6e  d'Histoire  Naturelle.  Includes  28  pre-Romans  and  83 
Gallo-Romans,  all  males. 


THE  IRON  AGE  191 


and  more  reliable  post-Roman  series,  it  is  definitely  low.  Like  their  rela- 
tives in  central  Europe,  these  Gauls  were  not  noted  for  tall  stature;  a 
mean  of  166  cm.  is  only  moderate. 

In  other  parts  of  France,  the  Keltic  racial  continuity  was  of  variable 
intensity;  in  Lorraine  and  Beaune,36  the  usual  type  was  found;  but  in 
Haute  Savoie  and  Vend6e  the  earlier  brachycephalic  population  is  strongly 
represented  in  Keltic  tombs,37  while  out  on  the  tip  of  Brittany,  Neolithic 
survivors  of  Mediterranean  type,  with  perhaps  some  Gaulish  admixture, 
persisted  until  the  period  of  Roman  conquest.88  Only  in  the  north,  there- 
fore, did  the  Kelts  make  a  firm  imprint  in  the  early  population  of  what 
was  to  become  the  French  nation. 

The  Kelts  in  the  British  Isles  are  known  to  us  by  a  large  series  of  Bry- 
thonic  crania  from  England  and  southern  Scotland,  assembled  by  Morant39 
(see  Appendix  I,  col.  35) ;  these  are  three  millimeters  longer  headed  than 
the  Bohemian  and  Swiss  series,  but  nearly  identical  in  vault  dimensions 
with  the  French;  facially  they  are  the  same  as  all  of  the  others.  Smaller 
collections  of  Goidelic  crania  from  Ireland  show  the  skulls  from  this  coun- 
try to  be  exactly  the  same  as  those  from  Great  Britain.40  Several  morpho- 
logical features  distinguish  these  skulls,  of  the  typical,  or  mesocephalic, 
group — which  in  the  British  Isles  seems  largely  to  lack  the  brachycephalic 
minority  which  accompanies  the  main  type  in  central  and  eastern  Europe. 
The  forehead  is  quite  sloping;  the  vault,  when  seen  from  behind,  gives  a 
cylindrical  impression,  rather  than  that  of  a  rhomboid  or  rectangle,  as 
with  other  Nordic  crania.  The  upper  face  is  quite  long,  the  mandible 
wide  at  the  back,  and  relatively  shallow.  The  nose  is  often  very  prominent. 

The  skeletal  material  from  Ireland  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  36)  is  not 
numerous  enough  to  permit  regional  studies,  or  other  statistical  niceties; 
but  in  Great  Britain  there  are,  on  the  contrary,  a  number  of  local  series 
sufficient  to  show  that  the  racial  complexion  of  that  island  was  not,  during 
the  Iron  Age,  completely  uniform.  One  of  these,  that  of  the  erroneously 
named  "Danes'  Graves"  at  Driffield,  Ygrkshire,41  containing  29  male 
crania,  is  identical  in  every  known  respect  with  the  Aunjetitz  skulls  from 
central  Europe — a  pure  (if  the  adjective  pure  may  be  used  of  a  composite 
type)  Hallstatt  or  Nordic  local  population;  purely  dolichocephalic,  in 
contrast  to  the  usual  Keltic  mesocephaly;  and  relatively  high- vaulted, 

86  fiamy,  E.  T.,  Anth,  vol.  17,  1906,  pp.  1-25;  vol.  18,  1907,  pp.  127-139. 
^Baudoin,  Marcel,  BSAP,  vol.  6,  1912,  pp.  321-346. 

38  Vallois,  H.  V.,  Les  Ossements  Bretons  de  Kerne,  Toul-Bras,  et  Port-Bara. 

39  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  56-88.  Also  Hooke,  Beatrix,  and 
Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  99-104. 

40  Martin,  G.  P.,  Prehistoric  Man  in  Ireland,   Twelve  Iron  Age  skulls  are  listed. 

41  Wright,  W.,  JRAI,  vol.  33,  1903,  pp.  66-73;  Archaeologia,  vol.  60,  1906,  pt  I, 
pp.  313-324. 

Mortimer,  J.  R.,  Man,  vol.  9,  1909,  pp.  35-36. 


192  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

again  non-Keltic,  although  the  stature,  167  cm.,  is  presumably  no  different 
from  that  of  the  Kelts,42 

It  is  impossible  to  derive  this  group  from  the  local  Neolithic,  which  was 
noted  for  its  extreme  absolute  cranial  length;  or  from  the  dolichocephalic 
element  of  the  Bronze  Age,  which  was  again  larger,  longer,  and  higher 
skulled;  it  resembles  not  only  the  earlier  Aunjetitz  and  Hallstatt,  but  also, 
although  to  a  lesser  degree,  the  contemporary  Scandinavian  Iron  Age 
people  in  the  period  immediately  before  the  Germanic  Volkerwanderung. 
All  of  the  archaeological  material  found  in  the  Danes'  Graves  has  never 
been  satisfactorily  identified.48  Although  the  dominant  Keltic  tribe  of 
that  neighborhood,  the  Parisii,  seems  culturally  represented,  it  is  unlikely 
on  archaeological  as  well  as  on  racial  grounds  that  the  majority  of  the 
men  buried  in  these  graves  came  from  the  Marne,  whence  the  usual  Bry- 
thonic  tribes  migrated  to  England.  Two  of  the  fibulae  found  in  the  scanty 
remains  have  Scandinavian  affinities;  despite  this  clue,  however,  we  must 
leave  open  the  question  of  the  immediate  origin  of  the  Danes'  Graves 
people,  and  render  the  verdict:  "Central  European  Nordics  found  in 
Yorkshire  during  the  late  Iron  Age,  provenience  unknown." 

Another  local  group  which  shows  aberrant  tendencies  is  that  of  eleven 
male  crania  from  Berkshire,  of  which  the  length,  breadth,  and  circum- 
ference alone  are  available;  44  the  figures  are  193.3  mm.,  149.6  mm.,  and 
552.2  mm.  The  cranial  index  is  77.  These  mesocephalic  crania  are  so 
much  larger  than  those  of  the  total  Iron  Age  population  that  some  other 
origin  must  be  postulated.  One  recalls  the  extravagant  dimensions  of 
both  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Age  crania  in  England,  and  may  only  suppose 
that  this  local  group  represents  a  relatively  unaffected  survival.  Since  both 
Bronze  Age  and  Neolithic  racial  types  may  be  picked  out  of  any  moderate- 
sized  gathering  of  living  Englishmen,  or  of  their  transatlantic  relatives,  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  a  few  in  Berkshire  during  the  Iron  Age. 

The  descriptions  of  the  Kelts,  in  Britain,  in  France,  and  in  other  parts  of 
Europe,  at  the  hands  of  classical  authors,  give  us  a  definite  picture  of  their 
pigmentation.  Blondism  was  by  no  means  characteristic  of  the  Kelts  as  a 
whole.  Rufosity  was  common,  and  the  hair  color  was  essentially  mixed. 
Caesar  himself  noted  the  contrast  between  the  ordinary  Gauls  and  the 
partly  Germanic  Belgae,  to  whom  he  had  to  turn  to  find  real  blonds  for 
his  triumph.  Furthermore,  the  Romans  noted  the  Keltic  practice  of 
bleaching  the  hair  to  simulate  a  blond  ideal,  as  in  Greece. 

42  We  know  the  stature  of  Kelts  in  the  British  Isles  only  from^a  small  Irish  group,  and 
by  inference  from  comparison  with  mediaeval  English  counterparts  of  Iron  Age  skele- 
tons. 

48  Greenwell,  W.,  Archaeologia,  vol.  60,  part  1,  pp.  251-312. 

Bremer,  W.»  Real,  vol.  1,  pp.  229-230,  article  " Arras.'* 

44  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biomctrika,  1926,  vol.  18,  pp.  56-98. 


THE  IRON  AGE  193 


On  the  whole,  the  Kelts  were  a  mixed  group  in  race  as  in  culture;  their 
ancestry  includes  both  long  heads  of  some  central  European  Nordic  type, 
which  was  in  turn  a  combination  of  several  Mediterranean  sub-types,  and 
brachycephals  from  the  region  in  southwestern  Germany  in  which  the 
Binaries  of  Early  Bronze  Age  introduction  had  blended  with  earlier  round 
heads  of  Mesolithic  origin.  Out  of  this  combination,  the  Kelts  developed 
an  easily  identified  national  type,  of  considerable  constancy,  which  was 
to  be  of  some  importance  in  the  world,  especially  in  Britain  and  the  na- 
tions derived  from  her* 

(4)   THE   ROMANS 

Before  proceeding  to  study  the  rest  of  the  Iron  Age  Indo-European 
speakers  in  their  homes  north  of  the  Alps,  let  us  examine  the  racial  posi- 
tion of  those  near  linguistic  relatives  of  the  Kelts,  the  Italici,  who  lived 
south  of  that  barrier,  and  who  played  a  r61e  of  the  utmost  importance  in 
the  history  of  Indo-European  speech.  The  racial  problem  in  Italy  is 
nearly  as  complicated  as  in  Greece,  but  the  recent  work  of  Whatmough, 
paralleling  that  of  Myres,  makes  its  solution  equally  possible.45 

We  have  already  witnessed  the  accretion  of  various  racial  elements  in 
Italy  up  to  and  through  the  Bronze  Age.  To  a  Neolithic  Mediterranean 
sub-stratum  were  added  tall,  long-headed  Megalithic  invaders  who  came 
by  sea,  and  Dinaric  brachycephals  from  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. In  the  Late  Bronze  Age,  Urnfields  people  crossed  the  Alps  from  the 
north,  and  settled  in  northern  Italy.  Some  of  them  built  the  terremare 
settlements  in  the  Po  Valley,  while  their  descendants  or  others  like  them 
were  responsible  for  the  Villanova  settlements  in  the  Bologna  region,  and 
similar  sites  as  far  south  as  Latium.  These  collective  Urnfields  peoples 
came  from  central  Europe,  rather  than  from  the  nearer  Swiss  center.  The 
Italic  languages,  like  Keltic,  were  without  reasonable  doubt  introduced 
by  the  Urnfields  people.  Like  Keltic,  they  split  into  P  and  Q  forms,  with 
Oscan  and  Umbrian  as  P,  and  Latin  and  Ealiscan  as  Q.  Latin  itself,  in  its 
historic  form,  was  a  mixture  of  Villanovan  Italic  plus  Etruscan  plus  some 
altered  Greek,  plus  early  Mediterranean  words,  including  plant  names.46 
The  non-Italic  accretions  bear  witness  to  the  influences  which  met  the 
early  Romans,  while  its  major  Italic  character  throughout  attests  the  per- 
sistence of  the  Romans  in  retaining  the  nucleus  of  their  own  speech  through 
centuries  of  Etruscan  overlordship. 

We  know  comparatively  little  about  the  racial  composition  of  the  early 
Italic  people  in  pre-Roman  times.  Two  crania  from  Remedello  47  are 

46  Whatmough,  J.,  The  Foundations  of  Roman  Italy. 

« Ibid.,  pp.  276-277. 

«  Zampa,  R.,  APA,  vol.  20,  1890,  pp.  345-365. 


194  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

both  those  of  dolichocephals  of  moderate  size;  one  of  them,  which  is  cer- 
tainly a  male,  has  a  stature  of  168  cm.  Two  early  Romans  **  were  like- 
wise dolichocephals  of  the  same  size  and  proportions  as  many  of  the  Nordic 
groups  north  of  the  Alps;  while  a  third,  from  the  pre-Republican  cemetery 
of  Corneto  Tarquinia,  which  can  be  more  accurately  defined,  resembles 
a  small  male  series  of  eight  Christian  Roman  skulls,  dating  from  the  first 
to  fourth  centuries  A.D.49  These  nine  male  crania  are  identical  metrically 
with  the  means  for  the  La  Tene  Kelts  in  Bohemia,  and  the  Gauls  and 
Gallo-Romans  of  the  Marne.  The  same  mesocephalic,  leptorrhine  form 
is  found  in  each  case. 

Historically,  the  Romans  should  have  been  a  mixture  of  Villanovan 
Italic  northerners  with  Etruscans  and  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Age  predeces- 
sors.60 The  little  crania  material  at  hand  points  entirely  in  the  northern 
direction,  and  confirms  the  relationship  between  Kelts  and  Italici,  insofar 
as  it  may  be  used.  On  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of  Etruscan  meso- 
cephals  with  Dinaric  and  Mediterranean  elements  would  not  greatly  alter 
the  early  Kelt-like  Italic  metrical  form. 

The  early  Romans,  judging  from  the  busts  of  their  descendants  in  the 
days  of  Augustus,  and  of  descriptions,  were  not  very  tall,  as  a  rule,  but  were 
often  of  heavy  bodily  build.  Their  skulls  were  flattish  on  top,  and  rounded 
on  the  sides,  like  those  of  Kelts.  The  facial  features  included  the  well- 
known  "Roman"  nose,  which  may  have  been  partly  derived  from  an 
Etruscan  source.  On  the  whole,  the  well-known  sculptures  of  Caesar, 
Augustus,  and  others,  although  not  reliable  from  the  standpoint  of  ac- 
curate measurement,  indicate  that  a  mesocephalic  to  brachycephalic 
head  form  was  admired.  Their  facial  type  is  not  native  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean basin,  but  is  more  at  home  in  the  north.  Nevertheless,  the 
Romans  considered  the  Kelts  who  invaded  Italy  tall  and  blond;  hence 
the  blondism  of  the  Romans,  including  rufosity,  must  have  been  in  the 
minority.61 

More  detailed  information  may  be  obtained  by  studying  the  remains  of 
Romans  who  died  away  from  home  in  the  colonial  service  of  the  empire. 
For  example,  an  officer  of  the  sixth  legion,  named  Theodorianus,  stationed 
at  York,  came  from  the  small  city  of  Nomentum,  in  Latium.  Three  others, 
also  buried  at  York,  were  also  native  Romans.62  These  four  were  all  of  one 
type,  and' very  much  alike:  dolicho-  to  mesocephalic,  with  low  vaults,  low, 
broad  foreheads,  very  aquiline  noses,  and  short,  broad,  square  faces.  The 

«  Sergi,  G.,  ARAL,  Anno  280,  1883,  10  pp.  >• 

49  Moschen,  L.,  Cram  Romani  delta  Primer  a  Epoca  Cristiana,  1894. 

Prdbstl,  L.»  AFA,  vol.  45,  1919,  pp.  80-81. 

60  Whatmough,  op.  cit.,  p.  267. 

"Rochet,  C.,  MS4P,  vol.  3,  1868,  pp.  127-145. 

62  Davis,  J.  B.,  and  Thurman,  J.,  Crania  Britannica,  1865,  Part  II. 


THE  IRON  AGE  195 


skulls  of  two  other  pure  Roman  officers  from  Bath  and  Gloucester  are  the 
same,  as  is  one  from  Lincoln.68 

A  group  of  eight  male  Roman  crania  from  Rheinzajpern  on  the  Rhine, 64 
belonging  to  real  Romans  from  Italy,  are  the  same  as  the  individuals  from 
Britain,  and  almost  identical  with  the  eight  males  from  Rome  itself  of  the 
Christian  period,  and  the  early  Roman  from  Corneto  Tarquinia.  These 
scattered  references  from  various  quarters,  although  few,  are  so  alike  that 
we  must  conclude  that  the  Romans,  however  mixed,  had  formed  a  charac- 
teristic local  or  national  physical  type,  which  was  mainly  of  Italic  origin, 
and  closely  related  originally  to  the  Keltic. 

The  Italici,  however,  were  not  the  only  Indo-European  speakers  to  in- 
vade Italy  from  the  north.  The  Ligurians,  of  whom  we  have  no  certain 
skeletal  remains,  probably  entered  from  Gaul,  and  may  have  been  earlier 
than  the  Italici.  On  the  eastern  watershed  of  the  Italian  peninsula  and  in 
the  Po  Valley  lived,  in  early  protohistoric  and  historic  times,  various  tribes 
of  Illyrian  speakers,  notably  the  Veneti.  To  the  Illyrian  group  may  have 
belonged  the  people  who  buried  in  the  cemetery  of  Novilara,  on  the  cen- 
tral Adriatic  coast,65  about  the  eighth  century  B.C.,  contemporaneously 
with  the  Villanova  people.  The  site  belonged  to  a  tribe  called  the  Piceni, 
who  in  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries  developed  a  high  culture  and  later 
declined,  becoming  subjects  of  Rome. 

The  doubt  as  to  their  ethnic  origin  may  be  partly  dispelled  by  a  knowl- 
edge of  their  physical  remains,  A  series  of  eighteen  male  and  thirteen 
female  skulls  is  homogeneously  dolichocephalic,  with  the  low  mean  male 
cranial  index  of  71.2;  the  skulls  are  high- vaulted,  narrow- faced,  and  leptor- 
rhine.  The  series  is  very  similar  to  those  of  Hallstatt  Illyrians  farther  north, 
and  the  stature,  165.5  cm.  for  males,  is  tall  enough  to  support  this. 
Whether  or  not  they  spoke  Illyrian,  they  were  of  Illyrian  racial  type,  and 
the  Illyrian  invasion  of  northeastern  Italy  was  undoubtedly  a  real  one  in 
the  racial  sense. 

(5)   THE   SCYTHIANS 

What  the  Kelts  were  to  western  Europe,  the  Scythians  and  their  rela- 
tives became,  at  about  the  same  time,  to  the  treeless  plains  to  the  east. 
Riding  astride,  wearing  trousers,  and  sleeping  in  covered  wagons,  they 
spread  rapidly  over  the  grasslands  of  eastern  Europe  and  western  central 
Asia,  shifting  so  adroitly  that  Darius  with  his  army  could  not  catch  them, 
and  disappearing  almost  as  rapidly  from  the  face  of  eastern  Europe  as  they 
had  appeared.  Like  the  Kelts,  they  were  both  dazzling  and  ephemeral. 

M  Browne,  C.  R.,  PRIA,  vol.  2,  ser.   3,  1899,  pp.  649-654. 
M  Probstl,  L.,  AFA,  vol.  45,  1919,  pp.  80-81. 

88  Whatmough  is  in  doubt  as  to  their  linguistic  affiliation.  Whatmough,  J.,  op.  a'/., 
pp.  202-205. 


196  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

But  unlike  the  Kelts,  their  way  of  living,  perfectly  adapted  to  the  grass- 
lands on  which  they  roamed,  was  destined  long  to  survive  their  identity 
as  a  people.  0 

About  700  B.C.  the  Scyths  were  first  noticed  in  the  lands  to  the  north  of 
the  Black  Sea.66  Their  domain  reached  from  north  of  the  Danube  and 
east  of  the  Carpathians  across  the  fertile  plains  of  eastern  central  Europe 
and  southern  Russia  to  the  River  Don.  From  this  country  they  were  sup- 
posed to  have  ousted  the  somewhat  mysterious  Cimmerians,  Although 
the  Don  formed  their  eastern  boundary,  beyond  it  lived  other  groups  of 
nomadic  peoples  culturally  similar  to  the  Scythians.  These  included  the 
Sarmatians,  their  immediate  neighbors  to  the  east,  who  were,  according 
to  Herodotus,  the  result  of  a  mass  marriage  of  Scythian  youths  and  Ama- 
zon maidens.  The  speech  of  the  Sarmatians  was  said  to  be  somewhat  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  Scythians,  owing  to  the  inclusion  of  Amazon  words 
and  an  Amazonian  manner  of  pronunciation.  Beyond  the  Sarmatians 
lived  the  Massagetae,  and  beyond  them  the  Saka.  The  word  Saka,  how- 
ever, was  used  by  the  Persians  as  a  general  term,  to  include  all  of  the  no- 
madic peoples  to  the  north  of  the  Iranian  plateau,  in  the  two  Turkestans. 

In  costume,  in  weapons,  in  methods  of  transportation,  in  living  quarters, 
and  in  the  totality  of  material  culture,  these  people  formed  a  continuous 
cultural  zone  from  the  Carpathians  to  China.  It  has  been  the  custom  to 
consider  the  Scythians  a  people  of  Asiatic  origin  who  developed  this  high 
and  specialized  form  of  pastoral  nomadism  in  central  Asia  and  brought 
it  with  them  to  eastern  Europe.  Proponents  of  this  school  have  suggested 
that  the  Scythians  were  a  mongoloid  people,  and  that  they  employed 
some  Altaic  form  of  speech.  Another  school  holds  that  they  were  Euro- 
pean in  physical  type,  and  spoke  Iranian,  while  their  cultural  breed- 
ing ground  lay  somewhere  to  the  east  of  the  Caspian. 

We  do  not  know  what  language  the  Scythians  spoke,  nor  is  it  likely  that 
its  exact  affiliation  will  ever  be  definitely  established.  Their  geographical 
position,  however,  and  their  association  with  the  ancient  Persians,  makes 
the  Iranian  hypothesis  very  likely.  This  theory  is  further  strengthened  by 
the  study  of  the  language  of  the  Ossetes,  a  living  people  of  the  Caucasus, 
who  are  supposed,  on  historical  grounds,  to  be  descendants  of  the  Alans,  a 
branch  of  the  Sarmatians.  Their  language  is  definitely  Iranian. 

Although  the  general  manner  of  living  enjoyed  by  the  Scythians  does 
resemble  in  a  remarkable  degree  that  of  the  later  Huns,  Turks,  and  Mon- 
gols, one  looks  in  vain  for  some  of  the  cultural  traits  of  these  later  Altaic 

H'' 

M  The  sources  for  the  historical  and  cultural  portions  of  this  section  include  Herodo- 
tus,  book  iv,  ch,  59-75;  Hippocrates,  de  Aere;  Minns,  E.  H.,  Scythians  and  Greeks;  Junge, 
J,  ZFRK,  vol.  3,  1936,  pp.  68-77;  and  Wm.  M.  McGovern's  work,  The  Early  Empires 
of  Central  Asia,  which  was  consulted  in  advance  of  publication. 


THE  IRON  AGE  197 


speakers  which  may  be  ascribed  to  a  relatively  recent  Siberian  origin. 
These  include  the  yurt  or  collapsible  felt-domed  house,  and  the  Turko- 
Mongol  type  of  shamanism.  The  Turks  and  the  Mongols,  without  ques- 
tion, took  over  almost  completely  the  whole  Scythian  style  of  culture, 
but  they  added  to  it  elements  of  their  own  which  reflected  their  former 
habitat  and  manner  of  life.  A  few  traits  connect  the  Scythians  with  their 
neighbors  to  the  north,  the  Finns;  among  these  might  be  cited  the  sweat 
bath. 

The  Scythians  proper  possessed  a  type  of  feudal  organization  headed  by 
a  king,  who  ruled  over  four  provinces  each  of  which  had  local  governors. 
These  Scythian  kings  were  all  buried  in  a  royal  burial  ground  in  the 
region  called  by  the  Greeks  the  Land  of  the  Gerrhi,  which  was  situated  in 
the  bend  of  the  Dnieper  River  near  Nicopol.  No  matter  where  the  Scyth- 
ian monarch  died,  his  remains  would  be  deposited,  in  a  funeral  chamber, 
with  great  ceremony  and  with  an  extravagant  quantity  of  human  sacri- 
fice, underneath  a  huge  mound  erected  for  that  purpose.  The  richness  of 
the  burials,  and  the  wholesale  suttee,  are  reminiscent  of  the  ancient  Sume- 
rians,  and  of  the  early  Egyptians.  The  eventual  Sumerian  origin  of  this 
Scythian  custom  is  not  unlikely. 

This  region  of  the  Royal  Scythian  burying  ground  has  been  a  source  of 
great  activity  for  both  treasure  hunters  and  archaeologists.  The  Scythians 
had  a  definite  idea  that  this  was  the  place  in  which  their  kings  were  natu- 
rally at  home,  and  while  it  may  not  be  wise  to  stress  this  point  too  much, 
it  would  seem  that  this  location  may  have  reflected  their  notions  as  to 
their  original  dwelling  place,  or  at  least  that  of  their  royal  clan.  Similarly, 
the  Mongols  in  later  times  buried  their  dead  in  a  restricted  area  in  the 
Altai  Mountains,  which  they  considered  holy  ground. 

During  the  first  century  B.C.,  the  Sarmatians  penetrated  westward, 
crossing  the  Don,  and  driving  the  Scythians  from  their  former  homes. 
About  200  A.D.,  the  Goths  took  the  Scythian  country  from  the  Sarmatians, 
and  in  turn  adopted  much  of  the  Scythp-Sarmatian  culture,  becoming 
great  horsemen  and  learning  to  live  in  wagons.  The  Alans  were  the  only 
branch  of  the  Sarmatians  to  retain  their  integrity  in  face  of  this  Germanic 
onslaught.  They  built  up  a  great  kingdom  between  the  Don  and  the 
Volga,  reaching  as  far  as  the  Caucasus,  including  in  it  most  of  northwestern 
Turkestan.  Between  350  and  374  A.D.,  the  Huns  destroyed  the  Alan  king- 
dom. Some  of  the  Alans  went  westward  with  the  Huns,  others  accom- 
panied the  Vandals  to  North  Africa,  and  a  few,  as  previously  mentioned, 
survive  in  the  Caucasus  as  Ossetes. 

Although  these  Iranians  (if  the  Scythians  and  Sarmatians  really  were 
Iranians)  were  replaced  by  Altaic  speakers  in  southern  Russia,  and 
throughout  the  breadth  of  their  Asiatic  domain,  this  process  took  some 


198  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

time,  and  Iranian  languages  clung  on  for  a  long  while  in  Kashgaria  and 
in  the  oases  of  Russian  Turkestan.  Undoubtedly,  the  Scythians  and  their 
relatives  were  not  destroyed,  but  were  absorbed  and  reincorporated. 

In  studying  the  racial  type  of  the  Scythians,  one  must  remember  that 
they  were  not  considered  a  homogeneous  group  by  Herodotus,  who  is  our 
chief  historical  source.  They  consisted  of  an  inner  clan  called  the  Royal 
Scyths  or  True  Scyths,  who  were  the  nobles  and  leaders,  and,  as  a  second 
element,  the  whole  group  of  nomadic  tribes  of  which  the  Royal  Scyths 
were  the  integrating  force.  Herodotus  also  makes  it  clear  that  the  Scythians 
kept  many  slaves.  Only  the  Royal  Scyths  refused  to  own  slaves,  but  em- 
ployed youths  of  pure  Scythian  blood  as  bodyguards,  and  sacrificed  these 


FIG.  29.   SCYTHIANS,  FROM  THE  K.UL  OBA  VASE. 
Redrawn  from  Minns,  E.  H.,  Scythians  and  Greeks,  p.  201,  Fig.  94. 

in  their  tombs.  Thus,  the  Royal  Scythian  burial  mounds  must  contain  a 
relatively  pure  Scythian  group. 

One  must  not  imagine  that  the  Scyths  and  their  slaves  were  the  only 
inhabitants  of  southeastern  Europe  during  the  last  seven  centuries  before 
Christ  and  the  first  two  of  our  era.  Herodotus  mentions  the  agricultural 
Scythians,  who  were  probably  some  earlier  sedentary  people  or  peoples 
who  remained  as  underlings  of  the  Scythians  and  their  providers  of  cereal 
food.  We  must  remember  that  much  of  the  Scythian  territory  had  been 
farmed  as  early  as  Neolithic  times. 

There  can  be  little  doubt,  even  before  examining  the  skeletal  evidence, 
that  the  Scythians  and  Sarmatians  were  basically  if  not  entirely  white  men 
and  in  no  sense  mongoloid.  The  only  definite  description  of  them  which 
we  have  from  classical  literature  is  that  of  Hippocrates,  who  called  them 
white-skinned  and  obese,  but  this  designation  was  employed  by  the  father 
of  medicine  to  prove  one  of  his  environmental  theories.  In  later  times, 
the  Alans  are  described  as  having  golden  hair. 

Fortunately,  we  are  not  limited  to  literary  references.  The  Scythians 
themselves,  under  the  influence  of  powerful  Greek  colonies  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  particularly  in  the  Crimea,  produced  a  dis- 


THE  IRON  AGE  199 


tinctive  style  of  realistic  art  in  gold  repousse"  e.  These  representations  in- 
clude a  number  of  portraits  of  Scythians  in  very  realistic  and  life-like  poses. 
They  show  a  well-defined  type  of  heavily  bearded,  long-haired  men  with 
prominent,  often  convex,  noses.  The  browridges  are  moderately  heavy, 
the  eyes  deep  set.  These  faces  are  strikingly  reminiscent  of  types  common 
among  northwest  Europeans  today,  in  strong  contrast  to  those  shown  in 
the  art  of  the  Sumerians,  Babylonians,  and  Hittites,  which  are  definitely 
Near  Eastern.  The  face,  therefore,  is  definitely  Nordic,  while  the  body 
build  looks  often  thick-set  and  very  muscular,  but  this  may  be  due  to  the 
clothing,  which  includes  baggy  trousers  and  jackets  with  full  sleeves.  The 
pointed  caps  which  they  wear  and  the  long  hair  make  it  impossible  to  form 
a  useful  opinion  of  their  head  form,  but  this  is  unnecessary,  since  we  may 
soon  discover  it  from  reference  to  the  cranial  material.  Persian  representa- 
tions of  Saka  show  exactly  the  same  type,  depicted  by  the  followers  of  an 
entirely  different  school  of  art,  and  hence  this  type  cannot  have  been  an 
unfounded  convention. 

There  is,  in  the  anthropometric  literature,  sufficient  data  to  permit  the 
reconstruction  of  the  Scytho-Sarmatian  cranial  type  or  types.  The  most 
extensive  group,  and  that  which  may  be  used  as  a  basic  series,  is  DonicTs 
collection  of  seventy-seven  Scythian  crania  from  kurgans  of  Bessarabia, 
which  was  one  of  the  favored  Scythian  pasture  lands  during  the  height  of 
their  domination.57  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  37.)  The  fifty-seven  male  crania 
of  this  series  are  not  homogeneous,  but  fall  into  two  types,  a  long-headed 
and  a  round-headed,  with  the  former  greatly  in  the  majority. 

The  means  of  these  Scythian  skulls  show  them  to  be  low  mesocephals 
of  moderate  cranial  dimensions,  but  with  a  low  vault  height.  The  cranial 
means  are,  in  fact,  almost  identical  with  those  of  the  Keltic  series  from 
France  and  the  British  Isles.  They  resemble  the  Aunjetitz  and  Hallstatt 
skulls  only  as  much  as  the  Keltic  series  mentioned  resemble  these  latter. 
They  are,  furthermore,  metrically  identical  with  the  previously  studied 
skulls  from  the  Minussinsk  region  of  southern  Siberia,  which  may  have 
been  contemporaneous  with  them. 

One  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Scythian  skulls  is  a  low  mesene  upper 
facial  index,  lower  than  that  of  the  Kelts  or  of  the  Minussinsk  people. 
Doniti  has  shown,  however,  that  this  low  upper  facial  index  is  mostly 
asspciated  with  the  brachycephalic  element  in  the  group,  and  the  same 
is  true  of  many  of  the  chamaeconch  and  mesorrhine  skulls.  When  the 
brachycephalic  element  is  eliminated,  therefore,  one  finds  these  skulls 
to  be  narrower  faced,  and  narrower  nosed,  and  to  fit  more  nearly  into 
a  central  European  Nordic  category.  Other  series  of  Scythian  crania 
from  southern  Russia  and  from  the  Caucasus  show  the  same  general 

67  Donifci,  A.,  Crania  Scythica,  MSSR,  ser.  3,  Tomul  X,  Mem.  9,  Bucharest,  1935, 


200  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

characteristics  as  that  of  Donici's  type  series,  but  are  in  most  cases 
purely  dolichocephalic,  which  leads  one  to  suppose  that  the  brachyce- 
phalic  element  in  the  Rumanian  skulls  may  have  been  at  least  partly  of 
local  origin.68 

Other  collections  of  Scythian  crania  vary  in  their  mean  cranial  indices 
from  72  to  77.  Those  from  the  Kiev  government,  a  Scythian  center,  have 
a  mean  of  73.59  A  series  of  eighteen  Sarmatian  crania  from  the  Volga, 
although  otherwise  the  same  as  the  others,  has  a  cranial  index  of  80. 3. w 
However,  one  hesitates  to  consider  this  typical  of  the  Sarmatians  as  a 
whole,  since  both  the  Alans  61  and  the  early  Ossetes  62  were  long  headed. 
The  former  preserved  the  original  Scythian  Nordic  type  until  the  ninth 
century  A.D. 

Of  especial  interest  is  a  rich  kurgan  in  the  Royal  Scythian  burial  dis- 
trict,63 near  Alexandropol;  this  was  one  of  the  most  imposing  kurgans  of 
Russia,  not  only  for  its  size  but  for  the  quantities  of  gold  placed  with  the 
dead  king,  and  of  animals  sacrificed  for  his  convenience.  The  kurgan  con- 
tained five  skulls  in  the  primary  interment;  one  of  these  was  a  large  male 
of  Corded  type.64  Another  is  a  brachycephal  with  a  vault  especially  wide 
behind,  with  a  broad  face  and  a  narrow  nose,  resembling  a  Turkish  or 
perhaps  a  Bell  Beaker  type;  two  are  narrow  skulls  of  the  normal  Scythian 
Nordic  variety,  while  the  fifth,  that  which  occupied  the  king's  chamber, 
is  of  moderate  size,  long  headed,  with  a  low  vault,  sloping  forehead,  a 
high,  prominent  nose,  and  wide  flaring  zygomatic  arches.  The  malars 
are  large,  and  there  is,  in  this  respect,  a  slight  mongoloid  suggestion, 
One  may  not,  however,  on  this  evidence  alone,  identify  the  Royal  Clan 
with  Turks  or  Mongols. 

We  know  very  little  of  the  stature  of  the  Scythians.  Nine  male  skeletons 
from  the  Polish  Ukraine,  associated  with  crania  of  standard  Scythian  type, 
have  a  mean  of  over  170  cm.65 

It  is  tempting  to  find  the  origin  of  the  Scythians  in  the  previous  popula- 
tion of  the  southern  Russian  plain.  A  series  of  Bronze  Age  crania  from 
the  lower  Volga  region  is  identical,  at  least  in  indices,  with  the  later 
Scythian  group,  and  so  is  that  from  the  Ukrainian  Urnfields.  Three 

88  Donicl  is  of  this  opinion.  He  finds  the  same  brachycephaiic  type  in  a  collection  of 
skulls  from  an  early  Moldavian  monastery. 

6»Debetz,  G.,  Ann.  Lab.  Anth.  Th.  Vovk.  Acad.  Sc.  Ukraine,  T.  Ill,  Kiev,  1930, 
quoted  by  Doni6i. 

60  Same. 

filjendyk,  R.,  Kosmos,  vol.  55,  1906,  sec.  1-2. 

m  Ivanovsky,  A.  (after  Donici),  TILE,  vol.  71,  Moscow,  18*91. 

«3Baer,  G.  E.  von,  AFA,  vol.  10,  1878,  pp.  215-231. 

64  Another  pronouncedly  Corded  cranium  of  Scythian  origin  was  published  by 
Majewski,  E.,  in  Swiatowit,  vol.  9,  1911,  pp.  87-88. 

66  Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  Przyczynek  do  poznania,  Swiata  Kurhanowego  Ukrainy. 


THE  IRON  AGE  201 


skulls  of  so-called  "Cimmerians"  likewise  show  no  important  deviation,66 
Furthermore,  an  important  series  of  Early  Iron  Age  crania  from  the 
Sevan  district  of  Armenia,  probably  dated  from  the  earlier  half  of  the 
first  millennium  B.C.,  and  probably  therefore  earlier  than  the  Scyths  in 
Europe,  or  at  least  as  early  as  their  first  appearance,  is  exactly  like  the 
more  dolichocephalic  element  in  the  Scythian  group,  and  manifestly 
Nordic.  The  vault,  like  that  of  the  Scyths,  is  low,  the  nose  leptorrhine, 
the  face  leptene,  with  more  compressed  zygomata.67  (See  Appendix  I, 
col.  38.)  Morphologically,  these  Armenian  skulls  are  characterized  by 
a  medium  forehead  slope,  moderate  browridges  and  muscular  develop- 
ment; a  moderately  deep  nasion  depression,  and  straight  or  lightly  convex 
nasal  profile;  a  projection  of  the  occiput  which  is  most  marked  in  the 
lower  segment,  and  accompanied  by  some  lambdoid  flattening;  a  typical 
compression  in  the  malar  region.  This  series  serves  a  double  purpose:  to 
show  that  a  Nordic  type  entered  into  the  modern  Armenian  blend,  and  to 
define  the  Iranian  variety  of  Nordic  which  may  have  been  likewise  in- 
volved in  the  settlement  of  Persia  and  of  India.68  Furthermore,  it  is  very 
similar,  both  metrically  and  morphologically,  to  the  early  Germanic 
cranial  group,  and  this  virtual  identity  draws  together  the  two  geograph- 
ical extremes  of  an  originally  united  family. 

We  have  seen  that  the  Scythians  and  Sarmatians,  although  they  un- 
doubtedly included  in  their  ranks  many  individuals  of  different  political 
affiliations,  formed  nevertheless  a  quite  constant  principal  racial  type, 
which  was  essentially  Iranian  and  a  form  of  Nordic.  In  its  characteristic 
low  vault,  as  in  other  dimensions,  it  specifically  resembled  the  earlier 
eastern  European  and  central  Asiatic  Nordic  form.  It  was  essentially  a 
member  of  the  racial  cluster  associated  with  the  spread  of  Satem  Indo- 
European  speech  in  both  eastern  Europe  and  Asia. 

(6)   THE   GERMANIC   PEOPLES 

We  have  already  dealt  with  the  expansions  of  two  great  Indo-European 
peoples,  the  Kelts  and  the  Scythians,  who,  during  the  second  half  of  the 
first  millennium  before  Christ,  nearly  divided  the  European  continent, 
north  of  the  Alpine  mountain  barrier,  between  them.  Other  groups,  such 
as  the  Thracians,  who  occupied  large  expanses  of  territory  in  the  Balkans, 
have  been  neglected  because  of  lack  of  information. 

The  first  millennium  of  the  Christian  era  witnessed  two  more  such  spread- 
ings  of  Indo- Europeans;  those  of  the  Germans  and  of  the  Slavs,  the  former 

66  Stolyhwo,  K.,  Swiatowit,  vol.  6,  1905,  pp.  73-80. 

67Bunak,  V.  V.,  RAJ,  vol.  17,  1929,  pp.  64-87. 

68  Unpublished  series  of  living  peoples  from  the  mountainous  regions  of  the  northern 
Punjab,  and  the  Northwest  Frontier  Province,  which  will  be  published  by  Dr.  Gordon  T. 
Bowles,  conform  closely  to  the  metrical  and  morphological  specifications  of  this  type. 


202  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

to  have  lasting  results  in  the  west,  the  latter  in  the  east.  Unlike  the  Kelts 
and  the  Scyths,  these  two  later  groups,  tardy  to  receive  the  civilization  of 
the  classical  world,  were  destined  to  people  many  countries  permanently 
with  their  descendants,  and  to  implant  their  tongues  in  many  regions. 

Of  these  two,  the  Germanic  expansion  was  the  earlier.  The  period  of 
Teutonic  migration  was  that  of  the  famous  Volkerwanderung,  which  began 
with  the  precocious  but  futile  invasion  of  Italy  by  the  Cimbri  and  Teutons, 
who  fought  the  Romans  between  114  and  102  B.C.,  and  which  did  not 
end  until  the  adoption  of  Christianity  by  the  Norwegians  in  the  eleventh 
century  put  an  end  to  the  piratical  practices  of  the  Vikings.  Its  period  of 
greatest  vitality  fell  between  the  second  and  fifth  centuries  of  the  present 
era. 

The  home  of  the  Germans  before  their  expansion  was  only  in  a  re- 
stricted sense  the  modern  Germany.  The  tribes  of  which  this  people  was 
composed  occupied  Denmark,  southern  and  central  Sweden,  Norway, 
and  the  northern  coastal  strip  of  Germany,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  to 
the  Baltic  shore.  The  islands  of  the  Baltic  near  Sweden,  namely  Gotland 
and  Bornholm,  were  densely  populated. 

One  must  not  suppose  that  these  early  Germans  were  the  unaltered 
descendants  of  their  Bronze  Age  predecessors,  for  there  is  strong  archaeo- 
logical evidence  that  a  new  people  entered  Scandinavia  at  the  beginning 
of  the  retarded  Iron  Age  of  this  region.69  The  Hallstatt  artefacts  are  en- 
tirely different  in  character  from  those  of  the  Late  Bronze  Age,  and  the 
burial  rite  changed  completely,  while  the  old  nature  worship  which  the 
Megalithic  sea  people  had  brought  to  Scandinavia  now  disappeared 
abruptly,  being  replaced  by  religious  phenomena  which  we  can  associate 
definitely  with  the  classical  Norse  style  of  worship.  The  Norse  pantheon, 
with  its  family  of  gods  and  its  Valhalla,  is  closely  related  to  the  systems  of 
Greece  and  Rome,  of  India,  and  of  the  other  Indo-European  divisions. 

The  principal  civilizing  agency  in  the  development  of  the  Germanic 
culture  was  that  of  the  Kelts,  but  the  Kelts  were  niggardly  teachers,  for 
they  blocked  the  Germans  from  direct  intercourse  with  the  classical  world. 
It  was  not  until  the  days  of  the  Roman  Empire  and  of  the  Byzantines  that 
the  Germans,  after  driving  their  way  through  the  vanishing  Keltic  domain, 
reached  these  civilizing  influences.  But  the  earlier  Scandinavians  had 
already  possessed  a  distinctive  Bronze  Age  culture,  which  was  not  en- 
tirely lost. 

Furthermore,  certain  strong  cultural  elements  in  the  time  of  Germanic 

efflorescence  bore  strong  marks  of  an  eastern  inspiration;  such  as  the  ship 

burials,  which  resembled  the  Royal  Scythian  interments  in  every  detail 

except  for  the  substitution  of  ships  for  wagons;  and  the  art,  as  expressed 

w  Shetelig,  H.,  Falk,  H.,  and  Gordon,  E.  V.,  Scandinavian  Archaeology,  pp.  174-175. 


THE  IRON  AGE  203 


in  wood  carving,  which  carried  over  the  richness  of  the  eastern  animal 
style,  and  which  reached  its  highest  development  in  Norway.  The  Ger- 
mans, like  the  Kelts,  had  been  subjected  to  a  very  strong  influence  from 
the  plains  to  the  east. 

Linguistically,  the  early  Germanic  tongues  were  much  in  the  debt  of 
the  Kelts.  Many  of  the  words  needed  to  express  new  things  were  of  Keltic 
origin.  Hubert,  the  Keltic  authority,  believed  that  the  Germanic  lan- 
guages were  the  garbled  borrowings  of  some  Indo-European  speech  by  a 
people  to  whom  the  Indo-European  phonemes  were  difficult.70  It  is  true 
that  consonantal  shifts  from  K  to  H,  and  the  like,  are  more  extreme  than 
those  in  other  Indo-European  languages.  It  is  very  likely  that  the  ances- 
tral Germanic  speech  was  introduced  into  Scandinavia  by  the  invaders 
who  brought  the  Hallstatt  culture  to  that  backward  region. 

It  is  the  task  of  the  physical  anthropologist  to  help  the  archaeologist  and 
linguist  discover  the  identity  of  these  Iron  Age  invaders,  whose  arrival  in 
Scandinavia  cannot  be  put  back  earlier  than  the  sixth  or  seventh  cen- 
turies B.C.  This  should  be  relatively  easy,  for  the  newcomers  buried  while 
the  older  population  presumably  continued  cremating  their  dead.  The 
Danish  series  is  the  most  extensive,  with  42  adult  male  crania71  (see 
Appendix  I,  col.  39) ;  of  these  only  one  has  a  cranial  index  of  over  78.  The 
series  is  strongly  dolichocephalic,  with  a  mean  of  72.3.  There  is  no  trace 
of  the  brachy cephalic  element  which  had  been  so  important  in  Denmark 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Neolithic  through  the  Bronze  Age. 

The  Danish  Iron  Age  crania  form  a  homogeneous  group.  They  belong 
definitely  in  the  same  class  with  the  other  Iron  Age  Nordics  of  Lausitz 
Urnfields  inspiration,  and  more  particularly  the  purely  long-headed  ele- 
ment in  the  Keltic  blend,  for  the  low  vault  and  cylindrical  transverse  pro- 
file of  the  Keltic  crania  are  also  common  here.  Except  for  the  lesser  breadth 
of  head  and  face,  and  greater  vault  length,  they  closely  resemble  the 
Keltic  crania  of  Gaul  and  of  the  British  Isles,  and  those  of  the  Scythians, 
while  they  are  virtually  identical  with  the  Armenian  Iron  Age  skulls  dis- 
cussed in  the  last  section.  The  Danish  Iron  Age  crania,  then,  are  probably 
the  same  as  those  of  the  ancestral  proto-Kelts  before  their  arrival  in  south- 
western Germany,  and  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Scythians  and  eastern  Ira- 
nians. These  Danes  were  a  tall  people,  however,  for  the  stature  of  25  males 
was  171.5  cm.  This  agrees  with  that  of  the  earlier  peoples  of  the  same  re- 
gion, and  with  that  of  the  Scythians. 

In  this  Danish  series  there  was,  without  doubt,  a  selection  on  the  basis 
of  differential  methods  of  disposal  of  the  dead;  the  numerous  Bronze  Age 

70  Hubert,  H.,  The  Rise  of  the  Celts,  pp.  50-52. 

71  Nielsen,  H.  A.,  ANOH,  II  Rakke,  vol.  21,  1906,  pp.  237-318;  ibid.,  Ill  Rakke, 
vol.  5,  1915,  pp.  360-365.   Reworked. 


204  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

population,  compounded  of  Megalithic,  Borreby,  and  Corded  elements, 
could  not  have  disappeared  completely.  After  the  various  elements  in 
the  Danish  population  have  had  time  to  blend,  we  shall  see  them 
reappear. 

The  Swedish  population  of  the  Iron  Age,  best  represented  by  a  smaller 
group  of  14  males 72  (see  Appendix  I,  col,  40),  was  essentially  the  same  as 
that  in  Denmark.  There  are,  however,  a  few  differences — the  vault  is 
higher,  the  face  wider,  the  upper  face  shorter.  Perhaps  these  more 
peripheral  Scandinavians  showed  a  little  of  the  older  blood. 

During  the  Iron  Age,  Norway  was,  for  the  first  time,  definitely  settled 
by  people  comparable  in  civilization  to  those  in  Denmark  and  southern 
Sweden;  it  is  likely  that  many  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  Jutland  and  the 
Danish  archipelago  had  fled  to  the  southwestern  corner  of  that  country, 
while  other  migrations  came  across  from  southern  and  central  Sweden. 

The  most  extensive  Iron  Age  series  from  Norway  is  that  of  Schreiner, 
which  contains  27  male  crania.73  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  41 .)  These  are  quite 
different  from  those  of  either  Denmark  or  Sweden.  They  are  larger  and 
much  more  rugged,  with  heavy  browridges  and  strong  muscular  markings. 
Metrically,  they  approach  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  series  of  Morant;  and 
they  could  fit  easily  into  the  range  of  the  central  European  Aurignacian 
group.  The  Mesolithic  crania  of  St£ngenas  and  Mac  Arthur's  Cave  would 
not  be  out  of  place  here.  Yet  in  most  dimensions,  they  fall  a  little  short 
of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  mean. 

They  are  purely  dolichocephalic,  with  a  cranial  index  of  71.7.  On  the 
whole,  they  are  just  what  one  would  expect  from  a  Danish  Iron  Age — 
Upper  Palaeolithic  cross,  with  the  latter  in  the  majority,  and  this  explana- 
tion agrees  well  with  the  archaeological  data.  The  stature,  169.5  cm.,  fits 
both  types.  There  is  another  possibility,  however,  that  they  had  a  strong 
Corded  element.  That  some  Corded  blend  entered  into  this  mixture  was 
indeed  likely,  but  it  is  impossible  to  substitute  the  Corded  for  the  Palaeo- 
lithic element,  since  the  high  vault  of  the  former  is  not  in  sufficient  evi- 
dence, and  the  faces  of  the  Norwegians  are  wider  than  either  Corded  or 
Nordic. 

The  central  coastal  Norwegians  of  the  Iron  Age  must  have  been  in  part 
true  descendants  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  people  of  central  Europe,  who 
moved  northward  and  westward  with  the  retreat  of  the  last  ice,  and  re- 
mained relatively  undisturbed  in  the  centers  of  its  last  melting  until  the 
arrival  of  new  immigrants  in  the  Iron  Age.  There  must,  however,  have 
been  regional  differences  of  type  in  Norway  at  this  time  which  persisted 
until  the  modern  period;  late  Viking  Age  series  from  Jaeren,  T0nsborg, 

78  Rctzius,  G.,  Crania  Suectca,  reworked. 

78  Schreiner,  K.  E.,  SNVO,  II,  #11,  1927,  pp.  1-32. 


THE  IRON  AGE  205 


and  Skien  74  in  the  south  show  the  presence  of  a  brachycephalic  type, 
massive  in  build  and  of  great  cranial  size,  which  is  metrically  related  to  the 
Borreby  group  of  Denmark  and  northern  Germany.  These  may  represent 
colonists  or  refugees  from  Denmark. 

A  late  group  from  Sogn,76  in  the  north,  includes  mesocephalic  crania 
with  extremely  low  vaults  and  smaller  dimensions,  associated  with  black 
or  brown  hair  preserved  in  the  graves.  Metrically,  they  suggest  modern 
Lapp  crania  in  most  respects,  and  serve  to  mark  the  northern  Norse 
borderland,  beyond  which  Norwegian  settlements  were,  in  the  Viking 
period,  only  sporadic.  These  various  series  place  Norway  for  the  first  time 
in  history  in  the  full  light  of  physical  anthropology,  and  show  that  the  land 
of  the  Vikings  was  the  last  periphery  of  the  Nordic  world,  in  which  ancient 
but  fully  evolved  forms  of  humanity  blended  with  the  newcomers  from  the 
south  and  east. 

Linguistically,  the  Germanic  peoples  who  invaded  other  parts  of  Europe 
from  Scandinavia  and  North  Germany  have  been  divided  into  two  groups: 
East  Germans  and  West  Germans.  The  speakers  of  East  Germanic  in- 
cluded the  Goths,  Vandals,  Gepidae,  and  Burgundians.  The  Goths 
claimed  to  have  crossed  the  Baltic  from  Sweden  (not  from  the  island  of  Got- 
land) to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula.  The  Vandals  and  the  Gepidae  presum- 
ably had  the  same  origin.  From  the  Vistula,  the  East  Germans  expanded 
southward  and  eastward  into  the  Scythian  country,  where  the  Gepidae 
seized  control  of  Hungary,  and  the  Goths  finally  established  an  important 
kingdom  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Black  Sea. 

From  here,  the  history  of  these  tribes  is  well  known.  They  all  had  im- 
portant relationships  with  the  Roman  Empire,  and  adopted  Christianity. 
The  movements  of  the  Goths  into  Greece,  Italy,  and  France  do  not  merit 
detailed  description.  The  Visigoths  pushed  westward,  occupied  southern 
France  shortly  after  400  A.D.,  and  moved  down  into  Spain  where  they  were 
gradually  absorbed  into  the  population  of  the  northern  provinces.  The 
eastern  Goths  who  fell  under  the  rule  of  the  Huns  met  a  similar  fate. 
Of  a  once  numerous  and  mobile  Gothic  nation  no  trace  remains.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  Gepidae,  and  of  the  Vandals,  who  went  from  eastern 
Europe  to  France,  Spain,  and  North  Africa,  whence  they  were  subse- 
quently deported  to  Byzantium.  No  doubt,  Gothic  and  Vandal  blood 
flaws  in  the  veins  of  some  modern  Spaniards  as  well  as  of  the  peoples  in 
other  countries  through  which  they  passed.  But  this  eastern  branch  of 
the  Germans  failed  to  make  any  lasting  impression  upon  the  racial  map 
of  Europe. 

Although  there  is  not  much  data  concerning  the  physical  type  of  these 
eastern  Germans,  there  is  enough  to  enable  us  to  come  to  some  definite 

w  Larsen,  C.  F.,  SNVO,  #5,  1901,  pp.  3-53.  » Ibid. 


206  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

conclusions.  A  series  of  Goths  from  the  Chersonese  north  of  the  Black 
Sea,  dated  between  100  B.C.  and  100  A.D.,  includes  three  male  and  eight 
female  skeletons.76  All  of  these  are  long  headed,  and  they  belong  to  a 
large,  powerful  Nordic  type  which  reflects  their  Swedish  origin,  for  they 
are  no  different  from  the  Swedish  Iron  Age  crania  which  we  have  already 
studied. 

A  later  group  of  Gepidae  dated  from  the  fifth  or  sixth  centuries  in  Hun- 
gary shows  the  persistence  of  this  same  type;  despite  historical  blending 
with  the  Huns,  of  eight  skulls  at  our  disposal,  all  but  three  fail  to  show  def- 
inite traces  of  mongoloid  mixture,  and  in  these  three  the  non-Nordic  traits 
are  not  manifested  metrically.  One  is  forced  to  the  conclusion  from  this 
series,  as  from  that  of  the  Goths  in  the  Chersonese,  that  the  East  Ger- 
manic peoples  who  took  part  in  these  wanderings  preserved  their  original 
racial  characteristics  so  long  as  they  retained  their  political  and  linguistic 
identity. 

The  same  conclusion  results  when  one  examines  the  Visigothic  skulls 
from  northern  Spain  which  date  from  the  sixth  century  A.D.77  Here  a 
series  combined  from  several  cemeteries  shows  us  exactly  the  same  Nordic 
type,  with  tall  stature  and  with  a  high-vaulted  skull,  a  long  face,  and  a 
broad  jaw;  in  this  respect  resembling,  in  a  sense,  the  earlier  Hallstatt 
crania,  but  more  particularly  those  of  the  western  Germanic  group,  es- 
pecially the  Hannover  Germans  and  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

The  western  branch  of  Germanic-speaking  peoples,  while  historically 
less  spectacular,  was  destined  to  be  far  more  important  in  the  eventual 
peopling  of  Europe.  This  included  the  ancestors  of  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
of  the  Frisians,  and  of  the  Germans  proper.  Among  the  latter  may  be  listed 
the  Franks,  the  Alemanni,  the  Bavarians,  the  Thuringians,  and  the 
Chatti,  whose  descendants  are  the  Hessians.  Under  the  Franks  may  be 
listed  the  ancestors  of  the  Flemish-  and  Dutch-speaking  peoples  whose 
closely  related  languages  are  a  mixture  of  low  Franconian  and  Saxon 
elements.  All  of  these  peoples  worked  their  way  southward,  and  in  some 
cases  westward,  gradually  and  without  ostentation;  the  Alemanni  to 
Switzerland  and  Austria,  the  Bavarians  to  the  principality  which  bears 
their  name,  the  Thuringians  to  Bohemia  as  well  as  to  Thuringia,  and  the 
Franks  to  the  upper  Rhine  country,  Belgium,  and  France.  The  Bur- 
gundiansj  members  of  the  eastern  branch  of  Germans,  sophisticated  like 
the  Goths  from  contact  with  the  Roman  Empire,  crossed  the  Rhine  ahead 
of  the  Franks,  and  occupied  Rhenish  Gaul  at  the  same  time  that  the 
Vandals  were  admitted  under  Roman  sanction.  ' 

76  Schliz,  A.,  PZ,  vol.  5,  1913,  pp.  148-157. 

77  Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  MSAE,  vol.  6,  1927,  pp.  141-186. 
P6rez  de  Barradas,  J,,  MSAE,  vol.  14,  1935,  pp.  141-172. 


THE   IRON  AGE  207 


The  prototype  of  the  western  German  peoples  who  migrated  from  the 
region  about  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  is  well  represented  by  a  series  of  skulls 
from  Hannover  which  includes  41  male  crania.78  (See  Appendix  I,  col. 
42.)  Metrically,  these  differ  from  the  Danish  Iron  Age  skulls  in  being 
slightly  longer,  somewhat  broader,  and  considerably  higher.  The  fore- 
heads are  broader,  and  the  face  is  wider,  and  in  many  cases  a  bit  longer. 
These  skulls  deviate  from  the  normal  Nordic  type  of  central  European 
origin  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  their  greater  size  and  robusticity,  and 
particularly  in  their  greater  vault  height. 

The  skulls  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  who  invaded  England  in  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries  of  the  present  era  79  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  43)  are  almost 
identical  with  this  Hannover  group.  It  is  to  this  same  specific  category 
that  the  Spanish  Visigothic  skulls  to  which  we  have  already  referred  belong. 
To  it  must  be  added  two  series  of  old  Frisians  from  northern  Holland,80 
which  are  identical  in  every  respect.  The  skulls  of  these  old  Saxons,  old 
Hanoverians,  and  old  Frisians  differ  in  a  number  of  ways  from  those  of 
other  Nordics  which  we  have  studied.  They  are  larger  than  the  Aunjetitz 
group  and  the  Danes,  and  in  fact  any  other  series  of  Indo-European  speak- 
ers that  we  have  met,  except  the  Norwegians.  They  lack  the  low  vault  and 
sloping  forehead  common  to  the  earlier  Nordics  of  Denmark,  the  Gauls, 
and  the  Scyths.  The  vault  is  moderately  high;  while  the  cranial  index 
is  on  the  border  of  dolicho-  and  mesocephaly.  Compared  with  the  other 
Nordics,  the  forehead  is  relatively  straight,  the  browridges  are  greater, 
the  muscular  markings  more  pronounced,  the  cranial  base  wider,  the 
face  longer  and  somewhat  wider. 

The  type  represented  by  these  three  groups  and  by  the  Visigoths  seems 
to  be  a  variant  of  the  Nordic  type  to  which  the  early  Indo-European 
speakers  belonged.  Its  difference  is  one  of  size,  and  it  appears  to  have  at- 
tained this  distinction  through  a  mixture,  in  southern  Scandinavia  and 
Germany,  between  the  older  local  population,  consisting  of  a  combina- 
tion of  Megalithic,  Corded,  and  Borreby  elements,  and  the  purely  Nordic 
Danish  Iron  Age  group.  The  resultant  typfc  approaches  in  some  respects, 
but  does  not  even  approximate  in  size,  the  coastal  Norwegian  population 
which  we  have  already  studied,  and  it  deviates  far  less  from  the  central 
European  Nordic  than  does  the  Norwegian  group. 

This  physical  type  is  accompanied  by  tall  stature,  of  about  170  cm., 
and  by  a  considerable  heaviness  and  robusticity  of  the  long  bones.  The 
bodily  build  was  clearly  heavier  and  thicker  set  than  that  of  the  previously 
studied  Nordics.  That  it  was  characteristically  blond  is  attested  by  the 

7*  Hauschild,  M.  W.,  ZFMA,  vol.  25,  1925,  pp.  221-242. 
79  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  56-98. 
»>Reche,  O.,  VUR,  vol.  4,  1929,  pp.  129-158,  193-215. 


208  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

pigmentation  of  living  examples  as  well  as  by  numerous  early  descrip- 
tions. This  type,  being  a  mixed  variety  of  central  European  Nordic  com- 
bined with  old  northwestern  European  elements,  is  not  a  true  Nordic 
in  the  sense  in  which  the  word  has  been  used  in  this  work,  and  its  common 
and  exclusive  designation  as  Nordic  in  popular  parlance  as  in  scientific 
works  is  responsible  for  much  of  the  confusion  prevalent  in  the  identifica- 
tion of  that  racial  type  today.  Since  it  is  found  among  both  West  and 
East  Germans  of  the  period  of  dispersal,  it  is  essentially  the  Germanic  or 
Teutonic  racial  type.  The  eccentric  linguistic  position  of  the  Germanic 
peoples  in  the  total  Indo-European  family  has  its  racial  connotations. 

One  of  the  principal  outlets  for  this  movement  from  the  northwestern 
coasts  of  Germany  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  invasion  of  the  British  Isles.81 
This  had  begun  by  250  A.D.,  when  the  Saxons  raided  the  southern  and 
eastern  coast  of  England.  It  was  a  period  of  general  turmoil,  for  Irish 
pirates  were  plundering  the  coast  of  Wales  at  the  same  time.  The  Romans 
were  hard  put  to  defend  themselves  against  this  double  peril,  and  despite 
their  military  and  naval  precautions,  the  raids  grew  in  volume  and  fre- 
quency. 

In  406-407  A.D.,  large  invasions  of  Germanic  peoples  crossed  the  Rhine 
and  pillaged  the  Roman  settlements  in  most  of  Gaul.  This  broke  off  com- 
munications between  Rome  and  Britain.  With  Gaul  out  of  Roman  con- 
trol, there  could  be  no  hope  of  holding  Britain.  Hence,  in  409  A.D.,  the 
Emperor  Honorius  issued  a  decree  bidding  the  inhabitants  of  Britain  to 
shift  for  themselves  in  the  future.  From  this  point  on  the  Saxons  received 
little  opposition,  and  settled  in  great  numbers.  Since  the  Saxons  were 
not  townsmen,  they  did  not  occupy  the  cities  which  they  plundered,  and 
the  urban  population  established  by  the  Romans  in  England  maintained 
its  identity  for  a  century  or  longer  before  the  towns  were  abandoned  or 
became  Anglicized. 

The  earliest  Saxon  contacts  were  Viking  raids  in  which  they  not  only 
pillaged  the  coastal  settlements  but  also  rowed  far  up  the  rivers,  estab- 
lishing temporary  camps  in  the  upper  waters.  When  the  main  body  of 
Saxons  under  Gerdic  marched  from  the  region  of  the  Wash  across  Lincoln- 
shire to  the  upper  Thames  Valley,  the  invaders  found  that  other  Saxons 
of  more  temporary  habits  had  preceded  them.  Hence  it  is  necessary,  in 
studying  early  Saxon  remains,  to  distinguish  between  mixed  communities 
in  which  raiders  had  taken  native  women  to  wife,  and  pure  Saxon  settle- 
ments in  which  whole  families  and  villages  had  emigrated  at  the  beginning 
of  the  period  of  serious  settlement. 

The  Saxons  occupied,  for  the  most  part,  empty  country.  This  was  be- 
cause they  were  accustomed  to  low-lying  land  with  a  deep,  rich  soil,  and 

81  Kendrick,  T.  D.,  and  Hawkes,  G.  F.  C.,  Archaeology  in  England  and  Wales,  1914-1931. 


THE  IRON  AGE  209 


had  formed,  in  their  earlier  home,  the  habit  of  tilling  this  in  strips  with 
deep  ploughs  drawn  by  eight  oxen.  The  Kelts,  whose  agriculture  was 
more  cursory  in  character,  preferred  the  uplands  already  made  treeless 
by  nature,  and  cultivated  in  square  fields.  They  remained  for  the  most 
part  on  territory  frequented  by  the  Bronze  Age  and  Neolithic  men  be- 
fore them.  The  Saxons,  who  liked  forests  as  well  as  lowlands,  cleared 
the  marshes  and  river  valleys  of  trees,  and  drained  and  planted  them.  Ow- 
ing to  this  fundamental  difference  in  methods  of  agriculture,  the  two  peo- 
ples overlapped  little  at  first,  and  the  Saxons  and  Britons  occupied  adjoin- 
ing territories  in  many  parts  of  England  for  several  centuries  until  at  length 
the  Saxon  social  and  political  domination  submerged  the  language  and 
culture  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  beneath  its  own  pattern. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  skeletons  which  have  been  described  earlier  are  de- 
rived from  the  graves  of  the  heathen  period,  from  the  fifth  to  the  end  of 
the  ninth  centuries.  The  skulls  from  these  graves  82  make  a  striking 
contrast  to  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  type  which  preceded  them.  While  the 
Iron  Age  forehead  is  extremely  sloping,  that  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  skulls 
is  rather  steep  and  high,  and  the  skulls  which  possess  mandibles  show 
that  the  Anglo-Saxon  type  was  deep  jawed,  with  a  great  distance  from 
lower  tooth  line  to  chin  and  with  a  long,  sloping  ascending  ramus.  The 
cranium  as  a  whole  is  steep  sided  with  a  well-rounded  occiput,  and  fre- 
quently lambdoidally  flattened.83  The  browridges  are  moderate  to  heavy. 
The  nasal  bones  are  highly  arched,  with  often  a  considerable  nasion  de- 
pression. Muscularity  of  a  pronounced  character  is  indicated  by  deep  pits 
and  ridges  on  the  long  bones,  which  are  thick  and  heavy.  Compared  with 
the  Iron  Age  people,  the  Saxons  were  large  bodied,  and  their  more  con- 
siderable body  weight  is  correlated  with  a  larger  braincase.  The  mean 
stature  of  various  series  of  Anglo-Saxons  ranges  from  167-172  cm.84  and 
the  total  mean  equals  170  or  171  cm. 

Although  there  was  a  difference  in  the  localities  from  which  various 
groups  of  Anglo-Saxons  came,  little  regional  difference  is  manifest  in  the 
series  from  England.  The  Jutes  who  settled  in  Kent,  and  who  came  from 
the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  seem  larger  faced  than  the  Saxons  themselves, 
but  the  difference  is  actually  slight.85  In  the  total  Saxon  group  studied 

82Morant,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  56-98. 

Brash,  J.  C.,  Layard,  D.,  and  Young,  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  27,  1935,  pp.  388-408. 

83  Lambdoid  flattening  is  a  characteristic  common  to  Neanderthal   and    Upper 
Palaeolithic  man,  but  rare  in  the  exclusively  Mediterranean  group. 

84  Calculated  from  a  number  of  series,  involving  over  120  adult  males.    Sources: 
Beddoe,  J.,  JRAI,  vol.  19,  1889,  pp.  2-11. 

Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,  PCAS,  vol.  27,  1926,  pp.  36-42. 

Hooton,  E.  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  64,  1915,  pp.  92-130. 

Humphreys,  Ryland,  Barnard,  etc.,  Archaeologia,  vol.  73,  1923,  pp.  89-116. 

Mortimer,  J.  R.,  Man,  vol.  9,  1909,  pp.  35-36.  8fi  Morant,  loc.  cit. 


210  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

by  Morant,  both  males  and  females  belong  to  the  same  clearly  differen- 
tiated type,  and  there  is  no  confusion  between  them  and  the  Iron  Age 
form.  They  thus  preserved  their  racial  identity  at  least  until  the  end  of 
the  eighth  century. 

A  number  of  individual  cemeteries,  which  date  from  the  earliest  period 
of  Saxon  invasion,  give  us  a  lively  picture  of  the  manner  in  which  the  first 
Saxon  raiders  and  settlers  operated.  One  of  these  is  the  graveyard  at 
East  Shefford,  Berkshire,  containing  eight  male  and  twelve  female  adults, 
as  well  as  eight  infantile  and  juvenile  specimens.86  All  of  the  adult  males 
thirty  years  of  age  or  older  represent  a  single  type,  the  classical  Saxon, 
and  all  are  long  headed.  One  of  the  females  belongs  to  this  same  type, 
and  she  was  buried  differently  from  the  other  women,  with  horse  trappings 
in  her  grave.  The  rest  of  the  women  were  rounder  headed,  with  cranial* 
indices  going  up  to  82.4,  and  some  of  them  were  planoccipital.  They  had 
wider,  shorter  noses,  some  prognathism,  and  shorter,  shallower  jaws.  The 
adolescent  women  seem  to  be  a  blend  of  these  two  types.  Although  many 
of  these  differences  may  be  due  to  sex  and  age,  others,  such  as  the  funda- 
mental head  form,  are  clearly  racial. 

This  cemetery  presumably  represents  a  raiding  party  which  settled  in 
the  upper  Thames  waters  before  the  onset  of  the  mass  invasions.  It  seems 
to  have  included  less  than  twelve  men  and  only  one  woman  who  were 
Saxons.  The  other  women,  being  Bronze  Age  descendants,  were  appar- 
ently British  wives  of  Saxon  invaders,  while  the  children  were  their  off- 
spring. 

The  excavation  of  a  round  barrow  at  Dunstable  in  Bedfordshire  throws 
further  light  on  the  survival  of  the  Bronze  Age  physical  type  into  the  Saxon 
period.87  The  primary  burial  of  the  barrow  was  a  woman  of  the  Early 
Bronze  Age;  secondary  graves  contained  cremated  bodies  of  the  Middle 
Bronze  Age,  while  tertiary  burials,  heaped  in  a  ditch,  consisted  of  one 
hundred  skeletons  of  persons  of  the  Saxon  period  who  had  apparently  been 
executed,  or  slain  in  battle.  One-tenth  of  them  had  their  hands  tied  behind 
their  backs  when  they  died.  Owing  to  the  absence  of  grave  goods,  for 
these  people  were  informally  slaughtered  in  a  ditch,  it  is  impossible  to  tell 
exactly  who  they  were.  The  view  that  they  were  Saxon  settlers  violently 
received  by  the  natives  is  unsubstantiated.  Judging  by  their  racial  type, 
they  must  have  been  natives  slaughtered  by  the  Saxons. 

This  series  contains  a  hundred  skulls,  of  which  those  of  52  males  are 
suitable  for  study.  This  extensive  series  resembles  the  British  Bronze  Age 
means  in  most  dimensions,  but  through  the  narrowing  of  the  cranial  vault, 
it  indicates  a  certain  degree  of  mixture  with  the  Iron  Age  Keltic  people. 

*  Peake,  H.,  and  Hooton,  E.  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  45,  1915,  pp.  92-130. 
^Dingwall,  D.,  and  Young,  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  25,  1933,  pp.  147-157. 


THE   IRON  AGE  211 


This  excellent  series,  in  agreement  with  that  from  Berkshire,  proves  con- 
clusively that  the  Bronze  Age  people  did  not  die  out  in  England  but  kept 
on  mixing  steadily  with  the  Keltic  invaders  and  survived  racially  into 
Saxon  times. 

The  Saxon  invasions  of  the  British  Isles  were  followed  by  those  of  the 
Danes,  who  began  raiding  the  British  Isles  in  the  eighth  century.  The 
Danes,  many  of  whom  were  actually  Norwegians,  took  the  part  of  England 
in  which  the  Saxons  had  become  densely  settled,  but  they  also  raided  ex- 
tensively in  the  north  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland.  Very  few  skulls  of  these 
Danes  are  available  for  study,  but  they  belong,  almost  without  exception, 
to  the  expected  northwestern  Nordic  variety.88  Neither  a  series  of  six 
males  from  the  Orkneys,  nor  of  fourteen  from  various  places  in  Ireland, 
differs  from  the  type  of  the  Saxons.  The  further  Germanic  invasion  of  the 
Normans,  after  their  sojourn  in  France,  took  place  in  such  late  times  that 
the  remains  of  these  Normans  still  repose  in  Christian  cemeteries,  and  are 
subjected  to  the  same  restrictions  which  protect  the  skeletons  of  the  solvent 
recently  deceased  from  the  hands  of  the  anthropologist. 

The  West  Germans  who  invaded  Bavaria,  southwestern  Germany, 
northern  Switzerland,  and  Austria,  transformed  previously  Keltic  and 
Illyrian  regions  into  permanent  areas  of  Germanic  speech  and  culture. 
The  tribes  most  fully  responsible  for  this  were  the  Franks,  the  Alemanni, 
the  Bajuvars,  and  the  Thuringians.  The  skeletons  contained  in  the  cem- 
eteries used  by  these  peoples  during  the  first  centuries  of  their  settlement 
have  been  extensively  studied,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  determine  to  what 
extent  the  Germanic  type,  as  exemplified  by  the  Hanoverians,  Anglo- 
Saxons,  and  Goths  was  implanted  in  these  regions. 

The  Bajuvars,  the  ancestors  of  the  Bavarians,  retained  the  original 
Germanic  head  form  in  their  new  home,  with  the  cranial  index  mean  of 
75  to  76  in  various  series.89  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  44.)  Their  stature, 
about  168  cm.,  was  moderately  tall,  and  their  cranial  type,  in  most  if  not 
all  metrical  and  morphological  features,  was  reminiscent  of  their  northern 

88Bryce,  T.  H.,  PSAS,  vol.  61,  1927,  pp.  301-317. 

Martin,  C.  P.,  Prehistoric  Man  in  Ireland,  pp.  150-151. 

89  Ecker,  A.,  Crania  Germanica. 

Henckel,  K.  O.,  ZFAE,  vol.  77,  3/4,  1925. 
'      H6lder,  H.,  AFA,  vol.  2,  1867,  p.  51. 

Hiis  and  Rutimeyer,  Crania  Helvetica. 

Kollman,  J.,  AFA,  vol.  13,  1881,  p.  215. 

Lehmann-Nitsche,  R.,  BAUB,  vol.  11,  1895,  pp.  109-296. 

Ried,  H.  A.,  BAUB,  vol.  16-17,  1907,  p.  63. 

Sailer,  K.,  ZFKL,  vol.  18,  1934. 

Schicker,  J,,  MAGW,  vol.  35,  1905,  pp.  54-55. 

The  most  satisfactory  group  is  the  unpublished  series  of  Mrs.  R.  S.  Wallis  of  62 
male  and  41  female  Bavarian  Reihengraber  crania  measured  in  the  Anthropological 
Institute  at  Munich. 


212  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

ancestors;  but  in  a  few  of  the  smaller  groups  an  approximation  to  the  Keltic 
form  may  be  suspected.  In  every  local  series,  however,  the  head  form 
remains  constant,  and  there  are  very  few  brachycephals  in  any  of  them. 
The  ancestors  of  the  Hessians,  if  we  may  judge  by  a  few  examples,  were 
apparently  likewise  dolichocephals  90  of  the  usual  North  German  form. 

The  Alemanni  may  be  studied  by  means  of  two  principal  series;  a  small 
one  of  twenty  skeletons  from  Oberrotweil  in  Baden,91  and  a  large  one  of 
over  two-hundred  from  Augst,92  in  the  canton  of  Aargau  in  Switzerland. 
The  series  from  Baden,  while  retaining  the  usual  Germanic  cranial  index, 
assumes  in  other  respects  the  metrical  character  of  the  Keltic  peoples 
whom  the  Alemanni  succeeded,  and  who,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  possessed  the 
same  cranial  index  mean  of  75  to  76.  One  must  interpret  this  evidence 
from  Baden  as  an  indication  that  these  Germanic  invaders  were  to  a  large 
extent  absorbed  by  previously  settled  Kelts,  at  least  in  the  village  which 
used  this  cemetery  and  its  immediate  neighborhood. 

The  Alemanni  skulls  from  Switzerland  are,  as  a  group,  high  mesocephals 
with  a  mean  of  78,  and  include  a  considerable  number  of  brachycephalic 
crania.  On  the  whole,  the  total  series  resembles  that  of  the  Keltic  prede- 
cessors of  the  Alemanni,  but  the  stature  increased  to  a  mean  of  168  cm., 
and  the  cranial  index  of  the  entire  group  was  gradually  lowered.  In  the 
fifth  century,  50  per  cent  of  the  Aargau  Alemanni  were  brachycephalic,  in 
the  seventh  century,  44  per  cent,  and  in  the  eighth,  24  per  cent.  Coinci- 
dentally,  the  mean  cranial  index  was  reduced  over  this  three  hundred  year 
span  from  80.2  to  77.5.  Thus  the  Germanic  element,  or  perhaps  a 
Germanic-Keltic  blend,  increased  at  the  expense  of  the  earlier  population, 
and  this  increase  was,  as  we  shall  see  later,  destined  to  become,  in  parts  of 
Switzerland,  permanent. 

The  Thuringians,  who  are  known  to  us  through  a  series  from  the  Saale 
Valley  in  Germany,  and  through  others  from  several  sites  in  Bohemia,93 
practiced  the  unusual  custom,  for  Germans,  of  deforming  the  head  by 
annular  constriction.  Enough  undeformed  crania  are  left,  however,  for 
one  to  determine  their  racial  type.  The  Thuringians  were  purely  dolicho- 
cephalic. In  none  of  these  groups  has  a  single  round-headed  skull  been 
found.  The  skulls  are,  in  fact,  longer  headed  than  the  normal  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  Hanoverian  basic  type  and  bear  certain  resemblances  to  the 
original  Iron  Age  Danish  group,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  the  Hallstatt 

90  Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  9,  1877,  pp.  495-504. 

91  Fleury-Cuello,  E.,  ZFMA,  vol.  30,  1930,  pp.  406-428. 

92  Schwerz,  F.,  AFA,  vol.  43,  1917,  pp.  270-300. 
9*Holter,  F.,  JVST,  vol.  12,  1925,  pp.  1-114. 

Hellich,  B.,  Praehistorickl  Lebky  v  Cechach  &  Sbirky  Musea  Krdlovstvi  Ceskeho. 
Maly,  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  13,  1935,  pp.  37-53. 
Niederle,  L.,  MAGW,  vol.  22,  1892,  pp.  1-18. 


THE   IRON  AGE  213 


crania  of  the  same  region  in  which  they  are  found.  One  may  state  def- 
initely they  are  not  of  Keltic  type,  and  these  people  had  apparently  not 
mixed  to  any  extent  with  the  Boii  who  had  preceded  them  and  from  whom 
Bohemia  derived  its  name.  Like  the  Boii,  however,  the  Thuringians  were 
not  destined  to  remain  long  on  Bohemian  soil,  for  this  fertile  plain  which 
had  been  subjected  to  constant  farming  since  the  beginning  of  the  Danu- 
bian  Neolithic  was  soon  to  be  taken  permanently  by  the  Slavs  in  the  early 
period  of  their  great  expansion. 

The  Germanic  settlement  of  Austria,  including  the  Tyrol,  was  a  com- 
plicated process,  involving  the  Alemanni,  the  Bajuvars,  the  Lombards, 
and  the  Goths.  The  Alemanni  were  the  earliest,  and  the  Bajuvars  the 
most  important.  In  the  mountains,  the  Lombards  settled  the  southern 
Tyrolese  valleys,  the  Bajuvars  those  to  the  north.  In  the  mean- 
while, the  Huns  contributed  a  mongoloid  element,  diluted  through 
mixture  with  the  Gepidae.  During  the  seventh  century,  the  picture  was 
further  complicated  by  a  temporary  Slavic  expansion  which  may  have 
left  human  traces  in  certain  of  the  Tyrolese  valleys.  Throughout  all 
this  turmoil,  the  Romanized  Rhaetians  still  maintained  their  ethnic  in- 
tegrity in  the  remoter  spots,  as  is  witnessed  by  the  survival  of  Ladino 
speech. 

A  study  of  the  Austrian  crania  of  the  centuries  of  Germanic  settlement, 
including  for  the  most  part  those  of  Bajuvars,  shows  them  to  have  been 
largely  Nordic,  of  the  usual  northern  type.94  A  small  series  of  special  in- 
terest is  that  of  26  Lombard  crania  from  two  sites:  from  Nikitsch  in  the 
OberpullendofT  district  of  Burgenland,  and  Vinzen,  near  Regensburg,  in 
Lower  Austria;  both  dating  from  the  fifty  year  interval  which  the  Lom- 
bards spent  north  of  the  mountains  before  their  final  burst  into  Italy  in 
568  A.D.96  Eight  skulls  are  those  of  the  usual  Germanic  variety  of  Nordics, 
with  some  exceptionally  tall-  and  large-skulled  individuals,  while  five 
others  ranging  in  cranial  index  from  77  to  93,  show  in  their  flat  faces  and 
broad  nasal  bones  clear  traces  of  mongoloid  mixture.  A  single  male,  in  the 
Nikitsch  series,  was  strikingly  different  from  the  others;  a  short-statured 
Armenoid  or  Dinaric,  with  typical  brachycephalic  skull,  occipital  flatten- 
ing, sloping  forehead,  and  other  Near  Eastern  features.  He  was  obviously 
a  stranger  incorporated  into  the  composite  Lombard  camp,  either  a  local 
Dinaric  or  an  Asiatic.  In  earlier  times,  the  Romans  had  stationed  both 

M  Geyer,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  61,  1931,  pp.  162-194. 
Hell,  M.,  WPZ,  vol.  19,  1932,  pp.  175-193. 
Merlin,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  16,  1886,  pp.  1-7. 
Miiller,  G.,  MAGW,  vol.  66,  1936,  pp.  345-355. 
Seraczin,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  54,  1929,  pp.  323-332. 
Vram,  U.,  RDAR,  vol.  9,  1903,  pp.  151-159. 
*  Miiller,  G.,  loc.  cit. 


214  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Syrians  and  Scotchmen  in  the  Tullnerfeld  as  garrisons;96  hence  the  ethnic 
heterogeneity  in  this  region  was  chronic. 

The  culmination  of  the  overland  expansion  of  the  Germans  in  the  south- 
west was  the  conquest  of  Gaul  by  the  Franks.  Marching  from  the  middle 
and  upper  Rhineland,  they  followed  the  river  valleys  across  Belgium  and 
into  the  valleys  of  the  Seine  and  Marne,  which  became  the  seat  of  their 
political  activities.  When  they  arrived  in  this  region,  they  were  still  pagan, 
which  was  an  advantage,  for  under  the  leadership  of  Clovis  they  were  able 
to  embrace  the  currently  popular  brand  of  Christianity.  This  helped 
them  to  win  favor  with  the  Romans,  and  was  an  important  factor  in  their 
success.  The  Gepidae  and  Vandals,  who  had  become  Christian  much 
earlier,  belonged  to  the  schismatic  Arian  sect  which  was  then  in  disfavor. 

These  German  invaders  brought  into  France  and  Belgium  little  which 
was  new  in  the  way  of  material  culture,  and  the  continuity  of  the  older 
tradition  shows  clearly  that  a  racial  change  in  the  total  population,  south 
of  the  Flemish  plain  where  Frankish  is  still  spoken,  could  not  have  been 
complete.  During  the  four  centuries  of  Frankish  rule  in  France  and  in  the 
hilly  provinces  of  Belgium  the  language  of  the  common  people,  which 
remained  a  form  of  Latin,  prevailed  over  the  speech  of  the  conquerors, 
with  the  result  that  the  national  language  reemerged  as  a  Romance 
tongue.  This  sequence  of  linguistic  events  stands  in  striking  contrast  to 
the  situation  in  England,  where  Keltic,  which  had  never  been  completely 
downed  by  Latin  as  in  France,  gave  way  rapidly  and  permanently  before 
Germanic  speech. 

There  are  enough  regional  skeletal  series  of  the  Frankish  period  in  France 
and  Belgium  to  permit  some  study  of  their  local  characters.  The  skeletal 
remains  from  Boulogne  97  and  other  towns  along  the  English  channel  are 
all  long-headed  and  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  racial  type,  which  confirms  the 
historical  record  that  these  regions  were  settled  by  seafaring  Saxons  rather 
than  by  Franks.  The  coastal  distribution  of  Saxon  place  names  in  Nor- 
mandy and  eastern  Brittany  supports  this  identification.  On  the  opposite 
frontier  of  France,  at  Collognes,  near  the  western  end  of  Lake  Geneva,98 
the  descendants  of  the  Burgundians  had  become  brachycephalic,  and  al- 
most indistinguishable  from  their  Neolithic  predecessors  who  had  lived 
at  Vaureal,  a  few  kilometers  away. 

Aside  from  these  marginal  and  collateral  groups,  the  Franks  themselves 
did  not  differ  greatly  from  place  to  place.  The  most  extensive  Belgian 
series  is  that  from  Cipley  in  Hainaut,  that  of  France  is  Mrs.  Wallis's 
series  drawn  from  most  of  the  Frankish  territory  in  the  northern  part  of 

9»  Lebzelter,  V.,  and  Thalmann,  G.,  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  274-288. 
OTHamy,  E.  T.,  Anth,  vol.  4,  1893,  pp.  513-534;  vol.  19,  1908,  pp.  47-68. 


98  K>foMn,,.r..;*»..    \/r     ncAD   M«    A    .,^1    a 


THE  IRON  AGE  215 


the  country."  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  45.)  These  series  show  clearly  that  the 
Franks  were  a  moderately  variable  group,  but  differing  as  a  whole  from 
the  basic  North  German  type  from  which  they  were  presumably  derived. 
Although  individuals  belonged  to  this  type,  the  Franks  as  a  whole  re- 
sembled the  Keltic  peoples  who  had  occupied  Belgium  and  northern 
France  before  them.  This  resemblance  included  the  common  possession 
of  a  cranial  index  of  about  76,  and  a  cranial  vault  height  of  132  mm.  No 
particular  difference  can  be  found  between  the  Merovingian  Franks  and 
the  local  Kelts  in  cranial  dimensions  or  form,  except  for  one  important 
fact:  instead  of  falling  between  the  Kelts  and  the  other  Germans,  in  many 
metrical  criteria  the  Franks  slightly  exceed  the  Kelts  themselves.  This 
is  true  of  facial  and  cranial  vault  indices.  The  stature  of  the  Franks, 
furthermore,  is  on  a  Gaulish  level,  with  a  mean  of  166  cm.  for  males  from 
Belgium,  and  indications  that  in  France  it  was  even  lower. 

The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  this  comparison  is  that  the  Franks 
acquired  their  Keltic-like  major  physical  form  in  the  Rhineland,  or  the 
southwestern  part  of  Germany  in  general,  before  the  Saxons  drove  them 
to  France  and  to  the  Low  Countries.  Here,  whatever  mixture  took  place 
between  them  and  the  previously  installed  Keltic  population  made  little 
or  no  racial  difference.  This  conclusion  is  supported  by  the  evidence  from 
Baden,  that  the  Alemanni  had  likewise,  from  the  beginning  of  their  so- 
journ in  southwestern  Germany,  succumbed  to  Keltic  mixture.  Except 
along  the  Channel  coast,  the  Germanic  invasions  of  France  and  south- 
eastern Belgium  furnished  nothing  novel  to  the  ultimate  racial  composition 
of  these  countries.  That  of  the  Kelts,  on  the  other  hand,  reenforced  by 
these  Merovingians,  was  of  some  importance. 

The  summary  of  our  information  concerning  the  racial  origins  and  dis- 
persion of  the  early  Germanic  peoples  may  be  stated  briefly  and  simply. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  local  Iron  Age,  a  new  people,  bearing  a  Hallstatt 
type  of  culture,  entered  northwestern  Qermany  and  Scandinavia.  These 
invaders  were  of  the  usual  central  European  Nordic  type  associated  in 
earlier  centuries  with  the  Illyrians.  Through  mixture  with  the  local  blend 
of  Megalithic,  Corded,  and  Borreby  elements,  these  newcomers  gave  rise 
to  a  special  sub-type  of  Nordic  which  was  characterized  by  a  larger  vault 
and  face,  a  heavier  body  build,  and  a  skull  form  on  the  borderline  be- 
tween dolicho-  and  mesocephaly. 

The  Germanic  tribes  that  wandered  over  Europe  during  the  period  of 
migrations  belonged  essentially  to  this  new  type.  Exceptions  were  the 
Alemanni  and  Franks,  who,  in  southwestern  Germany,  assumed  a  Keltic 

w  Houz6,  E.,  BSAB,  vol.  32,  1 91 3,  pp.  cix-cxl,  for  44  males  and  35  females  from  Cip- 
ley.  Mrs.  Wallis's  series,  measured  in  the  Muse*e  Broca  and  the  Mus6c  d' Historic 
Naturelle,  consists  of  1 36  males  and  66  females. 


216  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

physical  guise,  which  they  spread  to  Belgium,  France,  and  Switzerland, 
countries  already  familiar  with  the  Kelts  in  person.  Other  exceptions  were 
the  coastal  Norwegians,  to  whom  for  the  first  time  civilization  was  now 
brought  in  significant  quantity.  In  the  shelter  of  their  chilly  fjords  the 
new  Nordics  blended  with  the  hunters  and  fishermen  left  over  from  the 
age  of  ice,  who,  through  this  new  genetic  vehicle,  were  assured  permanent 
survival. 

(7)  THE  SLAVS 

The  Slavs,  together  with  their  close  neighbors  and  linguistic  relatives 
the  Baits,  stepped  relatively  late  into  the  theater  of  European  history. 
Speaking  an  archaic  form  of  the  Satem  branch  of  Indo-European,  they 
almost  miraculously  succeeded  in  maintaining  their  linguistic  integrity 
through  the  period  of  obscurity  which  preceded  their  time  of  dispersion, 
despite  the  widespread  activities  of  the  Kelts,  the  Scythians,  and  the 
Germans.  Slavic  is  close  in  many  respects  to  the  original  form  of  Indo- 
Iranian,  a  fact  which  cannot  fail  to  have  cultural  and  geographical  sig- 
nificance. 

It  is  not  yet  possible  to  associate  the  early,  united  Slavs  with  any  specific 
archaeological  horizon  more  remote  in  time  than  the  comparatively  recent 
Burgwall  moated  villages  of  the  early  centuries  of  the  present  era.  Al- 
though all  Slavic  scholars  are  not  in  agreement  as  to  the  location  of  their 
original  home,  the  opinion  of  Niederle,  the  dean  of  Slavic  prehistorians, 
bears  the  greatest  weight.100  He  would  place  it  in  the  densely  forested  basin 
of  the  Pripiet  River,  in  northwestern  Ukraine  and  southeastern  Poland. 
This  region  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Vistula,  on  the  south  by  the 
upper  course  of  the  Dniester,  and  on  the  east  by  the  great  forests  of  the 
former  Tchernigov  and  Poltava  Governments.  In  other  words,  the  Slavic 
ancestors  escaped  loss  of  ethnic  identity  at  the  hands  of  the  Scythians  and 
the  Goths  through  their  occupancy  of  a  relatively  wooded  and  swampy 
country. 

Their  neighbors  to  the  west  were  Germans  and  Kelts,  who  lived  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Vistula;  the  Baits  occupied  the  side  facing  the  sea  after 
which  they  have  been  collectively  named,  while  the  undivided  Finns 
dwelt  along  the  forested  stream  banks  near  the  sources  of  the  Volga,  Oka, 
and  Don.  The  early  Iranians,  near  linguistic  relatives  of  the  Slavs,  had 
occupied  the  plains  to  the  south  and  east,  while  the  Thracians  bordered 
the  Slavs  on  the  far  side  of  $ie  Carpathian  mountain  chain. 

Like  the  earliest  Iranians  and  unlike  the  Scythians,  the  Slavs  were  sim- 

100  Niederle,  L.,  ACIA,  2me  Session,  Prague,  1924,  pp.  241-247.  For  source  material 
see  his  exhaustive  series  of  volumes  on  the  history  of  the  Slavs,  SlovanskS  Starozitnosti. 
For  a  recent  review  of  Slavic  problems,  Sonnabend,  H.,  UEspansione  degli  Slavi. 


THE  IRON   AGE  217 


pie  farmers  and  herdsmen.  Living  in  swamps  and  forests,  they  had  adapted 
themselves  to  difficult  climatic  conditions.  For  some  reason  still  imper- 
fectly understood  by  the  students  of  population  dynamics,  they  grew  in- 
creasingly numerous  in  the  period  between  the  second  and  fifth  centuries 
A.D.,  and  began  spilling  outward  in  all  possible  directions. 

The  westward  Slavic  expansion  over  much  of  what  is  now  Germany  was 
temporary,  for  the  Germanic  peoples  themselves  soon  went  through  a 
period  of  eastward  expansion  during  which  they  Germanized  many  of  the 
new  Slavic  groups,  either  by  force  or  by  peaceful  assimilation.  A  few 
islands  of  Slavic  speech  and  culture  survived  this  movement,  notably  that 
of  the  Wends  in  the  Saxon  Spreewald.  The  movement  of  the  South  Slavs 
took  them  to  the  Dinaric  mountain  chain  behind  Lower  Austria,  which 
certain  bands  crossed  to  the  peninsula  of  Istria  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic, 
and  into  northern  Italy  itself.  The  main  body  moved  southeastward  along 
the  Adriatic  coast,  following  the  Dinaric  mountain  chain  to  Montenegro, 
and  to  the  Gore  region  of  northeastern  Albania.  A  southern  Slavic  nu- 
cleus was  formed  in  the  kingdom  of  Old  Serbia,  centered  around  Prizren 
and  Skoplje.  From  this  nucleus  they  expanded  into  the  plain  of  Kossovo 
which,  however,  they  were  soon  to  lose  in  great  part  to  Turks  and  Al- 
banians. The  Serbs,  the  most  important  single  people  involved  in  this 
southern  expansion,  still  speak  a  language  closely  allied  to  that  of  the 
Wends  in  Germany. 

The  movements  of  the  Slavs  to  the  eastward  constituted  an  intensive 
reoccupation  of  the  rich,  black  earth  belt  by  peasants,  for,  since  Late  Neo- 
lithic times,  this  fertile  strip  of  treeless  lowland  had  been  the  favorite  pas- 
ture and  campaigning  ground  of  tribes  and  nations  of  warlike  nomads,  in- 
imical to  the  full  utilization  of  the  ground  for  tillage.  From  this  black  earth 
region  the  eastern  Slavs  followed  the  watercourses  of  central  Russia  north- 
ward into  the  forest  country  then  inhabited  by  Finns.  This  upstream 
movement  dislodged  some  of  the  Finnish  tribe^,  and  brought  about  their 
historic  migration  to  the  Baltic.  Many  of  the  Finns,  however,  stayed 
behind  and  became  Slavicized,  mixing  with  their  conquerors.  Still  others 
remained  aloof  in  small  ethnic  islands,  which  even  today  retain  their 
Finnic  speech. 

The  eastward  expansion  of  the  Slavs  did  not  stop  with  the  Urals,  but 
gradually  continued,  after  interruptions  by  Turks  and  Mongols,  into 
Siberia,  until  finally,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  its  outposts  reached  the 
Pacific.  The  Slavs  are  still  growing  more  numerous  and  still  moving  east- 
ward. Their  period  of  efflorescence,  the  latest  of  the  Indo-European  ex- 
pansions, has  not  yet  come  to  an  end. 

Since  the  Slavs  continued  the  practice  of  cremation  well  into  the  early 
centuries  of  the  present  millennium,  skeletons  from  the  period  of  unity  are 


218  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

non-existent,  and  those  from  the  early  centuries  of  expansion  are  not  abun- 
dant. However,  in  this  instance,  literary  evidence  antedates  the  osteolog- 
ical,  for  numerous  descriptions  of  the  early  Slavs,  assiduously  collected  by 
Niederle,  occur  in  the  writings  of  Byzantines,  Arabs,  and  Persians.101 
With  only  one  exception,  these  make  the  Slavs  tall,  spare,  and  blond  or 
ruddy.  They  were  often  confused  with  Germans,  and  this  fact  strengthens 
the  likelihood  that  they  were  predominantly  of  light  pigmentation.  Only 
one  voice  was  raised  to  the  contrary,  that  of  a  Jew  named  Ibrahim  ben 
Yakub,  who,  having  crossed  Bohemia  in  965  A.D.,  remarked  that  the 
Bohemians  were  surprisingly  dark  haired.  Niederle  interprets  this  solitary 
dissention  as  evidence  that  Ibrahim,  accustomed  to  or  expecting  blond 
Slavs,  was  struck  by  a  local  enclave  which  differed  from  the  Slavs  as  a 
whole.  In  view  of  the  preponderance  of  contemporary  opinion  to  the  con- 
trary, ben  Yakub's  dissention  must  not  be  given  too  much  weight.102 

If  the  evidence  of  literary  sources  makes  the  early  Slavs  Nordic  in 
stature  and  pigmentation,  that  of  osteology  makes  them  the  same  in  the 
metrical  and  morphological  sense.  In  brief,  all  of  the  earliest  Slavic 
skeletal  material,  dating  mostly  from  the  eighth  to  the  eleventh  centuries, 
falls,  by  groups  if  not  as  individuals,  into  one  or  more  of  the  Nordic  cate- 
gories already  found  to  be  characteristic  of  Iron  Age  Indo-European- 
speaking  peoples. 

That  from  Poland,  the  eastern  half  of  which  was  included  in  the  home 
of  the  Slavic  peoples  before  their  period  of  dispersion,  is  not  very  abundant. 
Altogether  less  than  40  male  crania  may  be  assembled,  and  few  of  these 
have  complete  measurements.103  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  46.)  These  skulls 
are  all  predominantly  dolichocephalic;  the  mean  cranial  index  is  73,  and 
not  a  single  round-headed  example  is  included.  Among  these  Polish  skulls 
are  some  notably  long  and  large  specimens  with  long,  narrow  faces.  The 
noses  of  the  group,  as  a  whole,  are  fully  leptorrhine.  On  the  whole,  the 
ancestral  Slavs  of  Poland  fwere  Nordics,  within  the  range  of  the,  Indo- 
European  group;  these  skulls  lean  to  the  longer-  and  larger-headed  Corded 
extreme,  and  resemble  in  many  respects,  the  Hannover  series,  and  by 
extension,  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Numerous  remains  of  the  Slavic  expansion  into  Germany  show  clearly 
the  physical  types  of  the  particular  invaders  concerned  in  this  quarter. 
The  most  important  series  is  that  studied  by  Asmus,  who  collected  the 

w*  Niederle,  L.,  AnthPr,  vol.  7,  1929,  pp.  62-64;  also  Sl$vanske  Starolitnosti,  vol.  1, 
1925,  pp.  98  ff. 

102  The  passage  in  question  has  been  translated  and  retranslated  through  a  number  of 
languages.  I  have  been  unable  to  find  the  Arabic  original. 

108  Kopernkki,  I.,  ZWAK,  part  i,  1883. 

Majewski,  £.,  Swiatowit,  vol.  9,  1911,  pp.  88-94. 

Rutkowski,  L.,  Swiatowit,  vol.  7,  1907,  pp.  3-21,  22-38. 


THE   IRON  AGE  219 


skulls  of  the  ancient  Wends  of  Mecklenburg.104  (See  Appendix  I,  col,  47.) 
These  form  a  reasonably  homogeneous  group  of  high  dolichocephals  and 
low  mesocephals,  with  a  moderate  vault  height,  a  low  sloping  forehead, 
long  narrow  faces,  leptorrhine  or  mesorrhine  noses,  high  orbits,  and  a 
strongly  built  jaw.  These  Old  Wends,  rounder  headed  than  the  Poles, 
fall  very  close  metrically  to  the  Kelts  and  to  the  Scythians.  In  intermediate 
parts  of  Germany,  particularly  in  western  Prussia  and  Pomerania,  the  Old 
Slavic  skulls  are  higher  vaulted,  and  closer  in  this  respect  to  the  Polish 
sub- type.105 

Those  in  Bohemia  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  as  the  Wend  crania  in 
Germany,  except  for  one  series  of  Matiegka  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  48); 
in  this,  the  vaults  are  extremely  high,  nearly  reaching  early  Corded  dimen- 
sions. This  is  true  to  a  minor  extent  of  a  small  group  from  Slovakia  and  of 
individual  skulls.106  Thus,  in  Bohemia,  the  Slavs  included  three  sub-types, 
with  Hallstatt,  Polish,  and  Keltic  analogies. 

The  Slavs  who  invaded  Styria  between  the  seventh  to  ninth  centuries 
are  basically  the  same  as  those  in  Germany,  and  fall  very  close  to  an  older 
Keltic  mean.107  They  formed,  without  question,  a  mixed  group  and  in- 
cluded in  their  number  a  minority  of  round-headed  forms.  Some  of  the 
Slavic  crania  from  Styria,  recalling  the  Polish  prototype,  are  extremely 
large  and  powerful.  We  have,  unfortunately,  no  data  with  which  to 
trace  the  further  progress  of  the  southern  Slavs  into  the  Dinaric  mountain 
stronghold,  and  thence  into  Old  Serbia  and  the  Kossovo  plain.  We  may, 
however,  study  a  third  Slavic  movement,  that  which  penetrated  Russia. l08 

The  skulls  of  these  invaders  belong  to  a  generalized  Nordic  form,  with 
a  cranial  index  of  75  to  76,  and  an  intermediate  vault  height.  The  Ukrain- 
ian skulls  from  the  eighth  to  the  ninth  centuries  A.D,  do  not  greatly  diverge 
from  this  general  standard,  but  the  early  Slavic  crania  from  the  Moscow 
region  in  Russia,  dated  from  the  eleventh  to  twelfth  centuries  A.D.,  are,  in 
fact,  almost  purely  dolichocephalic,  with  a  mean  cranial  index  of  73.5. 

1(«  Asmus,  R.,  AFA,  vol.  27,  1902,  pp.  1-36. 
106  Miiller,  W.,  JVST,  vol.  5,  1906,  pp.  60-77. 
Reuss,  K.,  JVST,  vol.  6,  1907,  pp.  93-112. 

Schumann,  H.,  ZFE,  vol.  23,  1891,  pp.  589-592,  704-708;  vol.  26,  1894,  pp.  330- 
336;  vol.  30,  1898,  pp.  93-100. 

Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  23,  1891,  pp.  349-350;  vol.  24,  1892,  pp.  550-555. 

™  Cervinka,  J.  L.,  and  Matiegka,  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  3,  1925,  pp.  97-108. 

Jelinek,  B.,  MAGW,  vol.  20,  1890,  pp.  136-147. 

Matiegka,  J.,  AFA,  vol.  25,  1896,  pp.  150-154. 

Szombathy,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  52,  1922,  p.  20. 

Wankel,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  12,  1882,  pp.  123-128. 

1OTToldt,  C.,  MAGW,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp.  247-280. 

wsDebetz,  G.,  AntrM,  vol.  4,  1930,  pp.  93-105. 

Derviz,  D.,  RAJ,  vol.  12,  1923,  pp.  24-38. 

Stefko,  W.  H.,  and  Schugaiew,  W.  S.,  AFA",  vol  50,  1932,  pp.  44-55. 


220  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

On  the  whole,  the  Slavic  racial  type,  as  exemplified  by  skeletal  series 
from  Poland,  Germany,  Bohemia,  Austria,  and  Russia,  was  reasonably 
uniform.  In  view  of  its  geographical  location,  the  Polish  group  probably 
represents  most  nearly  the  original  form,  while  those  who  expanded  south- 
ward and  westward  absorbed  local  Keltic  and  other  Indo-European-speak- 
ing populations.  The  Slavs,  like  all  the  other  Indo-European-speaking 
peoples  whom  we  have  been  able  to  trace,  were  originally  Nordic,  and 
there  is  no  suggestion  in  their  early  remains,  in  the  regions  studied,  of  the 
numerically  predominant  brachycephalic  racial  increments  which  today 
are  considered  typically  Slavic.  However,  the  Slavs  who  migrated  to 
southern  Hungary,  like  the  Germanic  Gepidae  before  them,  mixed  with  a 
local  short-statured,  broad-faced,  and  broad-nosed  brachycephalic  people, 
who,  antedating  the  historic  arrival  of  the  Magyars,  were  descended  from 
the  central  Asiatic  Avars. 109 

Most  of  the  Slavs  retained  their  original  dolichocephalic  cranial  form 
until  at  the  earliest  the  thirteenth,  and  the  latest  the  fifteenth,  century. 
At  that  time,  those  who  inhabited  Russia  and  central  Europe  grew  pro- 
gressively brachycephalic,  at  a  rapid  but  consistent  rate.  Well-docu- 
mented series  from  Bohemia  and  the  Moscow  government  show  how  this 
change  progressed  from  century  to  century,  so  that  normal  means  of  73 
to  75  rose  as  high  as  83  by  the  nineteenth.  Few  Slavs  were  spared  this 
change,  which  was  parallel  to  that  which  affected  the  southern  Germans 
and  other  peoples  of  central  and  eastern  Europe.  Although  it  took  place 
in  the  full  light  of  late  mediaeval  and  modern  history,  no  one  fully  satis- 
factory explanation  has  yet  been  offered. 

(8)   CONCLUSIONS 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  long  upon  the  conclusions  reached  in  this 
chapter.  They  may  be  stated  very  simply  and  briefly. 

The  predominant  peoples  of  the  Iron  Age  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  central 
Asia,  the  West-Asiatic  highlands,  and  India  were  Indo-European  speakers. 
For  some  mysterious  reason  as  yet  incompletely  understood,  various 
branches  of  this  linguistic  stock  underwent  periods  of  rapid  expansion 
during  which  the  human  beings  who  spread  these  languages  migrated  in 
many  directions  and  disseminated  their  physical  type  as  well  as  their 
speech  among  other  peoples.  There  had,  however,  been  comparable  ex- 
pansions before  this.  The  conquest  of  the  cold  brought  human  beings 
into  parts  of  the  world  where  only  Neanderthal  rfien  and  lower  animals 
had  lived,  under  equivalent  climatic  conditions,  before  them.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  competition  and  in  the  abundance  of  game,  they  were  able  to 
multiply  until  they  were  sufficiently  numerous  to  satisfy  the  requirements 

i*  Szir£ky,  S.,  and  HuszAr,  G.,  MAGW,  vol.  63,  1933,  pp.*  229-232. 


THE  IRON  AGE  221 


of  their  environment.  The  retreat  of  the  ice  and  the  shifting  of  belts  of 
climate  had  precipitated  other  movements  which  may  have  taken  the 
form  of  expansions,  and  the  discovery  of  agriculture  and  animal  hus- 
bandry, of  course,  gave  rise  to  that  expansion  which  Childe  calls  the 
Neolithic  Revolution. 

The  Danubian  invasion  of  central  Europe  from  the  east  may  be  con- 
sidered as  an  isolated  wing  of  this  movement,  that  of  the  swineherds  who 
entered  Europe  from  the  southeast,  another.  In  the  same  way,  we  may 
consider  the  migration  of  the  megalith- builders  by  sea;  the  wanderings  of 
the  Bronze  Age  brachycephals,  by  land  and  water;  and  the  rapid  move- 
ments of  the  Corded  people  across  the  plains  of  eastern  and  central  Europe, 
as  successive  and  at  the  same  time  parallel  expansions.  Thus,  this  business 
of  expansions  was  not  initiated  by  the  Indo-European  speakers.  If  we 
knew  the  languages  of  the  peoples  who  preceded  them,  we  might  in  each 
case  find  parallel  linguistic  as  well  as  racial  circumstances. 

The  principal  point  to  this  chapter  is  that  the  Indo-European  languages 
were,  at  one  time,  associated  with  a  single,  if  composite,  racial  type,  and 
that  that  racial  type  was  an  ancestral  Nordic.  We  have  determined  this 
through  a  study  of  the  skeletal  remains  of  peoples  known  to  have  spoken 
these  languages  at  or  near  the  time  of  their  initial  dispersion  from  their 
several  centers.  The  sub-variety  of  Nordic  concerned  in  each  case  varied, 
and  the  variations  usually  depended  upon  mixture  with  other  peoples, 
amalgamated  during  the  process  of  differentiation  and  expansion.  Never- 
theless, the  various  brands  of  Nordic  so  produced  were  still  very  much 
alike. 

Another  result  of  the  investigation  pursued  in  this  chapter  is  the  dis- 
covery that  the  mysterious  Urnfields  people,  who  began,  toward  the  end  of 
the  Bronze  Age,  to  destroy  their  skeletal  evidence  and  did  not  cease  this 
practice  until  well  into  the  Iron  Age,  were  probably  Nordics.  Hence  the 
smoke  veil  has  been  lifted  and  we  may  be  reasonably  sure  of  what  hap- 
pened. Under  this  screen,  the  Nordic-like  Early  and  Middle  Bronze  Age 
peoples  of  central  and  eastern  Europe  became  Iron  Age  Indo-Europeans; 
no  important  change  of  race,  then,  took  place  in  the  focus  of  Urnfields  de- 
velopment, that  is,  in  eastern  Germany,  Poland,  and  the  Ukraine.  It  is 
likely  that  no  important  change  of  language  occurred  there  either. 

Since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  Early  Bronze  Age  central  Europeans  were 
racially  a  Corded-Danubian  blend,  a  concordance  of  racial  facts  with  the 
most  recent  linguistic  deductions  would  make  the  following  proposition 
likely: 

The  Danubians  who  settled  the  fertile  plains  and  valleys  of  eastern  and 
central  Europe  already  spoke  basic  Indo-European;  the  Finno-Ugrian- 
Caucasic  blend  which  produced  this  linguistic  entity  took  place  before  their 


222  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

migration  westward.  The  introduction  of  Altaic  words,  particularly  those 
concerned  with  the  care  of  the  horse,  were  infused  into  the  previous  Indo- 
European  linguistic  blend  at  the  time  of  strongest  Corded  influence  in 
central  Europe,  which  produced  the  Aunjetitz  culture. 

This  reconstruction  helps  to  support  Nehring's  conclusion  that  the 
Danubians  were  the  first  speakers  of  Indo-European  languages  on  Euro- 
pean soil,  and  that  Indo-European  may  be  divided  into  two  chronological 
levels  without  reference  to  the  Centum-Satem  division.  If  the  original 
agricultural  and  cattle-raising  complex  was  connected  with  the  Danu- 
bians, the  horse  element  with  its  Altaic  linguistic  connections  would  belong 
to  the  Corded.  By  this  argument,  we  may  construct  a  reasonably  com- 
plete concurrence  between  the  three  disciplines:  physical  anthropology, 
archaeology,  and  linguistics. 

At  this  point,  a  word  of  caution  is  needed.  We  must  not  carry  the  asso- 
ciations suggested  in  this  chapter  too  far,  and  above  all  we  must  not  form 
the  opinion  that  the  terms  Nordic  and  Indo-European  are  inseparable. 
Indo-European  speakers,  from  the  moment  of  their  initial  dispersion, 
began  mixing  with  other  peoples,  and  the  specific  association  between 
language  and  race  found  in  this  instance  has  by  now  been  largely  dis- 
sipated. Furthermore,  the  Nordic  race  as  we  have  studied  it  in  Europe  was 
formed  from  the  union  of  two  or  more  widely  distributed  and  essentially 
related  racial  types.  It  is  quite  possible  and  even  likely  that  similar  com- 
binations of  the  same  elements  took  place  elsewhere,  and  that  other  Nor- 
dics may  have  arisen  without  reference  to  Indo-European  speech.  Further- 
more, we  must  remember  that,  although  most  Iron  Age  Nordic  groups  of 
which  we  have  literary  descriptions  were  wholly  or  partially  blond,  we 
cannot  be  sure  that  all  prehistoric  skeletal  material  which  seems  Nordic 
in  an  osteological  sense  was  associated  with  blond  soft  parts;  we  must 
also  remember  that  the  "Nordics"  in  the  living  sense  have  no  monopoly 
on  blondism. 


Chapter  VII 
THE    IRON   AGE,    PART   II 

Speakers  of  Uralic  and  Altaic 

(1)   THE  FINNO-UGRIANS 

In  the  preceding  chapter  it  has  been  shown  that  the  Indo-European 
languages  were  probably  formed  somewhere  on  the  plain  of  southern 
Russia  or  western  Turkestan,  by  a  blending  of  languages  spoken  by  peoples 
in  a  Neolithic  or  early  Copper  Age  stage  of  culture.  One  of  the  two  lin- 
guistic elements  in  this  blend  has  been  positively  identified  with  Finno- 
Ugrian,  which  at  the  same  time  forms  one  of  the  two  lateral  divisions  of 
the  Ural  Altaic  stock,  the  fundamental  unity  of  which  is  under  question.1 

The  blending  of  Finno-Ugrian  with  the  B  element  which  produced 
Indo-European  languages  took  place  at  some  time  no  earlier  than  the 
last  few  centuries  of  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.,  well  after  the  acquisition 
of  agriculture  and  animal  husbandry  by  western  Asiatic  peoples,  and  be- 
fore the  adoption  of  a  complete  Bronze  Age  technology  by  the  inhabitants 
of  the  plains  north  of  the  Caucasus  and  the  Iranian  plateau.  The  Finnish 
speakers,  who  contributed  so  largely  to  Indo-European  speech  at  that  time, 
must  have  been  residents  of  the  plains  at  the  time  of  their  meeting  with 
the  bringers  of  Caucasic  speech  with  which  their  own  language  was  united. 
At  the  same  time,  they  must  inevitably  have  contributed  to  the  formation 
of  the  racial  blend  with  which  the  resulting  Indo-European  languages  were 
early  identified. 

The  historic  Finno-Ugrians,  of  whom  frequent  mention  has  been  made 
in  the  past,  with  little  elucidation,  include  in  the  first  branch  all  of  the 
Finnish-speaking  tribes  of  central  and  northern  Russia,  the  Esthonians, 
and  the  Baltic  Finns,  as  well  as  the  Lapps,  who  speak  an  archaic  Finnish 
dialect;  in  the  second,  the  ancestors  of  the  Magyars,  the  Bolgars,  and  the 
Siberian  Ostiaks  and  Voguls.2  At  the  time  of  their  first  historical  mention, 
in  the  classical  period,  they  seem  to  have  been  united  in  central  and  north- 
ern Russia.  The  Finns  were  centered  about  the  middle  course  of  the  Volga, 

1  Professor  G.  J.  Ramstedt  of  Helsingfors  University,  an  eminent  student  of  Altaic 
languages,  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  Uralic  and  Altaic  groups  of  languages 
are  not,  as  was  previously  thought,  demonstrably  related,  but  form  two  entirely  separate 
linguistic  stocks.    He  is  supported  in  this  view  by  Professor  Szinnyei  of  Budapest. — 
Private  Communication. 

2  See  Chapter  IX,  section  8,  for  a  detailed  listing  of  the  living  and  extinct  peoples 
known  to  have  spoken  Finno-Ugrian  languages. 

223 


224  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  west  to  the  country  occupied  by  the  Baits  and  the  Slavs;  the  Ugri  be- 
tween the  Volga  and  the  Urals.  In  the  sense  that  they  occupied  one  unified 
territory  from  which  they  later  spread,  they  emulated  the  behavior  of  their 
Indo-European-speaking  neighbors.  Movement  to  the  south  was  in- 
hibited, in  historic  times,  by  the  presence  of  the  Scythians  and  Sarmatians; 
before  the  rise  of  these  horse-nomads,  however,  they  must  at  some  time 
have  been  in  contact  with  Caucasic-speaking  peoples,  who  may  have  in- 
cluded the  mysterious  pre-Scyths,  the  Cimmerians,  the  remnants  of  whose 
speech  have  been  likened  to  modern  Cherkess.3 

A  Finnish  expansion  took  place  in  historic  time,  and  during  the  Chris- 
tian era.  It  consisted  of  the  following  movements:  the  migration  of  the 
ancestors  of  the  Baltic  Finns  to  the  northwest,  largely  as  a  result  of  Slavic 
and  Letto-Lithuanian  pressure — this  took  place  at  the  same  time  as  the 
Slavic  penetration  of  Russia;  the  movement  of  the  Bolgars  to  Bulgaria, 
during  the  seventh  century,  and  of  the  Magyars  to  Hungary,  under  Turk- 
ish leadership,  during  the  ninth;  the  migration  of  the  Ostiaks  and  Voguls 
across  the  Urals  to  the  Obi  drainage,  during  the  thirteenth. 

Before  the  time  of  known  Finnish  expansion,  the  Scythian  barrier  in- 
hibited the  use  of  agriculture  as  a  primary  means  of  subsistence  among  the 
Finnish  tribes  located  to  the  north  of  the  nomads.  Many  of  the  Finns, 
in  fact,  lived  principally  by  hunting  and  fishing  along  the  forested  streams 
which  formed  the  headwaters  of  the  Volga,  Don,  and  Dniester.  But  it  is 
unlikely  that  the  Finns  in  pre-Scythian  times  had  been  ignorant  of  agri- 
culture; those  who  lived  in  arable  country  farmed  at  least  by  the  time  of 
Herodotus. 

The  evidence  for  the  racial  composition  of  the  early  Finns  is  scanty,  but 
incapable  of  misinterpretation.  One  small  series  of  ten  skulls  dating  from 
about  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  contemporaneous  with  the  Early  Scythian 
period,  has  been  identified  with  the  ancestors  of  the  Volga  Finns  at  the 
time  of  their  unity.4  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  49.)  These  come  from  the 
cemeteries  of  Polianki  and  Maklacheievka,  from  the  former  Viatka  govern- 
ment in  Permian  Finn  country  just  south  of  the  present  Komi  or  Zyryenian 
Republic.  The  graves  belonged  to  the  so-called  Anan'ino  cultural  horizon. 
This  Anan'ino  culture  5  was  formed  from  a  combination  of  influences  from 
Siberia,  the  Caucasus,  Scythia,  and  Scandinavia.  It  did  not  end  suddenly, 
but  passed  by  a  gradual  process  of  evolution  into  the  civilization  of  the 
historic  Volga  Finns.  Therefore,  we  may  consider  these  skulls,  few  as  they 
are,  to  represent  the  ancestors  of  the  Finns  before  the  beginning  of  their 
historic  expansion. 

*  Baschmakoff,  A.,  ZFRK,  vol.  4,  1936,  pp.  194-199. 
*Debetz,  G.,  ESA,  vol.  6,  1931,  pp.  96-99. 
&Tallgren,  A.  M.,  Real,  vol.  1,  pp.  164-165. 


THE   IRON  AGE  225 


This  small  group  of  seven  male  and  three  female  crania  is  not  com- 
pletely homogeneous,  but  it  is  nearly  so.  All  of  the  skulls  are  European  in 
racial  type.  The  faces  are  a  little  broader  than  in  most  Mediterranean 
groups,  but  not  to  an  exceptional  degree.  The  noses,  with  the  exception 
of  one  extremely  leptorrhine  male,  are  mesorrhine  or  chamaerrhine;  but  so 
are  those  of  many  early  Danubians.  The  cranial  form  is  mesocephalic  or 
dolichocephalic,  with  one  male  reaching  the  figure  of  83;  the  vault  is 
moderately  high;  the  forehead  usually  straight,  the  browridges  moderate. 

There  is  nothing  new  about  these  crania,  and  nothing  specifically 
mongoloid.  They  closely  resemble  another  small  series  of  eight  male 
skulls  from  the  cemetery  of  Polom  in  the  same  district  as  the  Anan'ino 
cemeteries6  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  50),  dating  from  the  ninth  century  A.D., 
and  known  to  have  been  those  of  Finns  of  the  Permian  sub-family.  In 
view  of  the  small  numbers,  no  difference  can  be  found  which  would  be 
statistically  valid.  A  third  group  from  the  Lower  Volga,  representing  the 
Mordvins  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  similar  to  the  Anan'ino  and  Per- 
mian crania,  except  that  it  is  extremely  long  headed,  with  low  indices, 
centered  about  the  range  from  71  to  73. 

When  we  make  a  metrical  comparison  between  the  first  two  groups  of 
Finnish  skulls  and  all  European  series  previously  studied,  we  find  that  they 
fit  into  the  ranks  of  Iron  Age  Indo-European  speakers  without  difficulty. 
On  the  whole,  they  resemble  most  nearly  the  larger-sized  members  of  the 
intermediate  group;  they  also  resemble  the  Scythian  crania  to  a  consider- 
able extent,  and  even  more  the  Minussinsk  skulls.  They  are  slightly 
smaller  than  the  Germanic  type,  but  equal  to  it  in  vault  height  and  face 
breadth.  In  nose  form  and  cranial  height,  they  resemble  the  Neolithic 
Danubians. 

News  of  the  racial  position  of  these  early  Finnish  skulls  will  come  as  a 
surprise  to  scholars  who  see  in  the  Finns  a  group  of  mongoloid  immigrants 
from  Asia.  But  that  they  were  essentially  if  not  wholly  European  is,  de- 
spite the  paucity  of  Debetz's  material,  incontestable.  Nor  can  one  derive 
these  Finns  from  forest-dwellers  of  Mesolithic  tradition,  except  perhaps  as 
a  minor  influence.  Furthermore,  in  the  early  Anan'ino  series,  recognizable 
Corded  peculiarities  are  to  be  found  in  but  one  male  skull  out  of  seven. 
The  Finno-Ugrians,  therefore,  may  be  tentatively  considered  to  have  been, 
in  the  period  before  they  expanded  into  their  historic  seats,  Europeans  of 
mixed  origin,  basically  Danubian  in  type,  with  some  brachycephalic  ele- 
ment and  an  extremely  long-headed  variation  as  well;  the  latter  is  already 
familiar  to  us  in  the  form  of  the  Corded  type;  the  former  is  not  clearly 
definable,  but  is  European.  Its  only  discernible  difference  from  the  others 
in  the  same  series  is  in  a  greater  breadth  of  the  skull.  This  broad-headed 

8  Debetz,  loc.  cit. 


226  THE   RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

element  is  completely  lacking  in  the  late  lower  Volga  group,  of  which  we 
have  only  the  cranial  indices. 

Debetz's  discovery  that  the  Finno-Ugrian  speakers  were  originally 
purely  European  in  race,  and  furthermore,  not  local  Palaeolithic  or  Meso- 
lithic  survivors,  is  in  perfect  accord  with  the  present  state  of  linguistic 
knowledge,  which  makes  their  form  of  speech  one  of  two  equally  weighted 
elements  in  the  basic  Indo-European.  They  not  only  were,  but  on  logical 
grounds  must  have  been,  in  the  larger  sense,  Mediterraneans. 

On  equally  logical  grounds,  this  discovery  does  not  invalidate  the  hy- 
pothesis that  the  descendants  of  Mesolithic  hunters  and  fishers  persisted 
until  modern  times  in  the  forests  of  the  far  north,  nor  that  some  such  sur- 
vivors may  not  have  been  absorbed  by  those  tribes  of  Finns  which  mi- 
grated even  beyond  the  Permian  country  to  the  chilly  drainage  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  This  theory  is  very  hard  to  test,  however,  for  if  we  review 
the  early  racial  history  of  the  northern  forest  belt,7  we  find  very  little 
skeletal  data  with  which  to  work.  What  material  there  is  comes  almost 
entirely  from  Latvia,  Esthonia,  and  the  Ladoga  Lake  country,  all  north 
and  west  of  the  historic  Finnic  center.  It  includes  skulls  of  Corded  type, 
both  with  and  without  mixture,  and  a  number  of  ill-defined  crania  which 
do  not  fit  into  the  usual  European  picture.  Many  of  these  latter  are 
brachycephalic,  some  are  perhaps,  but  not  certainly,  incipiently  or  par- 
tially mongoloid. 

Unfortunately,  the  manner  in  which  these  skulls  have  been  published 
does  not  permit  a  lucid  review  of  their  racial  position.  Similar  ones 
appeared  sporadically  in  Late  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Age  series  in  Poland 
and  on  the  plains  of  southern  Russia,  apparently  as  intrusions  from  the 
north,  but  not  in  sufficient  numbers  to  alter  the  prevailing  character  of  the 
population  south  of  the  forest  from  which  they,  as  the  osseous  headpieces 
of  stray  woodsmen,  had  wandered. 

Until  almost  three  centuries  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  therefore,  Europe, 
except  possibly  along  the  very  Arctic  rim,  had  not  witnessed  the  invasion 
of  any  mongoloid  people.  Western  Asia,  from  the  Bosporus  to  the  Indus, 
and  the  plains  immediately  east  of  the  Caspian  as  well,  were  equally 
ignorant  of  them.  But  with  the  arrival  of  the  Huns  this  gap  was  soon 
filled. . 

(2)  THE  TURKS  AND  MONGOLS 

In  order  to  discuss  the  movements  of  Asiatic  peoples  into  Europe  from 
the  first  inroad  of  the  Huns  to  the  conquests  of  the  Osmanli  Turks  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  it  will  be  necessary  to  review  briefly  the  events  in  cen- 
tral and  eastern  Asia  which  preceded  and  precipitated  these  incursions. 

7  See  pages  125-1 26. 


THE  IRON  AGE  227 


From  the  time  that  the  Irano-Aryan  ancestors  had  arrived  in  Russian 
Turkestan  in  anticipation  of  their  descent  into  the  hills  of  northwestern 
India,  much  of  this  grassy  plain  had  been  the  home  of  those  Iranians  who 
remained  behind  while  their  kinsmen  climbed  the  mountains  which  would 
take  them  into  India  and  the  Irano-Afghan  plateau.  These  Iranians 
apparently  developed,  or  borrowed,  a  high  degree  of  adaptation  to  their 
steppe  environment,  and  especially  through  the  perfection  of  pastoral 
nomadism  with  the  horse  as  chief  instrument  of  mobility.  They  expanded 
through  the  passes  to  the  eastward,  which  took  them  to  Kashgaria,  and 
there  came  in  contact  with  the  Chinese  Empire.  On  the  other  side,  they 
expanded  westward  into  Europe,  where  we  have  already  studied  them  in 
the  form  of  Scythians  and  Sarmatians. 

To  the  northwest  of  the  vast  Iranian  domain,  in  Mongolia,  a  number  of 
semi-agricultural,  semi-pastoral  tribes,  possessing  the  sheep,  probably  also 
cattle,  and  perhaps  wagons,  but  apparently  not  the  horse,  came  in  early 
times  to  the  attention  of  the  Chinese  historians.  By  800  B.C.  we  hear  of  a 
people  called  the  Hiung-Nu,  who  gradually  grew  in  importance  until  they 
came  to  dominate  all  of  Mongolia.8  At  a  fairly  late  date,  set  by  McGovern 
between  541  and  300  B.C.,  the  Hiung-Nu  presumably  obtained  horses, 
and  learned  to  ride  them.  They  seem  to  have  acquired  these  animals  from 
the  Iranians  or  from  Turkish-speaking  peoples,  along  with  the  whole  com- 
plex of  horse  nomadism.  Chinese  accounts  of  the  Hiung-Nu  later  than  the 
third  century  B.C.  refer  to  them  as  typical  plainsmen,  strikingly  similar  in 
many  cultural  respects  to  the  Scythians. 

The  six  centuries,  more  or  less,  from  400  B.C.  to  200  A.D.,  formed  the 
period  of  greatness  of  the  Hiung-Nu  in  Mongolia,  during  which  they  con- 
stantly harried  China,  and  took  possession  of  Chinese  Turkestan.  Despite 
their  conquest,  however,  Iranian  languages,  and  the  mysterious  Tok- 
harian  B,  persisted  in  the  towns  until  800  A.D.  or  later.  At  length  the 
Chinese  took  measures  to  rid  themselves  of  this  nuisance,  and  succeeded  in 
defeating  the  Hiung-Nu  so  completely  that  they  abandoned  their  territory 
and  disappeared  to  the  westward. 

The  last  mention  of  the  Hiung-Nu  in  Chinese  sources  is  about  170  A.D. 
-and,  exactly  two  hundred  years  later,  the  Huns  appeared  on  the  banks  of 
the  Don  in  Russia.  McGovern  has  presented  a  convincing  argument  to 
prove  that  the  two  were  the  same  people;  that  their  passage  across  Asia 
took  them  across  a  space  sterile  of  historians,  between  the  spheres  of 
Chinese  and  of  Byzantine  chroniclers.  Only  one  glow  of  light  appears  in 
this  interim;  in  290  A.D.  Tigranes  the  Great  of  Armenia  hired  some  such 
people  as  mercenaries. 

8  McGovern,  W.  M.,  Early  Empires  of  Central  Asia.  I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  McGovern 
for  permission  to  make  use  of  his  book  before  publication. 


228  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

The  history  of  the  Huns  in  Europe  does  not  require  elaborate  treatment. 
Having  defeated  the  Ostrogoths  and  sent  them  and  their  kinsmen  scurry- 
ing westward,  the  Huns  moved  to  the  present  Hungary,  which  they  made 
their  headquarters.  From  here  they  sent  expeditions  to  Rome,  to  Ger- 
many, and  to  France,  where  Attila  was  defeated  in  the  battle  of  the  Cata- 
lonian  fields  in  451  A.D.  After  his  death  two  years  later,  the  Huns  retired 
to  eastern  Europe,  and  many  of  them  united  with  their  relatives  the  Bol- 
gars,  who  had  settled  between  the  Ugrian  and  Finnic  tribes  of  the  middle 
Volga  and  Kama  rivers,  where,  under  Bolgar  leadership,  a  great  state 
arose,  which  flowered  between  the  eighth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Huns  in  central  Asia  raided  Mesopotamia,  Per- 
sia, Afghanistan,  and  India;  presumably  the  Turkish  penetration  of  cen- 
tral Siberia  dates  likewise  from  the  period  between  200  and  400  A.D.  This 
span  of  two  centuries  marks  the  beginning  of  the  great  expansion  of 
Turkish-speaking  peoples,  for  the  Huns,  and  their  allies  and  relatives,  must 
have  spoken  various  forms  of  speech  related  to  Turkish,  many  of  which  are 
now  extinct. 

When  we  view  the  Hunnish  inroad  into  Europe  in  the  light  of  the  total 
context  of  Old  World  history,  it  ceases  to  be  a  strange  inruption  of  hideous 
and  invincible  barbarians  darting  out  of  nowhere,  as  it  at  first  appeared 
to  the  Byzantines  and  Romans.  The  Huns  were  a  people  who  had  been 
exposed  to  a  high  civilization,  that  of  China;  they  were  cultured  if  illiter- 
ate, and  in  every  sense  the  match  of  the  frightened  adversaries  whom  they 
met  in  Europe.  When  we  examine  the  details  of  these  invasions,  we  see 
that  it  was  not  one  simple  inroad,  but  a  series  of  them  in  which  a 
perplexing  confusion  of  names  is  involved.  Chief  of  the  newcomers,  after 
the  Huns,  were  the  Avars,  who  arrived  in  the  sixth  century.  The  Huns 
considered  these  their  kinsmen  and  equals,  and  later  amalgamated  with 
them  after  the  Avars  had,  in  the  eighth  century,  been  defeated  by  Char- 
lemagne and  had  retreated,  some  to  Hungary  and  others  to  the  Don 
country. 

From  the  fall  of  the  Huns  until  the  rise  of  the  Mongols  some  thousand 
years  later,  the  history  of  central  Asia  is  simply  a  repetition  of  the  same 
theme;  some  obscure  sub-tribe  would  become  important,  win  leadership 
over  the  others,  and  head  new  invasions  of  increasing  complexity.  The 
history  of  southern  Russia  became  extremely  complicated,  for  the  steppes 
of  the  Don  country  served  as  a  terminal  point  for  all  but  the  most  serious  of 
these  movements. 

After  the  Avars  came  the  Turks,  called  Tii-Kue,  hereditary  iron-work- 
ers, who  had  been  an  old  clan  of  the  Hiung-Nu.  They  defeated  the  Avars 
in  546  A.D.,  and  settled  about  the  Caspian  Sea;  from  here  they  conducted 
their  raids  and  expanded,  and  gave  their  name  to  the  whole  linguistic 


THE   IRON  AGE  229 


sub-stock  of  Altaic  which  all  of  them,  Huns  included,  seem  to  have 
spoken.  It  is  probable  that  their  speech  superseded  many  older  allied 
forms. 

In  the  guise  of  Petchenegs  and  Kumans,  in  the  tenth  and  eleventh 
centuries  new  waves  of  Turks  moved  across  the  southern  Russian  steppes 
as  far  as  the  Danube.  As  Seljuks,  the  Turks  took  charge  of  Asia  Minor  and 
fought  the  Crusaders;  as  Osmanlis,  they  conquered  the  Seljuks,  withstood 
the  Mongol  advance,  captured  Constantinople,  and  swarmed  over  the 
Balkans  and  up  to  Vienna.  But  meanwhile,  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
other  Turks  under  Mongol  leaders,  now  for  the  first  time  called  Tatars, 
had  covered  southeastern  Europe  ahead  of  the  Osmanlis;  and,  in  the  four- 
teenth, hordes  of  true  Mongols  had  followed,  leaving  permanent  settle- 
ments in  the  Caucasus,  the  Kalmuck  Steppe,  and  the  Crimea. 

In  the  fifteen  hundreds,  the  tide  commenced  to  turn  in  eastern  Europe; 
the  Muscovites  grew  powerful,  and  the  Asiatic  invaders  began  to  draw 
eastward  as  the  steppes  were  peopled  with  Slavs.  Under  the  rule  of  the 
Turks  and  Mongols,  the  older  population  had  not  entirely  disappeared; 
colonies  of  Alans  persisted  until  the  thirteenth  century,  and  Russian  col- 
onies lived  under  the  protection  of  the  Turkish  Khazars.  In  the  same 
fashion,  the  Turks  and  Mongols  did  not  disappear  with  the  Slavic  advance, 
and  their  colonies  in  the  midst  of  Slavic  territory  are  still  numerous. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  documents  dealing  with  the  invasion  of 
Europe  by  the  Huns  and  by  their  relatives  the  Avars.  These  inroads  took 
place  shortly  after  the  expansion  of  the  Germanic  peoples  to  the  east,  and 
formed  a  primary  reason  for  the  failure  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals  to  found 
a  permanent  home  in  the  former  Scythian  country.  They  took  place,  also, 
before  the  major  expansion  of  the  Slavs,  who  moved  eastward  in  the  in- 
terim between  the  invasion  of  central  Europe  by  the  Huns  and  the  whole- 
sale westward  migration  of  the  Magyar  ancestors  under  Arp&d. 

That  the  Huns  came  in  great  numbers  cannot  be  questioned,  and  that 
they  introduced  a  completely  alien  racial  type  onto  European  soil  is  vividly 
attested  by  the  accounts  of  numerous  contemporary  historians,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Jordanes,  Sidonus,  Appolinaris,  and  Priscus. 
These  authors  unanimously  describe  the  Huns  as  being  short,  broad 
shouldered,  thick-set,  swarthy,  flat-nosed,  slit-eyed,  nearly  beardless,  and 
bandy-legged.  The  Avars  are  described  by  some  authors  as  being  identical 
with  the  Huns,  but  by  others  as  being  less  horrible  of  aspect.  According 
to  that  Byzantine  wit,  Jordanes,  the  Avars  defeated  the  Iranian-speaking 
Alans,  who  were  the  descendants  of  the  Sarmatians,  by  frightening  them 
with  their  faces  and  not  by  valor. 

The  careful  studies  of  Bartucz,  on  whose  work  this  following  part  is 
almost  entirely  based,  has  disclosed,  in  unquestioned  manner,  the  exact 


230  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

racial  composition  of  these  invaders.9  (See  Appendix  I,  col.  51.)  Many 
of  the  Hunnish  and  Avar  cemeteries  are  very  extensive,  containing,  in  all, 
thousands  of  skulls.  In  many  of  these  cemeteries,  particularly  in  that  of 
Mosonszentjanos,  purely  mongoloid  skeletons  have  been  found,  unaccom- 
panied by  European  followers  or  European  mixture.  * 

Bartucz  finds  two  clearly  differentiated  mongoloid  types  in  these  cem- 
eteries. The  first,  which  he  designates  as  type  A,  is  dolicho-  to  mesocephalic 
with  a  mean  index  of  75.5  for  the  males  and  77.0  for  the  females.  These 
skulls  are  of  great  length  and  considerable  size.  The  forehead  is  very 
narrow,  the  temples  sharply  curved,  and  the  zygomatic  arches  laterally 
bowed.  The  occiput  is  narrow  and  conical  at  the  end.  From  the  side  pro- 
file, the  forehead  appears  exceptionally  low  and  slanting.  The  vertex 
falls  well  back  of  bregma,  and  the  profile  is  curved  through  the  extent  of 
its  length.  In  the  occipital  region  the  line  of  neck  muscle  attachment 
forms  a  powerful  torus. 

The  vault  of  this  type  is  lower  than  that  found  in  any  European  group. 
It  is,  in  fact,  near  the  low  point  for  mankind,  with  a  range  in  height  from 
120  to  130  mm.  The  browridges,  accentuated  by  the  extreme  slope  of  the 
forehead,  are  heavy,  but  the  glabella  region  is  flat,  the  orbits  are  rounded, 
and  with  the  lower  border  often  projecting  farther  forward  than  the  upper. 
The  nasal  bones  are  long,  narrow,  and  flat;  so  that  the  nasal  skeleton  some- 
times fails  to  project  in  front  of  the  malars.  The  lower  borders  of  the  nasal 
opening  are  smoothly  rounded.  The  malars  are  extremely  large  and 
prominent,  the  canine  fossa  completely  lacking,  and  the  maxillary  sinus, 
which  overlies  it,  is  so  blown  out  that  the  surface  of  the  bone  is  at  this 
point  often  raised.  The  dental  arch  of  the  palate  is  U-shaped.  The  man- 
dible is  heavy,  but  the  chin,  however,  but  slightly  developed.  The  whole 
sub-nasal  portion  of  the  face  is  enormous.  The  stature  of  this  type,  calcu- 
lated from  the  long  bones,  is  164.4  cm.  for  the  males,  153.1  cm.  for  the 
females. 

Type  B  is  also  purely  mongoloid,  but  it  is  brachycephalic,  with  a  mean 
index  of  83  for  both  sexes.  The  forehead  is  also  low,  but  much  broader  and 
more  sharply  curved,  the  occiput  is  rounded  and  broad,  and  the  skull 
as  a  whole  is  globular,  although  the  vault  is  still  low.  The  face  is  broad 
and  low,  the  orbits  are  lower,  the  nose  less  leptorrhine,  the  malars  and 
zygomata  less  pronouncedly  mongoloid,  than  in  the  case  of  type  A.  The 
nasal  bones  are  shorter,  the  palate  broader  and  rounder,  the  chin  more 
prominent.  This  type  is  characterized  by  shorter  stature;  160.9  cm.  for 
the  males,  and  152.8  cm.  for  the  females. 

9  Bartucz,  L.,  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  225-240;  Skythika,  vol.  2,  1929,  pp.  83-96; 
vol.  4,  1931,  pp.  75-90;  ESA,  vol.  5,  1930,  pp.  66-73. 
Krecsmarik,  E.,  Dolgozatok,  vol.  3,  1927,  pp.  160-166. 
Lcbzeltcr,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  65,  1935,  pp.  44-46. 


THE  IRON  AGE  231 


Thanks  to  the  industrious  researches  of  the  modern  Russian  school  of 
physical  anthropology,  it  is  not  difficult  to  discover  the  Asiatic  relationships 
of  these  two  types.  Type  A  is  found  today  among  the  living  Tungus,10  and 
it  has  likewise  a  long  history  in  Siberia,  for  it  is  found  among  many 
Siberian  peoples,  including  Palaeasiatics,  and  it  is  characteristic  of  many 
of  the  Neolithic  skulls  excavated  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Baikal.11 
Type  B  belongs  to  the  Mongol-speaking  peoples,  and  is  found  in  especial 
purity  among  the  Buryats,  who  represent,  culturally  and  probably  racially, 
the  Mongols  before  the  time  of  their  expansion.  Modern  Buryat  skulls  are 
among  the  largest  in  capacity  known. 

In  most  Hunnish  and  Avar  cemeteries,  type  B  is  more  in  evidence  than 
type  A.  Type  A,  however,  predominates  in  the  cemeteries  which  are 
known  to  have  been  used  by  the  Huns,  type  B  in  those  which  belong  to 
Avars.  The  Avar  cemeteries  contain  also,  in  many  cases,  intermediate 
types  which  show  that  these  people  had  begun  to  mix  with  members  of  the 
white  stock,  either  in  central  Asia,  in  Europe,  or  both,  and  other  cemeteries 
in  which  the  white  element  is  in  the  majority.  The  leading  classes  of  the 
Huns  and  Avars,  however,  appear  to  have  kept  themselves  apart,  and  to 
have  preserved  their  mongoloid  racial  types  pure  throughout  the  centuries 
of  their  political  domination.  In  the  graves  which  are  most  richly  fur- 
nished, and  which  show  that  the  occupants  were  men  of  power  and  conse- 
quence, the  mongoloid  types  are  unaltered.  The  two  graves  of  known 
Avar  heroes  contain  skeletons  belonging  purely  to  type  B. 

Bartucz's  identification  of  type  A  predominantly  with  the  Huns,  and  B 
with  the  Avars,  seems  valid.  That  the  two  intermarried  freely  is  shown  by 
the  fact  that  in  single  graves  containing  a  man  and  wife,  the  two  are  often 
of  opposite  types.  In  such  cases  of  differential  mating,  there  is  no  linkage 
between  sex  and  type,  indicating  that  A  and  B  were  socially  equal.  It  is 
very  likely  that  the  initial  amalgamation  of  these  two  types  took  place  in 
Mongolia,  and  not  in  Europe.  Also,  the  presence  of  numerous  interme- 
diate forms  attests  this  freedom  of  intercourse.  Individual  Hunriish  skulls 
found  as  far  afield  as  Lower  Austria  and  France  may  be  easily  identified 
with  the  crania  from  Hungary,  and  belong  in  known  cases  to  type  B.12 

A  further  light  upon  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  Huns  is  shown  by 
a  study  of  Hunnish  head  hair,  from  graves  of  this  period.  A  sample  of  it  is 
very  fine,  straight,  and  jet  black.13  In  color  and  in  form,  this  hair  was 
classically  mongoloid,  but  this  fineness  casts  some  doubt  upon  the  gen- 
eralization that  all  mongoloid  hair  must  be  coarse,  especially  since  it  has 

10Roguinski,  A.,  RAJ,  vol.  23,  1934,  pp.  105-126. 
11  Debetz,  G.,  RAJ,  vol.  19,  1930,  pp.  7-50. 
12Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  65,  1935,  pp.  44-46. 
Zaborowski,  S.,  RA,  vol.  24,  1914,  pp.  318-320. 
"Greguss,  P.,  Dolgozatok,  vol.  7,  1927,  p.  232. 


232  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

been  shown  that  American  Indian  hair  is  very  variable  in  this  respect. 

The  incontrovertible  evidence  of  the  Hungarian  graves  completely  dis- 
pels the  theory  that  the  Huns  may  have  been  largely  European  in  racial 
type.  If  the  Hiung-Nu  were  ancestors  of  the  Huns,  then  the  early  inhabi- 
tants of  Mongolia  were  definitely  mongoloid,  and  belonged  to  the  two 
important  racial  elements  present  there  today,  the  Tungus  and  the 
Mongol  proper.  This  throws  the  prehistory  of  central  Asia  into  a  clear 
and  logical  light.  It  is  exactly  what  one  would  expect. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  discover  what  was  the  nature  of  the  European 
racial  element  amalgamated  by  the  Avars.  This  may  be  accomplished  by 
studying  some  of  the  least  mongoloid  cemeteries.  In  that  of  Jutas  14  (see 
Appendix  I,  col.  52),  only  five  out  of  twenty-four  skulls  show  any  trace  of 
recognizable  mongoloid  features.  The  Jutas  sample,  then,  may  be  used 
for  testing.  Fourteen  male  skulls  are  all  below  78  in  cranial  index,  and  are 
very  similar  to  one  of  the  Minussinsk  regional  sub-series;  less  pronounced 
relationships  are  present  between  it  and  Scythian  and  Armenian  Iron 
Age  skulls.  The  resemblance  to  Slavic  and  Germanic  skulls,  which  are 
larger,  is  less  pronounced.  It  is  therefore  certain  that  these  non-mongoloid 
Avars  belonged  to  the  general  Mediterranean  racial  family,  and  that 
some,  at  least,  were  members  of  the  Nordic  Iron  Age  group;  it  is  more  than 
likely  that  they  were  for  the  most  part  incorporated  into  the  Avar  ranks 
in  central  Asia  before  corning  to  Europe.  The  study  of  the  crania  from 
another  cemetery,  that  of  Tiszadersz15  (see  Appendix  I,  col.  53),  makes 
this  virtually  certain. 

McGovern  has  discovered  a  number  of  Chinese  references  to  the 
Hiung-Nu  and  other  Turkish -speaking  "barbarians"  which  describe  them 
as  hairy,  big-nosed,  and  partially  blond.  In  later  times,  Genghis  Khan 
was  supposed  to  be  red-haired  and  green-eyed.  It  is  therefore  likely  that 
some  of  the  Asiatic  Nordic  element  found  in  the  Jutas  and  Tiszadersz 
cemeteries  was  incorporated  by  the  Avars  before  they  left  Mongolia,  but, 
on  the  basis  of  the  evidence  from  purely  mongoloid  cemeteries  Hke 
Mosonszentjanos,  it  is  unlikely  that  this  influence  could  have  penetrated 
the  entire  Hunnish  and  Avar  nations. 

At  any  rate,  it  is  evident  from  the  size  and  number  of  the  Avar  ceme- 
teries that,  as  Bartucz  says,16  these  invaders  played  an  important  r61e  in 
the  peopling  not  only  of  Hungary  but  also  of  adjacent  countries  of  central 
Europe,  for  the  people  whom  the  Avars  brought  into  the  Danube  basin 
did  not  depart  with  the  cessation  of  Avar  rule. 

At  the  same  time  the  Avars  did  not  uproot  the  former  population,  which 

14  Bartucz,  L.,  Skythika,  vol.  4,  1931,  pp.  75-91. 

15  Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  65,  1935,  pp.  44-46. 
Bartucz,  L.,   ZFRK,  1935. 

16  Bartucz,  L.,  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  225-240. 


THE    IRON    AGE  233 


included  Slavs  and  Germans,  among  older  elements,  but  made  them  tax- 
paying  vassals.  Furthermore,  in  the  days  of  Attila,  the  richness  of  the  Huns 
had  attracted  many  craftsmen  and  adventurers  to  the  royal  court,  among 
whom  were  many  Italians.  Priscus's  account  makes  it  very  evident  17  that 
Attila's  capital  contained  a  very  heterogeneous  population. 

The  great  migration  to  Hungary,  that  which  brought  the  ancestors  of 
the  present-day  Magyars,  took  place  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  and  beginning 
of  the  tenth  century,  when  the  Hungarian  national  hero  Arpad  led  the 
Magyars  into  Hungary,  where  many  Slavs  had  settled  in  the  interim  after 
the  collapse  of  Hunnish  power.  We  have  already  seen  (p.  220)  that  these 
Slavs  had  partially  taken  over  Hunnish  physical  traits.  By  906  A.D.,  the 
Magyars  were  at  home  in  Hungary;  in  the  two  centuries  which  followed, 
they  adopted  Christianity,  and  invited  settlers  of  many  nationalities, 
including  Moslems  and  Jews,  to  help  them  occupy  the  land.  These 
newcomers,  along  with  the  pre-Magyar  Slavs,  formed  a  tax-paying  peas- 
antry. 

The  Magyars  were  Ugrians  from  the  region  between  the  Volga  and  the 
Urals,  who  had  been  partially  Turkicized  by  the  Petchenegs  and  others, 
but  had  retained  their  Finno-Ugrian  language,  albeit  strongly  shot  with 
Turkish.  In  this  respect,  they  resembled  the  ancestral  Bulgarians,  semi- 
Turkicized  Finns,  who  had,  a  few  decades  earlier,  crossed  the  lower 
Danube  and  settled  Bulgaria,  implanting  themselves  on  a  population  of 
Slavs  who  had  themselves  been  but  a  short  while  in  occupancy.  In 
Bulgaria,  the  Slavic  language  seeped  through  and  replaced  the  Finnish; 
in  Hungary,  the  Ugrian  became  dominant  and  the  Slavic  speech  to  a 
large  extent  disappeared.  Nevertheless,  Slavic  culture  blended  with  the 
Ugrian  and  Turkish,  to  produce  modern  Hungarian  forms. 

We  have  no  physical  remains  of  the  early  Finnic  invaders  of  Bulgaria, 
but  those  of  the  Ugri  of  the  land-taking  period,  as  the  Hungarians  call  it, 
are  adequate.  As  is  to  be  expected,  these  ancestral  Magyars,  led  into 
Hungary  by  Arpad,  were  only  mongoloid  to  a  minor  degree.18  Some  of 
the  crania  which  are  found  in  wealthy  graves  do  show  definite  mongoloid 
characteristics,  but  the  others  for  the  most  part  lack  them.  The  majority 
of  the  Magyars  were  of  the  same  Finnish  types  expected  from  our  previous 
study  of  Finns  in  Russia,  while  smaller  minorities  included  Binaries  or 
Armenoids.19 

At  any  rate,  it  was  a  very  mixed  population  that  lived  in  Hungary  dur- 
ing the  early  Magyar  period.  On  the  whole,  throwing  all  elements  to- 
gether, the  stature  was  short  and  the  mean  head  form  rnesocephalic. 

17  Brion,  M.,  Attila,  the  Scourge  of  God. 

"Bartucz,  L.,  ZFRK,  1935. 

» Ibid. 

G£sp4r,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  58,  1928,  pp.  129-140. 


234  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Since  then,  the  Hungarians  have  grown  rounder  headed,  as  have  Rus- 
sians and  southern  Germans. 

During  all  the  turmoil  of  the  Magyar  and  Bolgar  migrations,  the  Ugrians 
who  remained  in  eastern  Russia  passed  relatively  unnoticed,  but  in  the 
thirteenth  century  or  thereabouts  they,  for  some  reason,  probably  new 
Turkish  .pressure,  crossed  the  Urals  en  masse,  and  established  themselves 
in  the  western  drainage  of  the  Obi.  Here  they  were  divided  into  two  tribes, 
the  Voguls,  on  the  immediate  slopes  of  the  Urals,  and  the  Ostiaks,  in  the 
lower  courses  of  the  tributaries  and  along  the  Obi  itself.  In  their  new 
home  their  culture  was  modified  to  stiit  a  more  rigorous  environment, 
and  only  those  in  the  southern  Obi  drainage,  at  the  time  of  the  Russian 
conquest,  still  practiced  agriculture. 

An  adequate  series  of  skulls  from  the  time  between  this  eastward  migra- 
tion and  the  arrival  of  the  Russians  about  three  centuries  later  shows  a 
mixture  between  the  original  Finnish  type,  with  which  we  have  already 
acquainted  ourselves,  and  Siberian  and  central  Asiatic  mongoloids,  of  the 
two  types  already  found  in  the  early  Hunnish  and  Avar  cemeteries. 20  How 
much  of  the  mongoloid  blood  was  acquired  in  Europe,  and  how  much 
later  in  Siberia,  cannot  be  determined. 

In  the  Hungarian  period  of  settlement  we  already  become  aware  of  the 
presence  of  a  new  physical  type  associated  with  the  Turks,  who  formed  a 
minority  in  the  ranks  of  the  Magyars.  When  we  examine  the  crania  of  the 
Petchenegs  and  Kumans,  in  both  Hungary  and  Russia21  we  see  that  this 
new  type  has  become  the  dominant  one  among  these  later  Turks  to  arrive 
in  eastern  Europe.  In  it  mongoloid  features  are  sometimes  present,  but  in 
abeyance.  The  skulls  are  very  large,  of  moderate  height,  extremely  brachy- 
cephalic,  and  planoccipital.  The  foreheads  are  sloping,  browridges  some- 
times heavy,  the  faces  are  very  broad,  and  also  very  long.  The  orbits  are  of 
moderate  height.  The  noses  are  narrow,  and  although  often  low  at  the 
root,  frequently  project  at  the  bridge,  giving  indication  of  a  convex  profile 
in  the  living. 

These  Kuman  skulls,  as  best  represented  by  Debetz's  series  which  in- 
cludes fourteen  adult  males,  are  much  longer  and  broader  than  historic 
Armenian  skulls,22  and  both  longer  and  broader  faced.  In  height,  nose  and 
orbit  dimensions,  and  the  tendency  to  occipital  flattening,  these  two  groups 
are  the  same.  They  are  also  larger  than  Alpine  skulls  from  central  Europe, 
and  far  greater  in  facial  dimensions;  larger  too,  than  the  type  B  mon- 
goloid crania  as  represented  by  a  large  series  of  central  Asiatic  Telengets; 

20  Zaborowski,  M.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  9,  1898,  pp.  73-111. 
Ssilinitsch,  J.  P.,  AFA,  vol.  34,  1903,  p.  233,  etc. 
21Bartucz,  L.,  AF»  vol.  1,  1923,  pp.  97-99. 
Debetz,  G.,  AntrM,  vol.  3,  1929,  pp,  89-95. 
22  Bunak,  V.  V.,  Crania  Armenica* 


THE  IRON  AGE  235 


much  higher  vaulted  and  broader  of  forehead  than  the  latter,  and  even  a 
little  larger  faced. 

Thus,  the  type  under  consideration,  which  has  become  in  many  regions 
the  characteristic  Turkish  form,  is  one  which  cannot  be  disposed  of  by  the 
simple  expedient  of  placing  it  in  an  Armenoid  or  Dinaric  category.  In 
size  and  proportions  of  the  vault,  the  closest  parallel  to  these  skulls  is  with 
the  British  Bronze  Age  crania;  but  the  resemblance  here  is  far  from  an 
identify,  for  the  British  faces,  although  equally  broad,  are  much  shorter. 
In  the  same  sense,  the  Turkish  skulls  are  reminiscent  of  the  Palaeolithic 
and  Mesolithic  brachycephalic  types  from  Europe  and  North  Africa. 

Since  we  know  almost  nothing  of  the  early  skeletal  history  of  central 
Asia,  east  of  Anau  and  south  of  the  Minussinsk  district,  it  would  be  worth- 
less to  spend  too  much  time  at  this  point  speculating  on  the  immediate 
origin  of  this  type.  As  with  so  many  other  problems,  we  must  defer  its  seri- 
ous consideration  to  the  section  on  the  living,  except  to  point  out  that  in  a 
small  series  of  ten  skulls  from  eastern  Russian  Turkestan,  dated  between 
600  and  900  A.D.,  similar  but  somewhat  smaller  vault  forms  are  in  evi- 
dence.23 At  the  same  time,  a  few  isolated  Turkish  skulls,  from  central 
Siberia,  attributed  to  from  the  seventh  or  eighth  centuries  A.D.,24  are  not 
unlike  the  Kuman  crania. 

After  the  Huns  and  Turks  came  the  Mongols,  who  had  been  later  to 
adopt  the  horse  culture  of  the  Asiatic  plains.  Their  homeland  was  around 
the  southern  end  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  they  were  hunters  and  fishermen 
before  they  became  plainsmen.  The  earliest  mention  of  them  in  Chinese 
history  occurs  in  the  seventh  century  A.D.,  at  which  time  they  camped  in 
the  country  from  Urga  northward  to  the  forest  edge.  They  are  supposed 
to  have  sprung  from  a  blue  wolf,  and  from  this  animal  to  Genghis  Khan 
was  a  span  of  but  eight  generations. 

Their  conquest  of  most  of  the  known  world  began  in  the  first  half  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  ended  two  generations  later  with  the  death  of 
Genghis  Khan's  grandson,  Kublai  Khan.  The  Mongols  were  not  numer- 
ous enough  to  do  all  of  their  conquering  alone,  and  incorporated  most  of 
the  central  Asiatic  Turks  into  their  armies.  Hence  there  arose  a  perplexing 
welter  of  Mongolized  Turks  and  Turkicized  Mongols,  and  no  doubt  of 
Mongolized  as  well  as  Turkicized  Iranians.  We  have  no  skeletal  material 
adequate  to  untangle  this  snarl,  but  must  rely  on  Mongol  and  Buryat 
crania  from  Mongolia  itself  to  determine  their  racial  type.  This  was 
simply  the  type  B  of  the  Huns,  in  a  relatively  pure  form,  as  found  today 
particularly  among  Buryats.  Hence  the  settlement  of  the  Mongols  on  the 

'3  Vishncvsky,  B.  N.,  KMV,  1921,  #1-2. 

24  Gromov,  V.  I.,  ESA,  vol.  1,  1926,  pp,  94-*99. 

Kazantsev,  A.  I.,  RAT,  No.  l-24  1934,  pp.  129-133. 


236  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Kalmuck  steppe  brought  the  pure,  brachycephalic  Mongol  type  to  the 
country  around  the  northern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  into  the  lower 
Volga  plains,  where  whole  encampments  of  normal  Mongols  may  still 
be  seen  today. 

On  the  whole,  the  Mongols  proper  did  not  influence  the  racial  composi- 
tion of  Europe  in  the  sense  that  the  Turks  did.  Their  influence  was 
sporadic  in  most  of  the  regions  which  they  crossed,  and  strong  only  in 
southeastern  Russia,  and  in  the  isolated  colonies  still  living  in  the  Caucasus. 
Elsewhere  it  merely  served  to  freshen  elements  already  brought  by  the 
Huns  and  Avars. 

Lest  this  survey  of  Uralic  and  Altaic-speaking  peoples  be  incomplete,  we 
must  mention  still  another  group,  the  Samoyeds,  who  live  east  of  the  Osti- 
aks  in  the  Obi  country,  and  wander  along  the  Arctic  shore  of  Russia  as  far 
as  the  Kola  Peninsula,  where  they  meet  the  Lapps. 

The  modern  Samoyeds,  despite  their  proximity  to  the  Siberian  Ugrians, 
belong  for  the  most  part  to  the  central,  brachycephalic,  mongoloid  type; 
Bartucz's  B  group,  the  classical  Buryat-mongoloid.25  Except  in  modern 
times,  they  have  had  no  influence  upon  the  racial  composition  of  northern 
Europe. 

(3)   SPEAKERS   OF   URALIG  AND   ALTAIC,   AND   OLD   WORLD 
RACIAL  ORIGINS 

Before  indulging  in  the  speculation  which  the  present  study  of  the 
Uralic-  and  Altaic-speaking  peoples  in  antiquity  inspires,  a  brief  review  of 
our  present  knowledge  will  be  in  order.  Uralic  is  a  linguistic  stock  or  sub- 
stock  which  includes  Finnic  and  Ugrian,  as  well  as  Samoyedic;  Altaic  in- 
cludes Mongolian,  Turkish,  Tungusic,  and  possibly  Korean. 

The  Finns  and  the  Ugrians  were  a  united  people,  in  the  geographical 
sense,  until  the  arrival  of  the  Slavs  from  the  west,  and  Huns  and  Avars 
from  the  east,  forced  some  of  them  to  migrate,  and  caused  the  absorption 
of  others.  Judging  by  a  series  of  small  samples  taken  from  the  heart  of  their 
forest  abode,  they  were  members  of  the  general  Nordic  sub-group,  most 
closely  related  to  the  Minussinsk  people  in  Siberia,  but  showing  relation- 
ships likewise  with  Scythians  and  peoples  of  known  Indo-European  lin- 
guistic affiliation.  Thus,  since  the  Finns  and  Ugrians  were  not  Indo- 
European  speakers,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  all  of  the  nomads  of 
central  Asia  who  belonged  to  this  same  racial  type  were  Iranians.  The 
Samoyeds,  distant  linguistic  relatives  of  the  FinAo-Ugrians,  are  not  rep- 
resented by  early  skeletal  material,  and  their  racial  position  in  antiquity 
cannot  be  established. 

»Sommier,  S.,  APA,  vol.  17,  1887,  pp.  71-222. 
Klimek,  S.,  APA,  vol.  59,  1929,  pp.  13-31. 


THE  IRON  AGE  237 


Of  the  known  Altaic  speakers,  three  branches,  the  Tungus,  Mongols, 
and  the  Koreans,  were  and  still  are  almost  purely  mongoloid.  The  fourth 
branch,  that  of  the  Turks,  is  the  only  one  the  racial  origin  of  which  is  in 
question.  Today  most  of  the  Turks  are  racially  European,  but  in  the  old 
days  the  Huns  and  Avars,  who  were  intimately  concerned  with  the  Turkish 
expansion,  were  as  mongoloid  as  the  others,  with  both  Tungus  and 
Buryat-Mongol  elements  represented. 

We  are  at  this  point  squarely  faced  with  the  problem  of  the  origin  of 
the  living  Finns  and  Turks,  and  with  that  of  the  rdle  played  by  speakers  of 
their  linguistic  stock  or  stocks  in  the  formation  of  European  and  Asiatic 
peoples.  These  problems  may  not  be  finally  solved  with  the  evidence  in 
our  possession.  Yet  there  is  enough  material,  historical,  linguistic,  and 
somatological,  to  make  speculation  legitimate. 

In  the  foregoing  chapter  we  have  seen  that  the  earliest  Indo-European 
languages  probably  moved  westward  into  central  Europe  as  the  speech  of 
the  Danubian  immigrants  as  early  as  3000  B.C.  These  Danubian  farmers 
were  racially  the  relatives  or  descendants  of  Anatolian  and  South  Russian 
peoples  of  a  special  physical  type,  a  branch  of  the  Mediterranean  stock 
to  which  we  have  given  the  name  Danubian.  This  type  was  reasonably 
homogeneous,  but  the  number  of  skulls  upon  which  its  identification  is 
based  is  slight,  and  it  is  possible  that  a  minor  increment  of  longer-headed, 
narrower-nosed  Mediterranean  forms  accompanied  it,  since  the  two  vari- 
ants seem  long  to  have  been  associated  in  South  Russia. 

Now  since  Indo-European  speech  was  a  mixture  of  B,  or  Caucasic,  with 
A,  or  Finno-Ugrian,  and  since,  as  we  have  seen,  the  earliest  known  Finno- 
Ugrians  were  Nordics  with  a  very  strong  Danubian  tendency,  it  therefore 
becomes  likely  that  the  Danubian  farmers  owed  their  racial  type  to  a  mix- 
ture of  two  linguistically  different  ethnic  groups  who  were  physically  much 
the  same,  and  both  predominantly  Danubian. 

If  we  are  correct  in  identifying  the  Corded  people  with  the  introduction 
of  Altaic  speech  into  Europe,  then  the  further  identification  of  the  Corded 
racial  type  with  (a)  the  non-mongoloid  modern  Turks  and  (b)  the  Afgha- 
nian  racial  type  of  the  Irano- Afghan  plateau,  makes  it  seem  possible  that 
there  was,  in  remote  food-producing  times,  an  ancestral  bloc  of  peoples 
living  on  that  plateau  who  spoke  languages  ancestral  to  Altaic,  and  per- 
haps remotely  related  to  Uralic,  Sumerian,  or  both.  Some  of  the  peoples 
who  formed  that  bloc  presumably  moved  northward  onto  the  central 
Asiatic  grasslands.  This  change  of  scene  on  the  part  of  these  early  agricul- 
turalists may  have  had  two  effects:  the  introduction  of  agriculture  into  the 
oases  of  Turkestan  and  into  Mongolia,  and  the  development  of  pastoral 
nomadism  by  some  of  the  immigrants,  with  the  subsequent  rise  of  the 
horse  culture. 


238  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

This  step  in  our  speculative  structure  leads  logically  to  the  question  of 
the  origin  of  the  Turks.  Having  placed  Ural-Altaic-speaking  white  men, 
of  a  special  Mediterranean  type  still  found  in  Iran  and  Afghanistan,  in 
Turkestan  and  Mongolia,26  it  is  not  difficult  to  suppose  that  mongoloid 
peoples,  originally  hunters,  were  attracted  to  the  plains  from  their  forests 
and  rivers  by  the  advantages  of  the  new  economy,  and  that  they  assim- 
ilated, in  adopting  it,  those  of  the  white  immigrants  with  whom  they  were 
in  immediate  contact. 

In  the  meanwhile,  some  of  the  Altaic-speaking  plainsmen,  related  to  the 
ancestors  of  the  Corded  people,  may  have  mixed  with  smaller  Mediter- 
raneans such  as  were  found  at  Anau,  to  produce  Nordics  of  the  type  found 
in  the  Minussinsk  kurgans,  although  it  is  possible  that  these  Nordics  do  not 
antedate  the  arrival  of  the  Iranians.  An  inruption  of  relatively  unmixed 
Corded  invaders  from  their  eastern  center,  about  2200  B.C.,  brought  the 
Altaic  linguistic  element  noted  by  Nehring  in  Indo-European  speech  into 
central  Europe,  and  produced,  by  a  blending  of  these  Corded  invaders 
with  European  Danubian  racial  elements,  the  European  Nordics,  who, 
during  the  Late  Bronze  Age  and  the  Iron  Age,  spread  Indo-European 
speech  over  a  wide  area. 

In  the  middle  of  the  second  millennium  B.C.,  during  the  full  Bronze  Age, 
one  branch  of  these  Indo-European  speakers,  the  Iranians,  spread  east- 
ward from  their  home  in  southern  Russia  across  the  country  north  of  the 
Black  Sea  into  Turkestan,  and  thence  some  of  them  went  southward  into 
Afghanistan  and  India,  bearing  with  them  their  original  cattle  and  farm- 
ing culture  which  they  had  brought  from  their  earlier  home,  with  a  min- 
imum of  horse  culture  elements. 

Other  Iranians  remained  on  the  plains,  and  took  over  the  horse  nomad- 
ism which  the  Altaic  speakers  had  already  developed.  That  they  mixed 
with  Altaic  speakers,  as  the  legend  of  the  Scythian  youths  and  Amazon 
maidens  would  suggest,  is  probable,  owing  to  their  acquisition  of  a  low 
cranial  vault  and  a  wide  face,  eastern  Nordic  traits  which  at  this  time  were 
foreign  to  western  Europe.  The  importance  of  Altaic  god  names  in  what 
is  known  of  the  Scythian  language  would  support  this  contention.  These 
Iranians  spread  the  horse  culture  westward  to  the  Danube  and  eastward 
to  China,  and  pushed  those  of  their  Altaic-speaking  predecessors  whom 
they  had  failed  to  absorb  northward  and  eastward  into  Siberia  and 
Mongolia. 

In  Mongolia,  about  400  B.C.,  the  horse  culture  was  taken  over  com- 

26  This  is  substantiated  by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  Neolithic  skulls  from  Lake  Baikal 
studied  by  Debetz  are  of  Mediterranean  type,  while  others  resemble  those  of  modern 
Tungus. 

Debetz,  G.,  RAJ,  vol.  19,  1930,  pp.  7-50;  AZM,  vol.  2,  1932,  pp.  26-48. 


THE  IRON  AGE  239 


pletely  by  the  fully  mongoloid  Hiung-Nu,  as  indicated  by  Chinese  his- 
torical documents.  The  royal  and  noble  families  of  the  Huns  and  Avars 
remained  purely  mongoloid,  but  their  followers  in  their  march  to  Europe 
consisted  in  large  measure  of  these  Altaic-speaking  white  men  who  accom- 
panied them.  The  historic  Turks  are  descended  in  large  measure  from 
these  Altaic-speaking  whites.  Some,  such  as  the  Kirghiz  and  the  Tatars 
whose  ancestors  invaded  eastern  Russia  in  historic  times,  are  half  mon- 
goloid; others,  including  the  Turkomans,  the  Azerbaijani  Turks,  and  the 
truly  Turkish  element  among  the  Seljuks  and  Osmanlis,  are  fully  white, 
since  their  ancestors  had  never  been  subjected  to  this  mixture.  A  third 
group,  represented  today  by  the  Uzbegs  and  Sarts  of  Russian  Turkestan, 
and  by  the  pseudo-Armenoid  crania  found  in  late  Turkish  graves  in 
Europe,  were  a  mixture  of  the  old  long-headed  white  strain  with  central 
Asiatic  Alpines,  such  as  the  Tajiks,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  with  mongoloids. 

Mongols,  Turks,  and  Tungus,  living  today  in  the  forested  northern  part 
of  Asia,  that  is  in  Siberia,  are  historically  recent  intruders  who,  in  response 
to  their  new  environment,  have  partially  taken  over  the  culture  of  Palae- 
asiatic  aborigines.  Their  dispersions  may  be  traced  from  the  Altai  Moun- 
tains and  Mongolia  as  a  center.  Their  linguistic  relationship  with  each 
other  may  be  due  to  varying  degrees  of  acquisition  of  the  speech  of  the 
nomadic  white  peoples  who  brought  the  horse  culture  to  Mongolia,  or  to 
an  earlier  diffusion  from  whites,  bringing  agriculture  to  Mongolia,  from 
the  same  source,  or  to  both.  The  reindeer-milking  complex  of  the  Tungus 
and  Samoyeds,  and  the  reindeer  riding  of  the  former,  are  borrowings  from 
the  central  Asiatic  horse  culture. 

The  two  most  important  steps  in  the  foregoing  reconstruction  are: 
(1)  the  tentative  identification  of  the  Corded  people  with  Altaic  speech; 
and  (2)  the  identification  of  the  Corded  skeletal  type  with  (a)  an  element 
in  the  Nordic  racial  complex  of  Europe,  (b)  the  living  as  well  as  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Iran  and  Afghanistan,  and  (c)  the  modern  Turkomans, 
Azerbaijani  Turks,  and  the  true  Turkish  strain  among  living  Osmanlis. 
The  induction  of  the  Sumerians  into  this  argument  is  helpful  if  true,  but 
not  necessary.  Some  of  the  Corded  cultural  paraphernalia  had  a  Sumerian 
Appearance,  but  this  may  have  been  caused  by  diffusion  alone  rather  than 
by  common  ethnic  ancestry. 

The  foregoing  hypothesis,  in  reference  to  the  origin  of  the  Corded  peo- 
ple, of  the  Turks,  of  the  modern  Altaic-speaking  mongoloids,  and  of  the 
Sumerians,  is  pure  hypothesis  and  should  not  be  quoted  without  the  in- 
clusion of  a  statement  that  it  is  offered  as  speculation  only.  It  is  not 
intended  to  form  a  part  of  the  serious  contribution  of  the  present  study  to 
white  racial  history.  It  is  included,  however,  because  in  the  light  of  existing 
evidence  it  seems  more  likely  than  any  other  hypothesis  known  to  the 


240  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

author  which  is  of  equal  scope  and  which  purports  to  explain  the  same 
phenomena. 

In  any  case,  the  question  of  Uralic  and  Altaic  origins  is  a  part  of  the 
white  racial  problem,  and  it  is  intimately  connected  with  the  history  of 
Indo-European  languages  and  of  the  Nordic  race.  Of  two  elements  in  this 
reconstruction  we  are  reasonably  sure;  that  the  ancestors  of  some  of  the 
living  Turks,  including  the  Turkomans,  Azerbaijanis,  and  Osmanlis,  were 
always  white  men,  and  that  the  Corded  people  were  racially  related  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Iranian  plateau  in  antiquity. 


Chapter  VIII 

INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   STUDY   OF 
THE   LIVING 

(1)   MATERIALS   AND  TECHNIQUES 

At  this  point  we  have  completed  the  survey  in  which,  with  the  help  of 
the  combined  disciplines  of  osteology,  archaeology,  history,  and  linguistic 
science,  we  have  attempted  to  trace  the  development  of  racial  entities  in 
the  territory  occupied  by  the  white  race,  from  the  earliest  human  times 
to  the  Middle  Ages,  the  threshold  of  the  modern  period.  We  are  now 
faced  with  the  problem  of  working  with  a  different  body  of  material — 
that  furnished  by  the  anthropometry  of  living  peoples.  We  must  further 
attempt  to  fit  this  material  into  the  frame  furnished  us  by  our  study  of 
the  dead,  so  that  from  the  combination  of  the  two  a  complete  and  orderly 
reconstruction  will  result. 

While  we  were  dealing  with  the  data  gleaned  from  the  measurement  and 
observation  of  bones,  the  chief  difficulty  which  faced  us  was  the  lack  of 
adequate  samples  in  most  of  the  periods,  regions,  and  cultural  units  under 
consideration.  On  the  other  hand,  while  metrical  accuracy  was  by  no 
means  to  be  assumed,  yet  the  measurements  on  the  dry  skulls  and  long 
bones  were  for  the  most  part  comparable,  and  technical  difficulty  was 
subordinate  to  the  paucity  of  documents.  In  dealing  with  the  living  ma- 
terial, however,  we  have  vastly  larger  samples.  In  some  countries,  as  in 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Poland,  these  comprise  the  entire  military  age  group 
of  the  nation,  and  thus  cease  to  be  samples  in  the  strict  sense,  and  assume 
the  character  of  total  populations.  In  relatively  few  regions  is  it  necessary 
to  use  samples  of  less  than  one  hundred  individuals. 

Our  authority  has,  therefore,  increased  immensely.  We  may  speak  with 
some  confidence  of  the  superficial  physical  composition  of  most  European 
nations.  But,  at  the  same  time,  what  we  have  gained  in  volume,  we  have 
to  a  certain  extent  lost  in  accuracy,  for  the  present  state  of  anthropometry 
is  partly  one  of  confusion  and  mistrust  in  regard  to  technical  methods. 
Despite  various  attempts  in  the  past  and  in  the  present  to  establish  a  stand- 
ard corpus  of  technique, l  different  schools  have  arisen  in  different  countries. 
What  discrepancies  may  exist  between  the  work  of  members  of  each  school 

1  Cf.  The  Geneva  agreement  of  1912;  the  standards  established  by  R.  Martin  in  his 
Lehrbuch  der  Anthropologie;  the  present  laudable  attempt  of  Miss  Miriam  Tildesley  to 
bring  about  unification. 

241 


242  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

can  usually  be  determined  and  allowed  for;  but  this  is  not  the  root  of  the 
trouble.  The  chief  difficulty  is  that  much  measuring  has  been  done  not 
by  professional  anthropometrists  but  by  amateurs,  while  some  with  pro- 
fessional status  have  not  been  properly  trained.  Therefore  we  cannot  be 
sure  that  such  men  belong  to  any  school,  nor  that  they  follow  any  stand- 
ard other  than  their  own.  The  accuracy  of  existing  documents  on  the 
living  is  far  less  than  that  of  skeletal  data,  and  it  is  not  always  possible  to 
know  what  techniques  have  been  used.  This  lack  of  consistency  is  often 
an  obstacle  to  mathematical  comparison,  but  not  enough  of  an  obstacle 
to  render  many  series  wholly  useless.  We  still  have  a  better  tool  for  the 
study  of  race  in  the  living  than  we  had  in  the  documents  of  the  dead. 

Let  us  review  the  more  important  measurements  in  which  technical 
difficulties  most  commonly  arise.  Stature,  unfortunately,  heads  the  list. 
One  would  suppose  that  the  maximum  height  of  the  body  while  standing 
would  be  a  constant  dimension  and  one  easy  to  measure,  but  neither 
assumption  is  true.  Some  investigators  allow  the  subject  to  be  measured 
in  his  shoes,  and  then  attempt  to  make  a  standard  subtraction  for  the  heel. 
This  is  seldom  if  ever  satisfactory.  On  the  other  hand  barefooted  negroes 
with  horny  soles  are  raised  up  several  millimeters  by  their  callouses,  when 
compared  to  thin-soled  white  men  standing  with  their  shoes  removed. 
Differences  in  posture,  and  in  degree  of  conscious  stretching,  may  attain 
the  dimensions  of  centimeters. 

Furthermore,  it  has  been  established  2  that  the  human  body,  except 
in  senility,  shrinks  as  much  as  2.5  cm.  during  a  daytime  spent  either  afoot 
or  in  a  chair,  the  amount  depending  partly  on  the  degree  of  and  nature  of 
the  day's  activity.  It  makes  some  differences,  therefore,  what  time  of 
day  the  investigator  habitually  chooses  for  his  work.  At  the  same  time  the 
state  of  nutrition  and  of  health  makes  some  difference,  and  one  must 
beware  of  series  measured  entirely  in  hospitals. 

For  the  reasons  above  outlined,  and  without  doubt  for  others  as  well, 
we  must  not,  in  studying  stature  as  a  statistical  criterion  of  racial  value, 
even  if  our  samples  are  equivalent  in  age,  expect  to  find  accuracy  down  to 
the  millimeter.  Therefore  the  common  statistical  devices  used  to  check 
the  validity  of  the  series  on  the  basis  of  the  sampling  process  are  set  at 
too- fine  an  adjustment  in  view  of  the  coarseness  of  the  measurement  itself, 
and  in  view  of  the  great  variability  caused  by  factors  other  than  sampling 
or  racial  attributes.  What  applies  to  stature  applies  in  varying  degree 
to  measurements  of  its  segments  and  of  other  bodily  dimensions;  the 
breadths  of  the  shoulder  and  hips,  and  the  diameters  of  the  chest,  are  de- 
pendent in  some  degree  on  the  highly  variable  amounts  of  sinew,  muscle, 
and  fat  present  at  the  points  of  measurement. 
2  Backman,  G.,  FUL,  N.  F.  vol.  29,  1923-24,  pp.  255-282. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  243 

In  the  dimensions  of  the  head  and  face,  most  of  the  difficulties  found 
in  stature  and  bodily  measurements  cease  to  exist.  On  the  whole,  a  much 
greater  accuracy  is  not  only  possible  but  has  been  attained.  There  are 
but  two  important  matters  in  which  serious  inaccuracies  arise  with  any 
frequency;  these  are  the  measurement  of  auricular  head  height  and  the 
location  of  nasion. 

The  first  of  these,  the  measurement  of  the  height  of  the  cranial  vault,  is 
without  doubt  the  least  satisfactory  of  all  common  anthropometric  tech- 
niques. Although  technique  #1 5  of  Martin  3  is  considered  standard,  not 
all  use  it,  and  few  do  it  in  the  same  way.  Some  investigators  use  special 
metal  head-spanners  which  measure  the  height  of  the  vault  from  the 
middle  of  the  ear  hole,  others  measure  from  the  top  of  the  ear  hole;  still 
others,  following  Martin,  from  tragion.  There  is  also  a  dispute  as  to 
whether  the  height  taken  should  be  to  the  vertex,  as  stated  by  Martin,  or 
to  a  point  exactly  above  the  ear  hole  when  the  head  is  held  in  an  approx- 
imation to  the  eye-ear  plane. 

As  a  result  of  these  technical  difficulties  in  taking  head  height  on  the 
living,  differences  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  millimeters  exist  between  the  re- 
sults of  different  investigators  working  on  identical  populations,  and  re- 
ports embodying  these  discrepancies  are  published  without  comment. 
Since  the  difference  between  techniques  is  as  great  as  the  difference  be- 
tween extremely  disparate  racial  groups  of  mankind,  head  height  on  the 
living  is  a  useless  criterion  when  employed  uncritically.  Unless  the  com- 
piler knows  the  technical  peculiarities  and  personal  equation  of  each 
investigator  whose  work  he  uses,  he  should  leave  this  material  alone.  In 
the  present  work,  this  ruling  immediately  excludes  from  consideration  the 
majority  of  published  data  on  head  height. 

The  second  major  difficulty,  the  location  of  nasion  in  the  living,  while 
not  quite  as  inaccurate,  is  even  more  serious,  since  three  important  vertical 
diameters  of  the  face,  morphological  face  height,  morphological  upper  face 
height,  and  nose  height,  are  theoretically  limited,  at  their  upper  bound- 
ary, by  this  landmark;  and  nasion  is  an  extremely  hard  point  to  determine. 
Ashley-Montagu,  however,  has  recently  devised  a  method  which  promises 
to  overcome  this  difficulty  in  most  cases.4  On  adult  male  whites,  luckily, 
there  is  usually  enough  ruggedness  of  facial  relief  to  make  this  difficulty 
less  serious  than  with  mongoloids  or  negroids.  Still  technical  differences  of 
from  five  to  ten  millimeters  render  the  works  of  different  investigators 
incomparable,  and  one  must  again  be  sure  of  the  individual  equation  of 
each  investigator,  or  of  the  school  in  which  he  was  trained.  Since  the  facial 

3  Martin,  R.,  Lehrbuch  der  Anthropologie>  vol.  1,  pp.  185-186. 

*  Ashley-Montagu,  M.  F.,  AJPA,  vol.  20,  1935,  pp.  81-93;  vol.  22,  1937,  #3,  Suppl. 
p.  6. 


244  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  nasal  indices  depend  upon  vertical  as  well  as  lateral  diameters,  and 
hence  upon  nasion,  these  important  racial  criteria  must  be  taken  with 
great  reserve,  for  the  constancy  of  the  lateral  diameters  serves  only  to 
exaggerate,  in  the  indices,  the  differences  between  the  vertical  dimensions. 
So  much  for  the  most  serious  metrical  difficulties.  In  measurements  on 
the  living  we  see  a  more  bountiful  but  less  accurate  counterpart  of  the 
criteria  already  familiar  to  the  craniologist.  There  is  another  large  body 
of  data,  however,  unique  in  living  material;  the  observations  on  the  soft 
parts,  including  such  features  as  hair  form,  hair  texture;  skin,  hair,  and 
eye  color;  the  shape  of  the  various  component  segments  of  the  nose,  the 
lips,  and  the  external  eye.  These  are  important  diagnostic  racial  charac- 
ters and  deserve  as  careful  study  as  do  measurements  and  indices.  But, 
unfortunately,  accurate  comparisons  between  the  work  of  different  in- 
vestigators is  even  less  possible  here  than  with  metrical  data,  since  observa- 
tion is  a  matter  of  judgment,  and  no  two  men's  judgments  are  the  same. 
The  use  of  standard  pigment  scales  in  determining  hair,  skin,  and  eye 
color  has  helped  enormously,  but  has  not  entirely  eliminated  the  diffi- 
culties in  the  pigmentation  field.  There  is  no  really  adequate  eye-color 
scale  on  the  market,  although  Martin's  series  of  sixteen  glass  eyes  is  far 
better  than  nothing.  Von  Luschan's  skin-color  scale  does  not  always 
approximate  human  shades,  and  this  is  especially  true  with  whites.  The 
Sailer-Fischer  hair-color  scale,  made  from  actual  human  hair,  is  excel- 
lent, in  most  respects,  but  has  not  yet  come  into  common  use;  the  earlier 
Fischer  scale,  made  of  bleached  and  dyed  vicufta  hair,  is  also  good. 

Unfortunately,  however,  the  majority  of  our  observational  data  has 
been  collected  without  reference  to  scales,  and  published  without  accu- 
rate definitions,  and  it  is  impossible  to  tell,  in  many  instances,  what  color 
or  what  degree  of  blondism  or  pigmentation  is  implied  by  a  given  term. 
Then  too,  environment  and  age  make  great  differences  in  pigmentation; 
the  degree  of  tanning  or  of  uncleanliness  in  regard  to  the  skin  color  is 
seldom  indicated;  eyes  often  grow  lighter  with  age,  and  the  deposit  of  fat 
in  the  cornea,  called  arms  senilis^  which  gives  a  grayish-blue  tone  to  the 
peripheral  zone  of  the  iris,  is  often  mistaken  for  eye  blondism.  Hair  color 
is  notoriously  transitory,  changing,  in  all  but  pure  brunets  and  extreme 
blonds,  continuously  from  birth  to  grayness,  baldness,  or  death. 

Most  observations,  other  than  those  referring  to  pigmentation  and  the 
morphology  of  the  pilous  system,  are  divided  into  the  following  categories: 
absent,  sub-medium,  medium,  pronounced.  These  are  frequently  ex- 
pressed by  the  symbols,  abs.,  sm.,  +>  ++•  Often  ssm.  and  +++  are 
added  for  greater  refinement.  In  general,  the  standard  for  the  +  or 
medium  category  is  a  roughly  estimated  and  ideal  mean  or  intermediate 
white  or  European  male  condition.  Thus  in  nasal  tip  thickness  almost  all 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  245 

negroes  would  be  ++  °r  ++  +  J  in  beard  development  almost  all  Eski- 
mos would  be  abs.,  ssm.,  or  sm.  There  is  a  tendency  for  the  observer  to 
make  the  mean  condition  of  the  people  he  is  studying  +  or  medium,  or 
to  be  unconsciously  influenced  by  his  own  facial  form. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  standardize  these  quantitative 
observations,  and  the  most  promising  is  perhaps  that  of  the  Moscow 
school,  where  a  series  of  plaster  casts  has  been  made  to  show  standard 
stages  of  sm.,  +,  and  H — f-  in  each  of  the  more  commonly  studied  criteria. 
Still,  whatever  standards  are  used,  the  location  of  the  borderline  between 
categories  must  always  be  a  matter  of  individual  judgment. 

Our  first  difficulty  with  the  study  of  race  from  existing  data  on  living 
populations,  whether  these  data  be  metrical  or  observational,  is  therefore 
one  of  technical  inaccuracy  and  inconsistency.  But  it  is  not  the  greatest 
difficulty  which  will  be  encountered,  and  it  is  not  insuperable.  The  care- 
ful compiler  can  usually  discover  what  are  the  technical  idiosyncracies 
of  a  given  investigator,  and  if  he  is  familiar  with  the  material  as  a  whole, 
he  can  usually  sense  improbable  divergences  from  standard  technique. 
The  comparison  of  different  samples  selected  from  the  same  population 
by  different  investigators  often  makes  a  standard  adjustment  possible. 

Technical  inconsistencies  and  inaccuracies  render  the  study  of  race  on 
the  living  something  less  than  an  exact  science,  but  it  remains  something 
more  than  a  plaything.  The  manipulation  of  metrical  data  requires  ex- 
perience and  judgment,  and  the  uncritical  use  of  existing  materials  on  a 
purely  statistical  basis,  no  matter  how  erudite  in  the  mathematical  sense, 
can  never  be  more  than  a  sterile  exercise.  Those  who  employ  experience 
and  judgment,  and  who  make  a  discreet  use  of  the  simpler  statistical 
methods,  may  learn  much  from  the  handling  of  the  immense  body  of 
anthropometric  data. 

(2)   THE   USE   OF   STATISTICS   IN  PHYSICAL  ANTHROPOLOGY 

In  the  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  skeletal  material,  we  made  only 
the  briefest  mention  of  the  statistical  methods  to  be  employed  in  that  seg- 
ment of  the  book.6  This  was  done  because  the  numerical  size  and  the 
nature  of  the  cranial  samples  employed  limited  the  treatment,  in  most 
cases,  to  a  discussion  of  individual  crania  and  to  a  comparison  of  simple 
means.  With  the  living  material  however,  the  use  of  much  larger  samples, 
and  of  non-metrical  soft  part  criteria,  will  necessitate  reference  to  more 
elaborate  methods,  and  therefore  a  brief  allusion  to  the  better  known 
statistical  principles  and  techniques  which  are  commonly  employed  seems 
indicated. 

Modern  physical  anthropology,  in  company  with  other  technical  and 

8  Chanter  I.  DD.  14-15. 


246  THE  RACES   OF  EURpPE 

biological  disciplines,  has  entered  a  stage  of  increasing  dependence  upon 
mathematics,  and  lengthy  formulae  which  involve  the  use  of  several  alpha- 
bets are  currently  employed  by  most  physical  anthropologists.  Although 
there  are  several  schools  each  of  which  has  assembled  a  favorite  collection  of 
symbols,  the  method  as  a  whole  is  a  product  of  the  English  biometric  school 
founded  by  Gal  ton  and  Pearson.  Aside  from  the  calculation  of  means, 
the  purposes  for  which  these  formulae  and  numerical  techniques  are  em- 
ployed may  be  reduced  to  four,  which,  expressed  in  the  simplest  possible 
form,  are  as  follows: 

(1)  To  determine  the  degree  of  homogeneity  or  heterogeneity  of  a  given  statistical 
sample,  in  the  various  criteria  measured  or  observed,  and  to  compare  it  in  these  re- 
spects with  other  samples. 

(2)  To  determine  whether  or  not  two  statistical  samples  may  be  considered 
random  selections  from  a  single  population. 

(3)  Having  found  that  the  two  samples  represent  demonstrable  different  popula- 
tions, to  determine  exactly  how  different,  in  a  metrical  sense,  they  are. 

(4)  To  determine  whether  or  not  a  given  sample  is  racially  mixed,  and  if  it  is,  to 
discover  its  component  elements. 

Let  us  review  these  four  purposes  and  the  techniques  by  which  they  are 
accomplished,  in  as  simple  and  brief  a  manner  as  possible. 

(1)  To  study  the  relative  variability  of  samples.  This  is  done  by  means  of  the 
two  constants,  standard  deviation  and  coefficient  of  variation.6  The  former, 
in  which  the  variability  of  the  extremes  is  emphasized  by  the  quadratic 
treatment,  indicates  how  many  unit  points  the  average  individual  in  the 
sample  deviates  from  that  mean.  When  used  to  compare  approximately 
equivalent  means  within  the  same  criterion,  it  is  a  simple  and  useful 
constant.  The  coefficient  of  variation  is  designed  to  facilitate  comparison 
between  criteria  in  which  the  metrical  values  of  the  means  are  quite 
different,  in  order  to  eliminate  the  size  element.  By  comparing  <r's  and 
V's  of  a  given  sample  with  those  of  a  general  compilation,  such  as  that  of 
Howells,7  one  may  gauge  the  relative  variability  of  the  sample,  and  may 
compare  it  with  other  specific  samples  in  this  regard.  This  technique  is 

6  o-  (Standard  Deviation)  =*  *\  ~r  —  A2.   V  (Coefficient  of  Variation)  = 
P.  E.  M.  (Probable  error  of  the  mean) 


M 

.67450- 


VN 

.67450- 
P.  E.  a  (Probable  error  of  the  standard  deviation)  =      . —  • 

P.  E.  V.  (Probable  error  of  the  coefficient  of  variation)  =  ' 


P.  E.  Diff.  «  VP.  E.  M.i  +  P.  E.  M.i 
7  Howells,  W.  W.,  HB,  vol.  8,  1936,  #4,  pp.  592-600. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  247 

not  by  its  nature  limited  to  living  material,  but  it  may  be  profitably 
employed  with  many  more  published  series  of  the  living  than  of  crania. 

(2)  To  test  the  statistical  independence  of  two  samples.    The  second  purpose 
is,  in  effect,  to  tell  whether  or  not  two  samples  may  be  considered  separate 
statistical  entities.    The  technique  most  commonly  employed  is  to  com- 
pare the  difference  between  two  means  with  the  probable  error  *  of  that 
difference.   If  the  difference  is  three  times  or  more  its  probable  error,  then 
the  two  samples  are  considered  distinct  in  the  criterion  under  study.    If, 
in  a  large  number  of  criteria,  the  two  samples  are  consistently  distinct, 
then  two  separate  populations  are  represented.   If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
two  samples  are  not  distinct,  owing  to  the  relative  smallness  of  differences 
compared  to  their  probable  errors,  then  we  may  make  one  of  the  following 
deductions:  (a)  the  two  groups  represent  the  same  anthropometric  popu- 
lation; (b)  the  two  groups  are  really  different,  but  owing  to  the  small 
numerical  size  of  one  or  both  samples,  or  to  the  excessive  variability  of 
one  or  both,  such  a  difference  cannot  be  established  statistically. 

In  order  to  determine  which  of  these  two  premises  is  the  more  likely, 
the  exercise  of  judgment  must  inevitably  be  interpolated.  If  both  samples 
are  large  and  of  reasonable  variability,  the  two  are  probably,  in  fact, 
alike;  if  both  are  very  small  and  the  probable  errors  large,  the  chances  are 
great  that  the  samples  are  statistically  worthless.  The  chief  utility  of  the 
sampling  check,  therefore,  is  to  find  out  whether  or  not  apparent  differ- 
ences are  really  of  significance.  It  is  not  an  automatic  proof  of  identity. 

(3)  To  measure  the  anthropometric  difference  between  samples.   The  third  pur- 
pose, to  tell  how  close  or  how  distant  two  samples  are  in  a  metrical  sense, 
may  be  fulfilled  in  any  one  of  a  number  of  ways.  One  is  merely  to  compare 
the  means,  and  to  compute  the  differences.    Then,  for  convenience,  one 
may  pool  the  differences  for  separate  statistical  categories.    For  example, 
the  difference  between  sample  A  and  sample  B  in  head  length  may  be 
4.35  mm.;  in  head  breadth  7.32  mm.;  ip  head  height  1.09  mm.  The  aver- 
age difference  in  three  vault  diameters  is  therefore  4.19  mm.  The  average 
for  the  same  three  diameters,  between  sample  A  and  sample  C,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  be  9.73  mm.    Therefore  we  may  say  that  sample  A  resembles 
sample  B,  in  the  totality  of  three  vault  diameters,  more  than  it  resembles 
sample  C.    Similarly  one  may  pool  the  vault  indices,  or  the  head  and 
face  measurements,  or  the  head  and  face  indices,  but  one  may  not  average 
measurements  and  indices  together.    To  do  so  would  be  to  commit  the 
kindergarten  fallacy  of  adding  oranges  and  apples.   But  there  are  anthro- 
pologists who  have  not  only  done  this,  but  who  have  also  added  centi- 
meters and  millimeters  together  as  equal  units,  in  pooling  body  and  head 
measurements. 

*  See  footnote  6  on  preceding  page. 


248  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

It  has  long  been  the  wish  of  many  anthropologists  to  find  some  means 
whereby  they  might  express  the  degree  of  similarity  of  difference  between 
two  populations  by  a  single  figure.  Taking  population  A  as  zero,  B 
would  be,  say,  5.6;  C  =  7.3;  D  =  11.9.  Thus  the  relationships  of  B,  C,  and 
D  in  respect  to  A  could  be  determined.  Taking  each  of  the  others  in  turn, 
it  would  be  possible  to  triangulate  and  to  plot  the  mutual  relationships  of 
any  number  of  populations  in  a  simple,  graphic  manner.  Morant,  work- 
ing with  a  formula  invented  by  Pearson,  has  proposed  and  employed  such 
a  method  in  the  form  of  the  coefficient  of  racial  likeness.8  Some  have 
accepted  this  in  principle,  others  have  rejected  it.9  Whatever  its  theoretical 
validity  or  error,  however,  it  does  actually  give  approximately  the  same 
results  as  a  simple  pooling  of  the  several  categories  of  differences.  Unfor- 
tunately neither  a  simple  pooling  nor  the  coefficient  of  racial  likeness 
takes  into  account  correlative  influences  which  compel  several  characters 
to  vary  in  concert,  and  thus  to  weight,  in  a  variable  degree,  the  totality  of 
characters  chosen.  According  to  Morant,  these  correlative  influences 
could  be  eliminated,  but  only  by  an  unfeasible  amount  of  statistical  labor. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  fourth  purpose,  let  us  pause  to  make  a  few 
reflections  upon  the  uses  to  which  the  three  systems  already  outlined  may 
be  put.  Although  all  are  useful,  not  one  automatically  answers  any  im- 
portant questions.  The  first  technique,  that  which  is  concerned  with 
variability,  tells  us  how  variable  samples  are,  but  not  why  they  are  vari- 
able. Unusual  variability  may  indicate  an  active  evolutionary  tendency, 
the  recent  and  as  yet  not  fully  amalgamated  mixture  between  two  popula- 
tions, or  any  one  of  a  number  of  other  causes.  Unusual  homogeneity,  on 
the  other  hand,  does  not  necessarily  mean  racial  " purity,"  in  the  historical 
sense,  but  rather  a  complete  amalgamation  and  a  static  evolutionary 
condition.  The  second  is  useful  mainly  to  eliminate  from  serious  consider- 
ation statistically  inadequate  samples.  The  third  gives  a  detailed  idea 
of  degrees  of  metrical  similarity  and  difference.  But  neither  the  second 
technique  nor  the  third  tells  the  investigator  what  is  the  genetic  relationship 
between  two  samples. 

(4)  To  analyze  a  racially  mixed  sample.  Let  us  now  turn  to  the  fourth  and 
last  important  use  which  the  physical  anthropologist  makes  of  statistics. 
This  is  his  attempt  to  divide  a  given  sample,  which  he  considers  to  have 
resulted  from  a  mixture  of  races,  into  its  component  elements,  and  to  see 
what  these  elements  are  and  how  much  there  is  of  each  in  the  mixture. 
This  is  a  rather  complicated  process,  and  many  different  methods  have 
been  devised  to  accomplish  it. 

8  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  14,  1923,  pp.  193-264;  vol.  16,  1924,  pp.  1-105. 
Pearson,  K.,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  105-117. 

9  Fisher,  R.  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  66,  1936,  pp.  57-63. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  249 

One  is  the  system  employed  by  Hooton  and  his  school,  in  which  the 
author  was  trained.  That  is  for  the  anthropometrist,  working  either  with 
crania  or  with  the  living,  to  divide  his  series  into  what  seem  to  him  natural 
groupings,  and  to  specify  on  each  measurement  blank  which  of  these 
types  is  represented.  After  the  sample  has  been  seriated  as  a  whole,  the 
sub-samples  of  the  different  types  are  seriated  separately,  and  statistically 
compared  with  each  other  and  with  the  total  mean.  By  this  means  it  may 
be  determined  whether  or  not  statistically  different  elements  have  actu- 
ally been  isolated.  If  so,  the  next  step  is  to  determine,  by  comparison, 
what  the  larger  racial  relationships  of  these  elements  are.10  Hooton  bases 
his  system  on  the  principle  that  the  individual  possesses  a  racial  identity, 
as  well  as  does  the  group  to  which  he  belongs. 

Another  method  which  is  less  subjective  but  wholly  arbitrary  is  that  of 
Czekanowski,  who  plots  the  mean  differences  between  individuals  in  a 
sample  on  a  chequered  field ;  this  is  done  only  with  indices  of  the  head  and 
face,  when  the  original  system  is  followed.11  Two  individuals  alike  in  all 
indices  chosen  produce  a  black  square  at  the  point  where  their  lines  inter- 
sect; two  which  are  less  alike  produce  a  square  which  is  striped,  in  varying 
degrees  arranged  to  show  the  degree  of  similarity;  then  those  which  are 
dissimilar  in  all  indices  are  represented  by  white  squares.  After  these 
squares  have  been  completely  plotted,  the  graph  is  rearranged  so  that 
those  which  are  naturally  related  are  placed  in  contiguous  positions.  In 
this  way  it  is  possible  to  see  how  many  sub-groups  of  naturally  correlated 
individuals  occur,  and  how  large  these  sub-groups  are.  The  next  step  is 
to  find  the  racial  affinities  of  each  sub-group.  For  this  purpose  the  Polish 
school  has  designated  a  formal  list  of  races,  each  symbolized  by  a  separate 
Greek  letter,  and  each  equipped  with  a  list  of  ideal  metrical  positions  in 
the  more  commonly  used  measurements  and  indices,  as  well  as  with  a 
characteristic  pigmental  position.  Each  group  of  correlated  black  squares 
in  the  graph  is  assigned  to  one  of  these  races,  or  to  a  combination  of  two 
or  more,  and  the  percentages  of  each  race  in  the  sample  is  thus  worked 
out. 

A  third  method  is  that  originated  by  von  Eickstedt,  the  leader  of  the 
Breslau  School,  and  amplified  by  Schwidetzky.12  This  method  is  to  sort 
the  sample  directly  into  sub-series  by  splitting  the  distribution  frequen- 
cies of  the  characters  at  arbitrary  racial  boundaries,  and  by  combining 
the  results  of  this  process  as  applied  to  pairs  of  characters;  to  plot  the 

10  Hooton,  E.  A.,  The  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands;  Indians  of  Pecos;  Science, 
vol.  63,  1926,  p.  75. 

11  Gzekanowski,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp.  17-217;  AASF,  ser.  A.,  vol.  25,  #2, 
Helsinki,  1925;  AAnz,  vol.  5,  1928,  pp.  335-359. 

»  Eickstedt,  E.  von,  ZFRK,  vol.  2,  1935,  pp.  1-32. 

Schwidetzky,  I.,  ZFRK,  vol.  2,  1935,  pp.  32-40;  vol.  3,  1936,  pp.  46-55. 


250  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

distribution  curves  of  the  sub-series,  so-created,  for  measurements,  indices, 
and  percentages  of  observations;  and  to  test  the  sorting  by  a  comparison 
of  these  curves  with  others  which  represent  arbitrary  racial  norms.  Like 
all  such  systems,  this  one  operates  on  the  assumption  that  the  result  of 

A  +  B 
mixing  A  +  B  in  any  metrical  character  is  — 

The  three  methods  outlined  above  are  all  based  on  the  principle  of 
correlation.  Correlation  statistics  alone  are  even  more  commonly  used 
than  any  of  these.  One  may  correlate  metrical  characters  with  each  other; 
metrical  characters  with  indices;  either  metrical  characters  or  indices  with 
observations,  and  observations  with  each  other.  By  means  of  these  corre- 
lation statistics  one  finds  which  characters  are  associated,  in  the  sense  that 
their  variations  are  not  mutually  independent.  One  finds,  for  example, 
that  light  eyes  are  usually  if  not  always  correlated  with  light  hair.  The 
elements  of  blondism  are  to  a  certain  extent  linked.  One  will  also  find 
that  segments  of  a  dimension  are  positively  correlated  with  that  dimen- 
sion, but  this  is  of  no  racial  significance.  If  they  are  not  correlated,  or  are 
negatively  correlated,  then  there  is  something  to  investigate.  One  must 
furthermore  expect  all  gross  size  diameters  to  be  intercorrelated  to  some 
extent  in  any  population,  for  obvious  reasons. 

Correlations  of  racial  significance  are  those  which  are  not  dependent  on 
gross  size  and  are  not  involved  in  a  part-and-whole  relationship.  Thus, 
if  tall  stature  goes  with  blond  hair  and  short  stature  with  dark  hair,  or  if  a 
broad  nose  goes  with  a  low  relative  sitting  height,  and  vice  versa,  then 
the  anthropologist  who  is  analyzing  his  series  assumes  that  he  has  uncov- 
ered linkages  showing  racial  variations  within  his  sample. 

There  is  no  possible  objection  to  the  use  of  correlations,  but  there  are 
many  objections  to  the  ways  in  which  they  are  often  interpreted.  In  the 
first  place,  a  valid  correlation  implies  some  degree  of  genetic  linkage. 
But  it  does  not  necessarily  imply  that  this  linkage  represents  with  com- 
plete fidelity  a  combination  found  in  one  component  element  in  a  hypo- 
thetical mixture.  There  may  have  been  no  mixture  at  all — the  group  may 
be  evolving,  by  mutation,  in  a  certain  direction  which  involves  more 
than  a  single  character.  Or  if  there  has  been  mixture,  the  correlation 
may  represent  a  recombination  of  characters. 

Correlation,  in  brief,  shows  linkage,  but  what  does  linkage  mean?  We 
must  not  forget  that  a  population,  in  the  physical  as  well  as  in  the  social 
sense,  has  an  existence  of  its  own  in  addition  to  and  above  the  existences 
of  its  component  units,  and  we  must  not,  furthermore,  anticipate  the 
findings  of  the  geneticists.  All  of  the  methods  which  partition  a  series,  or 
which  employ  the  principle  of  correlation,  have  some  justification  in  their 
initial  steps,  and  some  utility,  but  all  of  them  become  unscientific  as  soon 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   LIVING  251 

as  general  biological  principles  are  forgotten  and  arbitrary  assumptions 
are  allowed  to  creep  into  the  process  of  interpretation. 

At  this  point  we  must  repeat  the  premise  upon  which  the  whole  tech- 
nique of  the  present  book  is  based:  The  study  of  race  in  man  is  as  much  a 
social  and  historical  as  a  biological  discipline.  Out  of  his  environment  man 
creates  his  cultural  milieu,  and  his  cultural  milieu,  as  we  are  becoming 
increasingly  aware,13  alters  his  physical  nature.  When  we  shall  have  dis- 
covered some  of  the  laws  which  govern  human  inheritance  and  human 
change,  we  may  become  much  more  mathematical  than  is  fitting  at 
present.  Laws  in  biology  and  in  its  sub-division  sociology,  when  once 
understood,  are  seen  to  be  as  invariable  and  as  valid  as  laws  in  physics. 
But  we  cannot,  and  we  should  not  attempt  it,  remove  the  study  of  human 
racial  taxonomy  from  the  dimensions  of  cultural  milieu  and  of  history. 
We  may  and  must  employ  a  statistical  method,  but  let  it  be  one  tempered 
with  simplicity  and  discrimination,  since  mathematics  to  us  is  not  an 
end  but  a  tool. 

(3)   DISTRIBUTION   OF   BODILY   CHARACTERS 

(a)  Stature  and  Bodily  Form 

Before  venturing  to  draw  up  a  schematic  classification  of  races  within 
the  white  family,  let  us  review  some  of  the  better  known  racial  criteria 
from  the  standpoint  of  spatial  distribution.  The  use  of  maps  to  show  the 
distribution  of  means  in  a  single  metrical  character  is  one  of  the  oldest 
and  commonest  illustrative  devices  employed  in  the  study  of  race.  It 
has,  in  fact,  formed  the  basis  for  several  systems  of  racial  classification, 
based  upon  geographical  correlations  between  two  or  more  characters. 
Such  classifications  ignore  individual  linkages  in  the  characters  involved, 
and  subordinate  the  position  pf  the  individual  as  a  racial  entity.  They  are 
of  necessity  based  on  few  characters,  and  the  races  so  postulated  are  cor- 
respondingly ill  defined.14  This  abuse  of  cartography  should  not,  how- 
ever, hinder  the  use  of  maps  in  a  purely  demonstrative  sense. 

In  this  and  the  two  following  sections,  we  present  four  such  maps, 
representing  the  distributions  of  stature,  the  cephalic  index,  head  size, 
and  hair  and  eye  pigmentation.15  These  four  characters  were  chosen  from 
the  total  body  of  criteria  because  they  are  the  only  ones  in  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  overcome,  to  a  satisfactory  degree,  the  obstacles  of  paucity  of  data 

13  Cf.  the  title  and  sense  of  Childe's  book,  Man  Makes  Himself. 

14  See  Chapter  I,  section  3. 

16  Attention  is  called  to  the  earlier  maps  of  Deniker,  and  of  Struck,  both  of  which 
have  been  extensively  copied. 

Deniker,  J.,JRAI,  vol.  34,  NS  7,  1904,  pp.  181-206. 

Giinther,  H.,  Rassenkunde  des  deutschen  Volkes,  pp.  216-217.  (Early  reproduction  of 
Struck's  maps.) 


STATUTE 


176-7 
174-5 

172-3 
170-1 

168-9 
166-7 

164-5 
182-3 
160-1 
158-9 


MAP 


252 


253 


254  THE   RACES   OF  EUROPE 

and  technical  inconsistency.  Not  one  of  the  four  is  completely  accurate, 
but  all  are  accurate  enough  for  present  purposes. 

In  the  first  of  these,  the  stature  map  (Map  5),  as  in  those  which  fol- 
low, boundaries  between  provinces,  linguistic  areas,  and  other  ethnic  or 
political  units  have  been  simplified,  and  schematized  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  smallest  spatial  unit  recognized  is  one  capable  of  legible  stip- 
pling. Nomadic  territories  in  North  Africa,  southwestern  Asia,  and  the 
far  north,  have  received  an  even  more  schematic  treatment. 

The  first  impression  which  one  receives  while  examining  this  map  is 
that  there  seems  no  orderly  scheme;  that,  except  for  the  stunted  circum- 
polar  belt,  there  seem  to  be  no  widespread  zones  of  stature.  A  relatively 
large  and  consistent  area  of  tall  stature,  however,  is  comprised  by  the 
Scandinavian  Peninsula,  most  of  the  land  area  of  the  British  Isles,  the 
Netherlands,  Finland,  the  Baltic  states,  and  parts  of  northern  Germany. 
This  northwestern  European  center  of  tallness  is  commonly  referred  to 
in  anthropological  literature  as  the  primary  Nordic  racial  zone.16  It  is 
difficult,  however,  to  agree  that  the  tall  stature  of  these  countries  is  largely 
the  result  of  the  presence  of  Nordics,  since  its  existence  seems  to  be  due 
to  multiple  factors.  Historically,  this  is  precisely  the  region  of  maximum 
survival  of  tall  Palaeolithic  hunters,  while  Corded  people  were  concen- 
trated in  certain  sections  of  it,  especially  in  Denmark  and  Esthonia. 
Furthermore  other  contributing  racial  elements,  such  as  the  Bell  Beaker 
people  and  the  Megalithic  navigators,  were  all  tall,  and  these  lands  under 
consideration  are  at  the  same  time  precisely  the  regions  of  Europe  least  in- 
fluenced by  Danubian  or  Western  Mediterranean  agricultural  invaders. 
Essentially,  therefore,  these  are  regions  in  which  all  contributing  racial 
elements  in  the  past  have  been  tall,  and  in  which  there  is  no  short-statured 
ethnic  sub-stratum.  Furthermore,  northwestern  Europe  has  been  the 
scene  of  maximum  stature  increase  during  the  last  century. 

A  second  European  area  of  tall  stature  is  the  Dinaric  mountain  zone, 
the  nucleus  of  which  stretches  along  a  narrow  belt  from  Croatia  to  the 
Drin  River  in  Albania,  and  which  reaches  its  peak  in  Montenegro.  Here 
one  finds  statures  as  tall  as  those  in  the  north,  and,  in  the  heart  of  the  area, 
taller.  The  origin  of  this  Dinaric  giantism  is  obscure,  since  the  prehistoric 
archaeology  of  this  region  is  almost  unknown,  and  the  crania  documents 
from  later  times  inadequate.  We  know  that  the  Bell  Beaker  people  set- 
tled here  in  some  numbers,  but  hesitate  to  attribute  to  them  alone  the 
excessive  height  of  modern  Dinarics. 

A  third  area  is  found  in  southwestern  Russia,  on  the  northern  shore  of 
the  Black  Sea,  in  the  Ukraine;  here  Atlanto-Mediterranean  factors  seem 

16  De  Geer,  S.,  "The  Kernel  Area  of  the  Nordic  Race  within  Northern  Europe," 
in  Lundborg,  H.,  and  Hinders,  F.,  Racial  Character  of  the  Swedish  Nation. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  255 

largely  responsible.  On  Asiatic  territory  the  countries  occupied  by  the 
non-mongoloid  Turkomans  and  by  the  Iranian-speaking  Kurds  are  seats 
of  tall  stature,  as  is  the  kingdom  of  Iraq,  whose  inhabitants  have  been  tall 
since  the  days  of  the  Sumerians. 

One  other  principal  area  of  tall  stature,  which  is  merely  suggested 
within  the  limitations  of  the  present  map,  is  the  Hamitic  center  located  in 
East  Africa.  One  recalls  the  giantism  of  the  pluvial  inhabitants  of  Kenya, 
which  has  apparently  been  perpetuated  in  the  great  height  of  living  Ham- 
ites  who  inhabit  the  Horn  of  Africa  and  the  western  shore  of  the  Red  Sea. 
The  most  thoroughly  Hamitic  of  the  North  African  Berbers,  the  Tuareg, 
are  as  tall  as  northwestern  Europeans.  The  tall  stature  zone  of  northern 
Africa  is  centered  in  regions  of  the  Sahara  occupied  by  nomadic  Berbers, 
and  extends  itself  into  the  fertile  stretch  of  Africa  Minor  where  these 
people  have  settled  after  invasions. 

Turning  to  the  consideration  of  short  stature,  we  find  that,  aside  from 
the  far  north  and  the  territories  occupied  by  recent  Mongol  invaders,  it  is 
concentrated  today  in  the  very  regions  most  affected  by  early  Neolithic 
migrations  of  short,  food-producing  Mediterraneans — namely,  the  western 
Mediterranean  countries,  from  central  France  to  Sicily,  and  the  Danubian 
culture  area,  especially  in  its  eastern  and  trans-Carpathian  segment. 

In  general,  one  cannot  over-simplify  a  distribution  map  dealing  with  a 
character  as  complex  as  stature,  since  south  of  the  Arctic  circle  there  are 
no  large  zones  or  major  trends,  and  in  most  of  the  sub-areas  a  complicated 
sequence  of  historical  events  has  taken  place  which  has  brought  in  a  suc- 
cession of  peoples  with  different  statures.  Furthermore,  different  environ- 
mental stimuli  operating  in  various  places  and  at  varying  times  have 
further  served  to  complicate  the  picture. 

The  distributions  of  weight  and  bodily  form,  if  these  criteria  could  also 
be  completely  plotted,  would  make  maps  as  interesting  as  that  of  stature. 
What  information  we  possess  suggests  that  they  would  be  much  simpler 
and  more  easily  interpreted.  In  weight,  for  example,  there  would  be  one 
large  zone  in  which  the  adult  males  in  middle  life  would  average  over 
150  pounds,  with  individuals  in  the  two  hundred  class  common,  and  this 
zone  would  correspond  to  the  northwestern  area  of  tall  stature,  and  to 
adjacent  parts  of  Germany,  Holland,  and  Belgium.  The  center  of  the 
Dinaric  zone  would  likewise  be  one  of  heavy  weights,  but  the  rest  of  Europe 
would  run,  for  the  most  part,  at  least  twenty  pounds  lighter. 

In  the  long  stretch  of  arid  countries  reaching  across  North  Africa  and 
Egypt  into  Arabia,  Iraq,  Iran,  and  Afghanistan,  light  weights  would  be 
the  rule,  regardless  of  stature,  and  this  would  likewise  be  a  zone  of  pre- 
dominantly linear,  or  long  and  narrow,  bodily  habitus.  Stocky  build,  on 
the  other  hand,  would  also  be  found  to  have  little  relationship  to  stature, 


256  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

since  some  of  the  tallest  northern  peoples  and  some  of  the  Binaries  would 
be  plotted  as  lateral.  Sex  differences  in  both  stature  and  gross  size  would 
be  found  greatest  in  northwestern  Europe,  as  among  Upper  Palaeolithic 
peoples,  and  least  in  eastern  Europe  and  among  western  Mediterraneans. 
In  general  total  bulk,  regardless  of  stature,  seems  partly  a  function  of 
environment,  and  excessive  bodily  volume  is  suggestively  centered  in 
cool,  damp  regions,  while  thin,  light-bodied  people  are  most  frequently 
encountered  in  deserts.  Great  differences  in  size  between  the  sexes  seem 
commoner  among  large  than  among  small  peoples,  and  are  most  pro- 
nounced in  the  regions  where  Upper  Palaeolithic  strains  survive  in  most 
concentrated  solution. 

(4)    DISTRIBUTION   OF   BODILY   CHARACTERS 

(b)  Head  Form,  Head  Size,  and  Other  Metrical  Characters  of  the  Head 
and  Face 

Next  to  stature,  which  is  of  interest  to  many  others  besides  anthropol- 
ogists, our  data  are  fullest  on  the  cephalic  index,  for  this  ratio  has  been 
the  favorite  of  both  professional  and  amateur  students  of  race  ever  since 
its  invention  by  Retzius  in  1842.  The  same  remarks  on  the  method  of 
plotting  the  stature  map  apply  to  that  of  the  cephalic  index  (Map  6). 
Here  the  only  region  of  comparative  uncertainty  lies  in  the  southeastern 
corner,  in  Iran,  where  some  rather  extensive  boundary  stretching  has 
been  practiced. 

The  distribution  of  the  cephalic  index  within  the  area  covered  by  this 
map  is  a  complex  affair,  and  cannot  be  interpreted  hastily.  Many  factors 
and  many  events  have  contributed  to  this  state  of  complexity,  which  the 
map  only  partly  represents.  One  must  remember  that,  as  in  the  stature 
map,  the  scattered  bands  and  villages  of  Lapps  have  been  schematically 
united  into  a  nucleus  in  northern  Scandinavia,  Finland,  and  the  Kola 
Peninsula.  Furthermore  minority  groups  such  as  Jews,  Gypsies,  and 
others,  have  been  omitted,  since  in  no  region  large  enough  for  schematic 
representation  are  they  found  in  a  majority. 

The  most  striking  feature  of  the  map,  and  in  fact,  almost  its  only  uni- 
formity, is  the  steady  band  of  almost  pure  dolichocephaly  which  extends 
south  of  the  Mediterranean  from  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Morocco  across 
North  Africa,  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Persia  into  Afghanistan;  to  continue, 
off  the  map,  over  Khyber  Pass  and  into  the  Indus  Valley.  This  band 
represents  the  greater  Mediterranean  race  in  its  post-Pleistocene  home- 
land. Small  spots  of  mesocephaly  in  the  Moroccan  mountains,  in  Kabylia 
and  in  the  Aures,  and  along  the  Tunisian  coast,  show  the  relatively  re- 
stricted zones  of  survival  of  earlier  Mediterranean  mesocephals  and,  to  a 
lesser  extent,  of  Pleistocene  North  African  men;  except  for  the  Tunisian 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  257 

coastal  centers,  where  the  strong  concentration  of  Punic  and  European 
populations  in  pre-Arab  times  is  no  doubt  partly  responsible. 

The  extreme  long  heads,  concentrated  in  the  Hoggar  and  in  parts  of  the 
Algerian  plateau,  are  the  Tuareg  and  the  purer  families  of  ancestral 
nomadic  Berbers,  preserving  the  head  form  which  they  brought  from 
East  Africa,  their  Hamitic  homeland.  The  heavily  dotted  stipple  repre- 
sents Mediterraneans  of  Neolithic  age  and  Arabs,  with  an  infusion  of  the 
Hamites,  while  the  light  dotting  represents  more  clearly  the  Hamites 
themselves.  This  is  a  distinction  which  should  not  be  pressed  too  far,  but 
which  may  still  be  made,  for  the  lightest  stippling  is  found  in  nomadic 
Berber  strongholds. 

Farther  east  the  desert  tribes  of  Libya,  and  the  oasis  people  of  Siwa,  are 
extremely  long-headed,  in  a  truly  Hamitic  fashion;  the  inhabitants  of 
Sinai,  and  some  of  the  tribes  in  the  Nejd,  as  some  of  the  Mesopotamian 
Bedawin,  and  groups  in  Iran,  fall  into  the  same  category.  Here  in  the 
east  we  approach  the  zone  of  hooked-nosed  long  heads,  quite  different 
in  facial  form  from  the  Hamitic  increment  farther  west.  Around  the 
Persian  Gulf  is  a  ring  of  higher  indices,  representing  a  maritime  popula- 
tion which  we  shall  encounter  later  in  the  coastlands  of  southern  Arabia, 
off  the  present  map.  The  long  headedness  of  inland  Arabs,  whether 
nomadic  or  agricultural,  continues  without  a  break  south  of  the  present 
map  into  Yemen  and  to  the  northern  and  western  borders  of  the  Ruba*  el 
Khali. 

In  Europe  itself,  long-headed  total  populations  are  rare.  Only  in  parts 
of  Portugal,  in  fact,  are  regional  indices  under  76  to  be  found  at  all. 
Europe  on  the  whole  is  a  brachycephalic  or  mesocephalic  continent. 
Mean  indices  between  76  and  79,  belonging  to  high  dolichocephals  and 
low  mesocephals  with  brachycephals  in  the  minority,  are  found  in  a  few 
places.  One,  the  most  continuous  area,  lies  in  the  northwest;  it  includes 
the  British  Isles,  most  of  Holland,  parts  of  Belgium,  and  the  Palatinate — 
old  Prankish  country — and  most  of  'the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  along 
with  the  coastal  lands  of  Finland,  and  with  Esthonia  and  Latvia. 

The  regions  just  enumerated  may  be  considered  in  a  way  a  unit;  most 
authorities  would  call  this,  as  with  stature,  the  Nordic  racial  territory, 
and  so  it  is  in  the  accepted  sense.  Another  belt  is  that  of  the  Iberian  Penin- 
sula, the  Dordogne  Valley  in  France,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  the  Balearics, 
the  toe  of  Italy,  and  Crete.  To  this  may  perhaps  be  added  part  of  the 
corresponding  area  in  the  British  Isles,  and  parts  of  the  eastern  site  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula.  This  is  what  remains  of  the  brunet  Mediterranean  race 
per  se  in  Europe;  isolated  island  groups,  a  peninsula  which  throughout 
history  has  been  more  African  than  European,  and  remnants  of  the  old 
Mediterranean  bloc  of  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Aegean. 


CEPHALIC  INDEX 


-73 

74-75 

76-77 

78-79 

80-81 

82-83 

84-85 

86-87 

88+ 


MAP 


258 


259 


260  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Where,  we  ask,  are  the  descendants  of  the  Danubians,  the  Aunjetitz 
Nordics,  and  their  Iron  Age  successors  in  eastern  and  central  Europe? 
Only  in  the  mesocephalic  belt  across  eastern  central  Russia,  and  the  region 
immediately  north  of  the  Caucasus,  and  again  in  the  central  and  eastern 
Balkans,  do  traces  of  the  original  head  form  of  these  peoples  appear, 
emerging  as  that  of  a  population  bound  to  the  soil.  Perhaps  in  the  tall 
stature  and  high  mesocephaly  of  the  Don  country  there  is  also  some  trace 
of  the  Scythians.  The  country  between  the  northern  shores  of  the  Caspian 
and  the  middle  Baltic  does  indeed  form  a  zone  of  relative  long  headedness 
between  the  mongoloid  brachycephaly  of  central  Asia  and  the  European 
brachycephaly  of  central  Europe. 

This  central  European  brachycephaly  may  not  be  treated  as  a  com- 
pletely unified  entity.  In  the  first  place,  we  find  its  westernmost  nucleus 
in  southern  France  in  the  Massif  Central,  which  is  the  home  of  the  Alpine 
race  in  its  truest  form.  Here  extreme  round  headedness  such  as  is  seldom 
exceeded  elsewhere  in  the  world  is  located.  The  valley  of  the  Rhdne  forms 
a  partial  gap,  beyond  which  lies  another  brachycephalic  zone  in  eastern 
France,  especially  in  Burgundy  and  the  Jura,  and  adjacent  portions  of 
Belgium.  Here  again  we  find  a  high  zone  of  brachycephaly,  accompanied, 
as  we  have  seen,  with  a  greater  stature  than  that  found  in  the  western 
Alps,  and  as  we  shall  see  later,  a  lighter  pigmentation.  Here  is  another 
brachycephalic  nucleus  representing  a  different  racial  concretion  from 
that  first  mentioned.  One  observes  that  in  the  upper  Rhine  Valley  and 
in  northwestern  Switzerland,  as  in  Lower  Austria,  this  zone  of  extreme 
brachycephaly  is  broken,  while  a  northern  colony  of  it  is  found  in  Bavaria, 
Bohemia,  and  Silesia. 

In  the  Tyrol,  southeastern  Switzerland,  and  most  of  northern  Italy  is 
another  nucleus,  which  is  the  home  of  the  western  branch  of  the  Dinaric 
group,  associated  largely  with  the  center  of  Rhaeto-Roman  speech.  These 
linguistic  fossils  are  survivors  of  the  pre-Germanic  population  of  this 
region.  Most  of  Austria  itself  runs  longer  headed,  owing,  no  doubt,  to 
the  strong  concentration  of  Germanic  peoples  there.  The  Dinaric  region 
proper,  extending  from  Bosnia  to  southern  Albania,  follows  the  mountain 
range,  which  in  turn  lies  close  to  the  Adriatic  coast.  The  center  of  highest 
brachycephaly  lies  in  southern  Albania,  in  the  Tosc  country,  well  south 
of  the  center  of  tallest  stature.  The  southern  brachycephalic  zone,  of 
which  it  is  the  nucleus,  extends  far  into  Greece,  along  the  western  coast, 
from  Epirus  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth. 

The  curve  of  the  Carpathians  forms  a  brachycephalic  barrier,  within 
which  all  peoples  represented,  except  for  the  Hungarian  Szeklers,  are 
very  round  headed.  This  infra-Carpathian  brachycephaly  pervades  all 
other  groups  regardless  of  language,  culture,  or  history.  Beyond  it  lies 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  261 

the  relatively  long-headed  expanse  of  the  Polish,  Ukrainian,  and  Molda- 
vian plain. 

As  we  turn  to  Asia  Minor  we  see  other  instances  of  extreme  regional 
brachycephaly.  The  Armenians,  some  of  the  Syrians,  especially  the 
Alouites,  Lebanese,  and  Druses,  are  the  roundest  headed  of  all  in  this 
region.  The  Anatolian  Turks,  being  typically  brachycephalic,  in  this 
respect  resemble  modern  representatives  of  the  pre-Turkish  peoples,  of 
this  region,  notably  the  Armenians. 

The  cephalic  index  map,  like  that  of  stature,  shows  that  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  is  by  no  means  a  racial  unit.  Some  of  the  lowest  and  some  of 
the  highest  cephalic  indices  in  the  world  are  found  in  close  proximity  to 
its  shores.  Another  notable  lack  of  continuity  is  seen  in  the  far  north.  The 
hunting  and  fishing  peoples,  so  consistently  short  of  stature,  are  very 
variable  in  head  form.  The  Lapps  alone  are  consistently  and  extremely 
brachycephalic.  The  original  mesocephalic  head  form  typical  of  the 
Finns  in  their  native  habitat  may  still  be  observed  in  the  regions  occupied 
by  Finnish  survivals  in  central  and  northern  Russia. 

On  the  whole,  the  distribution  of  the  cephalic  index  in  Europe  and 
adjacent  countries  is  extremely  significant  when  one  remembers  the  his- 
torical and  archaeological  background,  but  viewing  its  present  distribu- 
tion alone  one  might  easily  form  numerous  false  ideas  about  racial  origins 
and  continuities.  It  is  sufficiently  clear,  however,  that  the  zone  of  extreme 
brachycephaly  in  central  Europe  has  several  nuclei,  and  is  separate  from 
the  Anatolian-Caucasic  center  and  from  that  of  the  mongoloids  of  central 
Asia. 

One  last  factor  remains  to  be  mentioned,  and  this  is  the  ultra-peripheral 
distribution  of  moderately  high  cephalic  indices  on  the  very  westernmost 
fringe  of  Europe.  One  notices  that  southwestern  Ireland  has  a  mean 
cephalic  index  of  80  or  over.  Little  spots  of  this  same  condition  occur  in 
northern  Scotland,  the  Shetlands,  the  West  Frisian  island  chain,  in  Feh- 
marn,  and  in  points  along  the  western  Norwegian  coast.  This  hypermar- 
ginal  brachycephaly  is  peripheral  to  the  dolichocephaly  of  northwestern 
Europe,  which  in  its  turn  is  a  survival.  The  suggestion  is  that  this  round- 
headed  tendency  of  the  extreme  western  fringe  is  in  the  nature  of  a  Palaeo- 
lithic reemergence. 

The  third  map  of  this  series  (Map  7),  is  intended  to  show  the  distribu- 
tion of  absolute  head  size.  Head  size  ideally  should  be  a  measure  of  the 
cubic  capacity  of  the  cranium,  and  capacity  may  be  estimated  upon  the 
living  by  the  use  of  the  three  dimensions,  head  length,  head  breadth,  and 
auricular  head  height.  Unfortunately,  however,  as  already  explained,17 
auricular  head  height  is  for  the  most  part  an  unreliable  measurement, 

»  Page  243. 


HEAD  SIZE   L+B) 


331—335  mm. 

336-340 

341-345 

346-350 

351-355 


MAP 


262 


263 


264  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

and  it  would  not  be  possible  to  construct  a  map  covering  a  large  area 
in  which  this  was  a  component  dimension.  For  this  reason  head  size  is 
here  expressed  simply  by  the  sum  of  the  length  and  breadth  in  each  sample 
used.  It  so  happens  that  large  heads  in  the  length-breadth  sense  are  fre- 
quently high  heads  as  well,  so  that  there  is  little  chance  that  the  omission 
of  the  height  dimension  has  falsified  the  appearance  of  head  size  condi- 
tions. 

Head  size  is,  in  the  first  place,  wholly  unrelated  to  head  form.  Some 
of  the  largest  heads  are  found  among  both  dolichocephals  and  brachy- 
cephals,  and  the  same  is  true  of  some  of  the  smallest  heads.  It  seems, 
however,  to  be  closely  correlated  with  total  bodily  bulk,  and  hence  with 
weight,  although  not  with  stature.18  This  principle  applies  to  other  ani- 
mals as  well  as  to  man.  Brain  size  is,  after  all,  a  component  element  of 
bodily  bulk,  and  the  requirements  of  the  organism  in  the  matter  of  nerve 
tissue  depend  apparently  upon  total  size  rather  than  upon  the  relative 
degree  of  attenuation  of  extremities.  We  have  seen  that  cranial  size  is  an 
important  racial  diagnostic  in  the  cranium,  and  there  is  every  evidence 
that  it  is  equally  important  in  the  living. 

The  map  which  shows  the  distribution  of  this  trait  is  not,  however,  as 
reliable  as  the  two  which  precede  it.  Lacunae  have  been  filled  in  accord- 
ance with  general  racial  trends  and  by  the  conversion  of  modern  cranial 
material  to  living  standards  by  fixed  additions  to  allow  for  the  soft  parts.19 
The  areas  which  are  least  reliable  are  Portugal,  Spain,  much  of  France, 
and  portions  of  western  Germany.  The  Balearics  and  Sicily  were  filled 
in  by  inference.  However,  the  data  are  sufficient  to  assure  us  that  the 
general  picture  is  correct,  although  the  boundaries  may  well  be  inaccurate. 
The  map  will  serve  our  purpose,  and  cannot  lead  us  far  astray,  if  we  do 
not  lean  too  heavily  on  it,  or  follow  it  in  too  much  detail. 

The  first  impression  that  the  map  gives  is  one  of  a  concentric  distribu- 
tion of  head  size  with  Germany,  Belgium,  and  northern  France  as  the 
focus  of  greatest  volume.  From  this  focus  bands  of  diminishing  size  stretch 
like  bars  dexter  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  This  pattern  is  broken  in  the  Middle 
East  by  the  intrusion  of  relatively  large-headed  mongoloid  peoples  from 
central  Asia,  and  of  non-mongoloid  dolichocephalic  Turkomans,  Azer- 
baijanis,  and  Kurds. 

Studied  in  greater  detail,  where  detail  is  justified,  this  basic  pattern 
does  not  break  down,  but  other  facts  appear.  In  the  first  place,  Ireland 

18  Du  Bois,  E.,  CRIC,  1934,  pp.  71-75;  also,  Marett,  J.,  p.  129. 

19  Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,  JAPL,  vol.  51,  1917,  pp.  167-179. 
Fischer,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  36,  1906,  pp.  54-57. 
Gladstone,  R.  J.,  Biometrika,  vol.  4,  1905/6,  pp.  105-123. 
Mies,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  20,  1890,  pp.  37-49. 

Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  19,  1889,  pp.  198-200. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  265 

as  a  whole  has  the  largest  heads  of  any  country  excepting  Belgium.,  A 
vertical  line  divides  Ireland  into  a  western,  and  especially  southwestern 
half,  with  heads  as  large  as  the  largest  elsewhere,  and  an  eastern,  and 
especially  northeastern,  half  with  heads  which  although  smaller,  are  still 
large  by  European  standards.  Iceland  again  is  an  area  of  maximum  head 
size,  and  so  are  the  Shetland  Islands.  Small  regions  of  large  head  size 
appear  along  the  Norwegian  coast.  The  regions  mentioned  in  this  para- 
graph undoubtedly  represent  the  maximum  survival  of  Pleistocene  Euro- 
pean man  of  the  Briinn  race  in  the  northwestern  portion  of  the  continent. 
They  coincide  to  a  certain  extent  with  the  hypermarginal  distribution 
of  high  mesocephaly  and  low  brachycephaly. 

But  there  remains  the  bloc  of  large  heads  running  from  the  Seine  to 
East  Prussia,  and  concentrated  in  Belgium  and  in  the  lower  Elbe  country. 
Here  large  heads  are  associated  with  brachycephaly,  of  varying  degrees, 
but  usually  of  a  moderate  order.  This  region  has  a  much  larger-headed 
population  than  has  most  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  and  most  of  England 
and  Lowland  Scotland.  The  brachycephals  of  this  large  continental  bloc 
all  have  head  lengths  which  elsewhere  go  with  dolichocephaly.  The 
Fehmarn  islanders,  for  example,  whose  small  home  is  just  south  of  the 
Danish  Archipelago,  have  a  mean  head  length  of  193.5  mm.,  and  a 
cephalic  index  of  83.6.20  Their  head  breadth  of  161.8  mm.  is  tre- 
mendous. In  our  historical  chapters,  we  encountered  but  one  racial 
type  which  consistently  presented  the  combination  of  brachycephaly 
with  great  head  lengths.  That  was  the  type  found  at  Afalou  and 
Ofnet,  and  in  the  Danish  middens,  and  which  was  given  the  name 
Borreby.  As  will  be  seen  later,  the  Borreby  race  has  reemerged  in  the 
country  where  it  was  located  during  the  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic 
periods,  and  it  has  become  the  most  important  single  racial  element  in 
modern  Germany. 

Palaeolithic  and  perhaps  Corded  survivals  are  to  be  seen  in  the  large 
heads  of  the  Finnish  coast  and  northeastern  Sweden;  the  track  of  German 
colonists  in  late  mediaeval  times  is  evident  in  Hungary  and  Rumania. 
The  Basques  have  heads  of  considerable  size  also,  and  there  seems  to  be 
a,  significant  nucleus  of  large  heads  in  the  Dordogne,  where,  as  will  be 
seen  later,  a  long-headed,  brunet  Upper  Palaeolithic  survival  seems  in- 
dicated, as  in  west-central  Wales. 

The  zone  of  moderate  head  size  lying  between  Germany  and  Poland 
on  the  one  hand,  and  eastern  Russia  and  the  Caucasus  on  the  other, 
seems  to  reflect  an  earlier  Danubian  and  Nordic  condition.  In  North 
Africa  and  southern  Italy,  small  or  medium-sized  heads  seem  marginal 
and  go  with  the  older  Neolithic  Mediterranean  element.  The  Hamites 

20  Sailer,  K.,  Die  Fehmarner,  DRK,  vol.  4,  1930. 


266  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

brought  larger  heads,  such  as  are  to  be  found  today  among  Galla,21  and 
among  other  predominantly  Hamitic  peoples. 

The  tendency  of  the  Hamites  to  large  head  size  has  divided  the  erst- 
while unified  Mediterranean  racial  zone,  which  stretches  across  the  whole 
lower  quarter  of  the  map,  into  a  western  and  an  eastern  compartment. 
The  eastern  sector,  from  Cyrenaica  to  India,  shows  the  small  head  size 
which  apparently  formed  a  cranial  interlude  in  North  African  history 
between  the  end  of  the  Capsian  and  the  Hamitic  invasions.  As  one  leaves 
the  map  and  passes  into  southern  Arabia  and  Baluchistan,  the  heads  grow 
smaller  than  any  here  designated.  Here  total  length-breadth  combina- 
tions of  328  mm.  are  found  in  the  Hadhramaut  and  among  Brahui.  This 
zone  which  stretches  along  the  northwestern  shore  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
is  part  of  the  so-called  Veddoid  racial  area,  which  does  not  extend  into 
Europe  or  any  region  nearly  approaching  it.  The  racial  character  of  the 
people  inhabiting  this  zone  can  best  be  described  in  a  more  detailed 
chapter  to  follow. 

One  of  the  most  important  results  of  the  plotting  of  the  head-size  map 
is  the  discovery  that  the  brachycephals  of  the  white  race  and  of  Europe 
are  not  at  all  a  unit  in  this  respect,  since  they  follow  general  racial  zones 
which  have  no  reference  to  head  form.  One  may  divide  them  into  several 
sub-groups  on  the  basis  of  head  size  alone.  The  Lapps,  who  in  their  pure 
form  are  hyper brachy cephalic,  have  very  small  heads.  The  other  brachy- 
cephals of  northern  Europe,  those  concentrated  in  Germany,  southern  Den- 
mark, Belgium,  and  France,  form  the  largest-headed  group.  These  may  be 
considered,  tentatively  at  least,  of  Borreby  derivation  or  inspiration.  The 
Alpines  of  the  Massif  Central  in  France  separate  themselves  clearly  from 
this  nucleus,  with  an  emphasis  on  moderate  head  size.  Although  the  re- 
gional data  in  France  is  poor,  in  this  case  it  is  sufficient  to  warrant  the 
present  conclusion.  The  Binaries  are  also  moderate  in  head  size,  despite 
the  coincidence  of  taller  stature;  only  the  Montenegrins  themselves  and  the 
Albanians  north  of  the  Drin  have  truly  large  heads.  The  extreme  hyper- 
brachycephals  of  southern  Albania  and  Epirus  are  again  of  medium  head 
size,  like  the  Central  French  Alpines.  The  brachycephals  of  the  Hungarian 
plain,  and  of  the  Carpathians,  are  for  the  most  part  also  moderate. 

When  we  leave  Europe  and  move  to  western  Asia,  we  find  that  the 
Asiatic  Binaries  and  the  so-called  Armenoids  are  in  some  areas  smaller 
headed  than  the  European  Binaries;  the  Armenians  themselves  have 
heads  approaching  Binaric  standards,  but  they  vary  regionally,  with  the 
largest  heads  in  the  northeast,  toward  the  Caucasus.  The  brachycephalic 
Turks  of  Asia  Minor  are  actually  small  headed,  as  are  most  of  the  Syrian 
brachycephals  and  the  Iranian-speaking  round  heads  of  the  Pamirs.  The 

21  Unpublished  data  in  author's  possession. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  267 

fringe  of  round  heads  along  the  southern  Arabian,  Persian,  and  Baluchistan 
coasts  are  very  small  headed,  in  a  quite  un-European  sense. 

What  are  we  to  make  of  all  this?  The  answer  cannot  be  given  as  yet 
in  final  form,  but  several  suggestions  present  themselves. 

(1)  Head  size,  being  a  correlate  of  gross  bulk,  seems  in  general  to  be 
associated  with  regions  of  relative  chill  and  humidity,  all  else  being  equal. 
The  water  content  of  the  human  body  is  greater  where  evaporation  is 
least.    In  this  way  the  flaccid  Teutons  and  the  fog-wreathed  Irish  in  their 
moors  and  bogs  have  the  heaviest  bodies  and  the  largest  heads,  while  the 
indigo-stained  Arabs,  living  on  the  utmost  margin  of  desiccation,  reach 
the  opposite  extreme  in  liquid  economy.  Man  is  not  a  water-storing  crea- 
ture, like  the  cactus  and  the  camel. 

(2)  The  largest-headed  peoples  are  unreduced  survivors  or  counterparts 
of  Upper  Palaeolithic  man,  who  was  a  large-headed  and  presumably 
large-bodied  animal.     This  applies  both  to  dolichocephals  and  brachy- 
cephals.    Brachycephaly  is  a  mutative  incident  which  may  occur  in  any 
region  or  race,  and  head  size  may  be  more  important  than  head  form  as 
an  indication  of  ultimate  genetic  derivation,  again  all  else  being  equal. 

It  seems  to  me  that  somewhere  between  these  two  hypotheses  lies  the 
truth.  Environment,  which  in  the  last  analysis  controls  body  size,  must 
also  eventually  control  the  bulk  of  the  head.  But  at  the  same  time,  genetic 
tendencies  to  absolute  head  size  are  inheritable,  and  without  regard  to 
head  form.  Hence  early  racial  connections,  under  equal  environmental 
conditions,  may  be  better  revealed  by  the  size  than  by  the  shape  of  the 
vault.  The  heads  of  some  people  have  remained  constant  in  size  and  form; 
others  have  been  reduced,  brachycephalized,  or  both.  But  brachycepha- 
lization  may  take  place  without  reference  to  body  size,  while  reduction 
in  head  size  is  a  corollary  of  general  reduction.  Here,  as  in  general,  the 
explanation  of  a  given  head  size  is  an  historical  matter. 

Other  criteria  of  the  head  and  face  would  be  difficult  to  plot.  Face  size, 
in  general,  is  larger  among  the  larger-headed  and  taller  peoples  of  the 
northwest,  and  among  those  of  rnongoloid  affinity  in  the  east.  Most 
branches  of  the  Mediterranean  stock  proper  are  characterized  by  rela- 
tively short  and  relatively  narrow  faces.  The  zone  of  long  heads  from 
Morocco  to  India  is  also  a  zone  of  small  faces.  This  smallness,  however, 
has  as  a  rule  no  reference  to  the  nose,  which  is  one  of  the  best  racial  criteria 
which  we  have,  and  one  which  is  extremely  significant.  Unfortunately 
accurate  charts  cannot  be  made,  since  technical  discrepancies  render  the 
use  of  statistics  based  on  this  organ  almost  useless  in  a  large  compilation. 

The  nasal  index  among  European  peoples  is  typically  leptorrhine  or 
mesorrhine.  The  southern  Mediterranean  belt  is  typified  by  moderately 
leptorrhine  peoples;  and  in  the  eastern  extremity,  where  aquilinity  is  the 


268  THE  RAGES  OF   EUROPE 

rule,  extreme  leptorrhiny  is  very  common.  The  most  leptorrhine  area  in 
Europe  itself  is  the  Dinaric  region,  particularly  Montenegro  and  northern 
Albania,  where  mean  nasal  indices  below  60  are  encountered.  In  most  of 
western  Europe  the  noses  are  leptorrhine,  but  when  one  moves  into  Russia 
and  the  northeastern  Balkans,  mesorrhiny  becomes  the  predominant  form, 
and  nasal  indices  increase  perceptibly  as  one  moves  eastward,  to  a  high 
mesorrhine  or  even  platyrrhine  level.  Turkish-speaking  peoples  in  the 
East,  however,  form  an  exception  to  this  rule.  Turkomans,  Azerbaijans, 
and  the  like  are,  as  a  rule,  extremely  leptorrhine,  more  so  than  the  in- 
habitants of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus.  On  the  opposite  side  of  the 
map,  the  extreme  western  fringe  of  tall,  large-headed,  meso-  to  brachy- 
cephalic  peoples  is  likewise  characterized  by  a  slight  increase  in  the  nasal 
index.  The  Palaeolithic  survivors  were  not  notably  leptorrhine ;  they  were, 
in  fact,  much  less  so  than  the  Nordics  and  others  who  followed  them. 

If  one  were  to  study  the  form  of  the  orbits  and  the  shape  of  the  external 
eye,  with  adequate  data,  a  very  interesting  and  significant  distribution 
might  be  seen.  For  example,  the  distance  between  the  eyes  is  relatively 
great  among  all  of  the  Slavic  and  Finnish  peoples  of  eastern  Europe,  and 
this  dimension  increases  as  one  approaches  mongoloid  territory.  It  is  of 
moderate  size  in  almost  all  of  northwestern  and  central  Europe,  but 
again  becomes  pronounced  in  Ireland,  along  the  coast  of  Norway,  and  in 
the  Alpine  regions,  where  one  may  attribute  this  wide-eyed  condition  not 
to  mongoloid  influences  but  again  to  a  Palaeolithic  survival. 

There  are  two  zones  of  narrow  inter-orbital  diameters:  (1)  the  entire 
Mediterranean  zone  from  the  Atlantic  to  India,  and  (2)  the  Dinaric  zone 
reaching  from  the  north  of  Italy  to  northern  Greece.  Again  in  the  so- 
called  Armenoid  region  of  Anatolia  and  in  Armenian  territory  itself, 
an  extremely  narrow  inter-orbital  distance  prevails.  This  criterion  may 
perhaps  survive  as  a  means  of  discrimination  between  facially  character- 
istic Palaeolithic  survivors  and  mongoloids,  on  the  one  hand,  and  basic 
Mediterraneans  and  Armenoid-Dinarics,  on  the  other. 

The  size,  robusticity,  and  general  form  of  the  lower  jaw  is  again  an 
excellent  racial  criterion,  but  there  is  not  enough  data  to  permit  it  to  be 
plotted.  The  Mediterranean  zone  from  Morocco  to  India  is  characterized 
by  a  light,  shallow  jaw,  a  narrow  bigonial  diameter,  and  a  restricted  height 
dimension  between  the  lower  dental  border  and  chin.  This  is  the  typical 
Mediterranean  mandible,  whether  one  finds  it  in  Spain  or  in  Arabia.  The 
heaviest  jaws  and  greatest  bigonial  diameters  are  found  in  the  northwestern 
European  borderlands,  and  in  eastern  Europe,  where  mongoloid  influence 
is  strong.  The  relatively  light,  narrow  jaw  of  many  Binaries  and  Armenoids 
again  suggests  that  these  types  are  for  the  most  part  brachycephalized 
forms  of  tall  Mediterraneans. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  269 

(5)   DISTRIBUTION   OF   BODILY   CHARACTERS 

(c)  Pigmentation,  the  Pilous  System,  and  Morphology  of  the  Soft  Parts 

The  fourth  and  last  of  the  general  distribution  maps  (Map  8),  is  de- 
signed to  show  the  distribution  of  progressive  degrees  of  blondism  in  the 
European  area.  While  data  on  hair  and  eye  color  are  plentiful,  much 
material  has  been  collected  without  the  use  of  scales;  although  it  is  possible 
to  correlate  this  with  standard  material  in  most  major  areas,  the  judgment 
of  the  compiler  nevertheless  plays  a  greater  part  here  than  in  the  maps 
which  show  the  distributions  of  purely  metrical  characters.  Under  these 
circumstances,  it  has  seemed  most  useful  to  divide  the  existing  materials 
into  five  broad  classes,  designated  and  distributed  as  follows. 

The  darkest  stippling  represents  populations  in  which  the  hair  is  con- 
sistently black  or  dark  brown  (distinctions  between  these  two  shades  are 
seldom  valid),  with  less  than  ten  per  cent  of  a  lighter  hue.  The  accompany- 
ing eye  color  found  in  this  brunet  class  is  pure  brown  or  black  in  over  sixty 
per  cent  of  the  series;  in  most  cases  over  eighty.  Since  all  brunet  white 
populations  studied  show  some  degree  of  mixed  eyes  22  (green,  blue,  or  gray 
in  conjunction  with  brown),  a  small  minority  of  this  type  seems  endemic 
in  the  white  racial  stock,  and  must  not  be  construed  as  evidence  of  racial 
blondism.  Skin  color,  which  again  is  an  important  element  in  blondism, 
varies  less  among  Europeans  than  do  either  hair  or  eye  color,  and  is  more 
difficult  to  use.  Hence  it  has  been  omitted  from  consideration  in  the 
draughting  of  the  pigment  map. 

The  brunet  hair  and  eye  condition  defined  above,  including  a  minimum 
of  blondism,  surrounds  Europe  and  encroaches  on  all  its  borders,  not  ex- 
cluding the  Atlantic.  North  Africa,  almost  all  of  Asia  on  or  off  the  map, 
Portugal,  most  of  Spain,  southern  Italy,  Greece,  the  Aegean  fringes,  and 
finally,  the  northern  pastures  of  the  Samoyeds,  converge  to  encircle  the 
world's  one  important  nucleus  of  blondism. 

The  second  most  heavily  stippled  zone  shown  on  the  map,  that  of  pre- 
vailingly brunet  pigmentation,  covers  regions  in  which  complete  or  partial 
blondism  is  not  .rare,  but  is  definitely  less  common  than  a  purely  brunet 
condition.  The  width  of  this  zone  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  latitude 
of  the  category  assumed  by  the  author.  In  the  present  map,  it  is  relatively 
narrow,  and  includes  central  and  northern  Spain,  central  Italy,  most  of 
the  Balkans,  the  Caucasus,  and  a  narrow  vertical  belt  in  eastern  Russia. 
The  Lapps,  in  their  purest  discoverable  form,  seem  to  fit  into  this  class 
rather  than  the  purely  brunet  one.  Islands  of  prevailingly  brunet  pig- 
mentation occur  far  afield  from  the  main  zone,  in  parts  of  Wales,  in 

22  The  only  valid  exceptions  seem  to  be  the  Ruwalla  Bedawin  and  the  Tuareg.  See 
Chapter  XI,  sections  2  and  12. 


PIGMENTATION 

OF 

HAIR  AND  EYES 


LfGHT  AND  MIXED  PREDOMINANT 
LIGHT  AND  MIXED  )  DARK 
NEARLY  EVEN 
DARK  )  LIGHT  AND  MIXED* 
DARK  PREDOMINANT 


MAP 


270 


271 


272  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Morocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunisia,  in  Crete,  in  the  Jebel  Druz,  and  in  Luris- 
tan.  The  reasons  for  these  exceptions  are  different  in  almost  each  case, 
and  must  be  treated  separately  later. 

The  decision  as  to  the  midpoint  between  blond  and  brunet  hair  and 
eye  pigmentation  hinges  largely  on  one's  definition  of  pure  blondism.  For 
practical  purposes,  pure  eye  blondism  includes  gray  and  blue  eyes,  with 
or  without  a  small  number  of  pigmented  spots,  or  a  narrow  pigmented 
ring,  near  the  pupillary  border  of  the  iris.  It  is  impossible  to  segregate  the 
spotted  and  unspotted  in  most  data.  Pure  hair  blondism  includes,  in  the 
same  arbitrary  fashion,  hair  that  ranges  from  light  brown  to  ashen  or 
golden.  In  the  present  map  the  intermediate  class  represents  regional 
samples  in  which  light  and  light  mixed  forms  seem  approximately  equal 
to  those  which  are  prevailingly  brunet. 

This  intermediate  zone  is  again  narrow,  and  again  continues  the  gen- 
eral scheme  of  concentricity.  An  exception  to  this  scheme  is  seen  among  the 
Ostiaks,  a  Finnish  group  living  along  the  banks  of  the  Obi  River  and  its 
western  tributaries.  Bulgars  and  Vlachs  possess  more  blondism  than  a 
class  four  stipple  would  show,  but  hardly  enough  for  the  intermediate 
class  when  taken  en  masse.  Therefore  three  capsules  of  intermediate 
stippling  in  the  Balkans  indicate  these  tendencies  in  a  schematic  manner. 
The  northernmost  and  the  southwesternmost  represent  concentrations  of 
Vlachs,  the  middle  one  of  Bulgars. 

Walloons  of  the  province  of  Luxembourg,  and  southeastern  Bavarian 
mountaineers,  conversely,  represent  nuclei  of  intermediate  pigmentation 
in  blonder  territory.  One  may  postulate  without  difficulty  that  the 
Bavarian  nucleus  was  once  continuous  with  northern  Italy  through  the 
Tyrol,  for  many  Tyrolese  are  quite  brunet,  but  the  continuity  has  been 
broken  by  the  Germanic  advance  in  historic  times  up  the  Innthal.  The 
refuge  quality  of  the  Austrian  as  well  as  of  the  Swiss  Alps  is  conversely 
shown  by  the  survival,  since  this  Germanic  thrust,  of  very  blond  local 
populations  in  the  Lechthal  and  in  other  small,  isolated  valleys.  As  for  the 
Walloons  of  Luxembourg  they  quite  palpably  represent  a  survival  of  pre- 
Iron  Age  brachycephals  in  their  highlands,  through  the  period  of  Celtic 
and  Prankish  invasions. 

The  greatest  difficulty  of  all  in  compiling  this  map  lay  in  making  the 
decision  between  what  was  predominantly  blond,  and  what  was  merely 
more  blond  than  brunet.  If  the  eyes  were  almost  uniformly  light  or  light 
mixed,  and  the  hair  light  brown  or  lighter  in  over  fifty  per  cent  of  cases,  the 
lightest  group  seemed  indicated;  if,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  the  hair  was  dark 
or  medium  brown,  or  the  eyes  mixed,  the  second  class  was  chosen.  Some- 
times both  hair  and  eyes  indicated  the  second  lightest  stipple.  In  the  pre- 
dominantly blond  class,  pure  brunet  pigmentation  is  less  than  ten  per  cent. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE   LIVING  273 

The  greatest  degree  of  blondism  recognized  is  definitely  nuclear  and,  in 
fact,  almost  glacial  in  its  distribution.  There  is,  however,  a  nucleus  within 
a  nucleus;  a  center  of  lesser  blondism  which  seems  truly  hyper  marginal. 
This  is  the  partial  blondism  of  the  Danish  islands,  of  parts  of  the  Nor- 
wegian coast,  of  Iceland,  and  of  the  southwestern  tip  of  Ireland.  This 
inner  nucleus  apparently  coincides  with  the  survival  of  the  oldest,  im- 
mediately post-glacial  population. 

It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  original  undifferentiated  sapiens  men,  living 
in  the  Pleistocene,  may  have  possessed  a  light  brown  or  brunet  white  skin 
color,  with  black  or  dark  brown  hair  and  brown  eyes.  Different  racial 
stocks  which  grew  out  of  this  common  base  by  differentiation,  mixture,  or 
both,  may  have  shown  early  tendencies  to  develop  specialized  variations 
of  their  own  in  pigmentation.  Such  tendencies  are  likewise  seen  within 
single  species  of  ape,  such  as  the  gibbon,  chimpanzee,  and  gorilla.  The 
negroid  races,  for  example,  must  have  formed,  before  the  end  of  the 
Pleistocene,  a  progressive  tendency  toward  an  abundance  of  dense  pig- 
ment cells  in  the  skin,  the  fundus,  and  the  iris;  while  the  whites,  before 
their  dispersal  from  a  common  center,  must  already  have  developed  a 
tendency,  presumably  recessive,  toward  blondism.  The  universality  of 
some  degree  of  blondism  among  whites  and  near  whites  everywhere 
makes  it  unlikely  that  it  was  ever  confined  to  a  single  race  or  group  of 
races  within  the  white  family. 

Blondism  is  a  state  of  partial  depigmentation,  due  to  the  paucity  of 
melanin  granules  in  the  skin,  hair,  and  iris,  and,  with  some  types  of  pig- 
ment, to  the  small  size  of  these  granules.  The  pigment  granules  are  com- 
posed of  a  substance  known  as  melanin,  the  chemical  composition  of  which 
has  been  roughly  determined.23  Melanogenesis,  the  process  by  which 
melanin  is  formed,  is  "an  intercellular  enzymic  oxidation  process,  in  which 
an  amino  acid  chromogen  is  converted,  with  the  aid  of  catalytic  copper, 
to  the  pigment  melanin."  24  It  has  been, proved  by  experiments  with  rats 
and  rabbits  that  a  dietary  deficiency  in  copper  produces  a  pigment  reduc- 
tion,26 and  that  with  the  restoration  of  a  normal  diet,  the  animal's  normal 
pigmentation  will  return.  Hence  blondism,  being  a  phenomenon  of  pig- 
ment reduction,  is  presumably  caused  by  a  genetically  controlled  limita- 
tion of  the  oxidation  process  dependent  upon  the  body's  supply  of  copper. 

23  Melanin  is  approximately  55  per  cent  carbon,  6  per  cent  hydrogen,  12  per  cent 
nitrogen,  2  per  cent  sulphur,  and  25  per  cent  oxygen.   Young,  W.  J.,  BJ,  vol.  15,  1921, 
pp.  118  seq. 

24  Glodt,  H.  R.,  Melano gene  sis,  a  thesis  submitted  for  honors  in  Anthropology  at 
Harvard  University,  April,  1937.    MS.  in  Peabody  Museum  Library,  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. Quotation  from  p,  71 .  Author's  permission  secured.  This  whole  section  is  taken 
largely  from  Glodt. 

25  Cunningham,  I.  J.,  BJ,  vol.  25,  1931,  pp.  1267  seq. 


274  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Blondism  therefore  may  have  originally  been  motivated  as  a  response  to  a 
mineral  deficiency  through  an  endocrine  agency  of  control.  There  is  no 
reason  now  known  why  it  should  be  limited  to  whites,  but  actually  its 
appearance  among  members  of  other  major  racial  groups  is  rare. 

Although  skin  color  is  apparently  a  directly  quantitative  matter,  hair 
color,  it  is  now  known,  is  determined  by  two  different  pigment  factors. 
One  is  composed  of  oval  or  spindle-shaped  cells  of  melanin,  of  varying  size 
and  frequency.26  When  these  cells  are  large  and  overlap,  within  the  trans- 
lucent body  shaft  which  lies  between  the  central  canal  and  the  outer 
horny  layer  of  the  individual  hair,  the  hair  appears  black  or  dark  brown. 
When  the  cells  are  smaller  they  appear  yellowish  or  light  brownish,  al- 
though the  chemical  composition  of  the  melanin  is  the  same.  The  size  of 
these  cells,  therefore,  and  their  abundance  within  the  hair  cortex,  deter- 
mine the  degree  of  blondism  or  brunet  coloring. 

The  second  pigment  factor  which  influences  hair  color  is  rufosity.  Red 
hair  contains  a  fine  stain,  at  first  considered  amorphous,  which  is  now 
thought  to  be  composed  of  extremely  fine  cells,  probably  slightly  different 
in  molecular  structure  from  ordinary  melanin.27  This  stain  may  be  present 
or  absent,  and  if  present  may  be  faint  or  intensive.  Thus  it  is  both  qualita- 
tive and  quantitative  in  reference  to  ultimate  hair  color.  If  it  coincides 
with  large,  dark  melanin  cells,  the  black  color  so  caused  may  mask  the 
rufosity  in  all  but  unusual  lights,  while  if  a  large  amount  of  it  coincides 
with  blondism,  red  hair  is  the  result.  It  is  likely  that  golden  hair  is  caused 
by  a  combination  of  blondism  with  a  slight  degree  of  rufosity. 

If  one  could  test  for  rufosity  accurately  with  all  pigment  shades,  it 
would  probably  be  seen  that  this  character  has  no  association  whatever 
with  blondism,  but  is  a  purely  independent  variable.  That  this  is  likely 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  rufosity  is  completely  uncorrelated  with  eye 
color.28  Thus  rufosity  may  be  wholly  absent  in  many  normal  individuals, 
while  the  melanin  cells  are  totally  absent  only  in  albinos.  Rufosity  may, 
by  the  same  token,  be  lacking  in  entire  races,  and  with  better  data  it 
might  be  possible  to  discover  the  racial  significance,  if  any,  of  this  ap- 
parently functionless  condition.  Within  the  blonder  segment  of  the  white 

26  Coniteer,  H.,  ZFMA,  vol.  29,  1931,  pp.  83-147. 
Hausman,  L.  A.,  AJPA,  vol.  12,  1928,  pp.  276-277. 

Jankowsky,  W.,  ZFRP,  vol.  5,  1932,  pp.  1-48, 111-119;  also  VGPA,  vol.  6,  1931-32, 
pp.  66T69. 

27  C^Miitzer,  H.,  op.  cit. 

Klinke,  K.,  BZB,  vol.  160,  1925,  pp.  28  seq. 

28  Conitzer,  H.,  op.  cit. 

I  have  separately  confirmed  this  claim  by  making  1 30  contingency  tables,  of  six  or 
more  boxes,  between  hair  and  eye  color,  in  each  of  which  a  negotiable  amount  of  ru- 
fosity was  present.  In  every  instance  red  hair  was  found  to  be  completely  complacent 
to  eye  color. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  275 

race,  however,  we  know  that  rufosity  has  a  regional  and  a  racial  connota- 
tion. Blond  hair  is  readily  divisible  into  two  categories,  golden  and  ash- 
blond  (cendr6),  which  are  distinguished  on  the  Fischer  hair  color  chart. 
Light  brown  and  brown  hair  shades  similarly  may  be  segregated  on  the 
same  basis  into  two  separate  and  parallel  classes. 

The  pigmentation  of  the  iris  is  more  suited  for  refined  analytical  study 
than  either  skin  or  hair  color.  Skin  tans  and  weathers,  while  hair  bleaches 
with  the  sun  and  darkens  with  advancing  age,  until  the  advent  of  graying; 
the  iris,  on  the  other  hand,  retains  its  pigment  pattern  with  relatively  little 
change.  If  studied  under  constant  light  conditions,  so  that  the  pupil  is 
contracted  and  the  concentric  muscle  zones  flattened,  the  iris  is  seen  to  be 
a  detailed  field  of  muscle-layers  and  pigment  cells,  of  considerable  com- 
plexity. 

In  all  but  albino  tic  eyes,  the  inner  wall  of  the  iris  is  permeated  with 
melanotic  pigment  cells  so  overlapped  as  to  make  the  iris,  whether  dilated 
or  contracted,  a  perfect  light-proof  diaphragm.  It  is  this  pigment  lining, 
reflected  through  several  layers  of  outer  iridical  tissue,  that  gives  a  light 
eye  its  blue  appearance.  Additional  pigment  presents  its  true  brown  color. 
Thus  in  a  mixed  eye  of  complex  pattern  it  is  possible  to  plot  the  relative 
depths  of  different  groups  of  pigment  cells.  Cells  concentrated  along  the 
radial,  dilating  muscle  fibers  give  the  eye  a  rayed  appearance,  while 
those  lumped  about  the  concentric  sphincters  produce  a  zoning.  In  a 
black  eye  the  surface  pigment  is  so  dense  that  it  is  impossible  to  see  into 
the  iris,  but  in  a  brown  eye  it  is  usually  possible  to  make  out  some  of  the 
pattern.  Many  purely  brunet  eyes  show  a  contrast  between  different 
brown-producing  layers. 

In  purely  light  eyes,  in  which  no  surface  pigment  is  seen,  there  are 
nevertheless  differences  in  coloring  v  hich  are  readily  noticeable  and  which 
may  be  used  as  criteria  of  racial  differentiation.  The  principal  distinction 
is  that  between  the  blue  eye,  which  in  its  extreme  form  takes  a  deep  sky- 
blue  color,  and  the  gray  eye,  which  in  its  extreme  form  is  almost  white. 
Since  these  two  forms  gr£de  into  each  other  without  a  natural  line  of  de- 
marcation, the  factor  which  distinguishes  them  must  be  considered  quan- 
titative rather  than  qualitative.  Research  on  this  subject  does  not  seem  as 
yet  to  have  been  done;  we  do  not  know  what  causes  this  difference,  and 
can  only  repeat  Bryn's  speculation  that  it  has  something  to  do  with  the 
relative  coarseness  and  opacity  of  the  radial  iris  muscles,  through  which  the 
pigment  in  the  posterior  walls  of  the  iris  is  reflected.29 

Geographically  and  in  individuals,  it  is  possible  to  make  valid  correla- 
tions between  the  four  end  types  of  hair  and  of  eye  blondism.  The  golden 
type  of  hair,  whether  blond  or  brown,  tends  to  be  associated  with*  the 
^Bryn,  H.,  Homo  Caesius,  p.  19. 


276  THE  RAGES   OF  EUROPE 

bluer  shades  of  eye,  whether  pure  light  or  mixed;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
ash  blond  type  of  hair  usually  goes  with  a  grayish  iris.  At  present  there 
seems  to  be  no  direct  reason  for  these  linkages,  but  we  have  much  to  learn 
about  these  matters. 

At  any  rate,  when  we  apply  this  distinction  to  the  map,  we  see  that  the 
golden-blue  combination  is  commonest  in  the  western  half  of  our  nuclear 
zone  of  light  pigmentation,  in  Norway  and  the  British  Isles;  while  the 
ashen-gray  combination  is  more  typical  of  Sweden  and  of  the  lands  east 
of  the  Baltic.  In  the  western  half  of  the  blond  nucleus,  and  especially  in  its 
British  periphery,  there  is  an  asymmetry  of  linkage,  for  in  Ireland,  for 
example,  a  world's  extreme  ratio  of  light  eyes  is  associated  with  hair  which 
is  often  brown  or  dark  brown.  On  the  eastern  side  the  opposite  is  true;  in 
Poland  and  southern  Russia  ashen  hair  of  a  very  light  shade  goes  fre- 
quently with  dark-mixed  or  brown  eyes.  These  regional  asymmetries 
weaken  the  total  unity  of  blondism,  but  do  not  destroy  it. 

From  further  correlations  between  types  of  pigmentation  and  other  char- 
acters, such  as  stature,  bodily  build,  head  size,  head  form,  and  face  form,  it 
is  possible  to  show  that  the  golden-blue  variety,  with  rufosity,  is  partly  as- 
sociated with  the  old  Palaeolithic  hunting  strain,  while  the  ashen-gray  ex- 
treme goes  rather  with  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  range  of  types,  and  with  eastern 
European  blonds  of  various  degrees  of  superficial  mongolism.  Within  his- 
toric times  the  zone  of  frequent  blondism  stretched  from  north  western  Eu- 
rope across  the  Russian  steppes  into  central  Asia  where  it  touched  China, 
but  violent  and  rapid  ethnic  movements  in  Asia  have  nearly  eliminated  this 
eastern  extension.  We  do  not  know  how  long  ago  the  distribution  map  of 
blondism  assumed  its  present  concentric  and  glaciation-like  character. 

It  is  very  probable  that  pigmentation  is  definitely  capable  of  alteration  in 
response  to  environment,  through  selection.  Blonds  in  the  tropics  are  at  a 
disadvantage,  particularly  if  living  under  primitive  cultural  conditions.  A 
black  skin  with  a  profusion  of  sweat  glands,  like  that  of  the  African  negro, 
must  be  better  than  a  pinkish  integument  which  is  subjected  to  repeated 
burning  and  blistering,  and  incapable  of  tanning.30  In  the  iris,  the  pigment 
in  the  posterior  wall  acts  as  a  completely  light-proof  diaphragm,  and  hence 
there  can  be  no  direct  functional  disadvantage  to  a  gray  or  blue  iris,  as  with 
thatof  an  albino.  But  since  the  iris  color  seems  to  be,  as  Wilmer  has  shown,81 
correlated  with  the  pigmentation  of  the  retina,  eye  blondism  may  serve  to 
indicate  the  presence  of  a  functional  disadvantage.  It  is  conceivable,  but 
not  as  yet  demonstrable,  that  the  chocolate-brown  pigment  cells  in  the 
negro's  fundus  may  give  his  optic  nerve  more  cc  ;afort  in  the  desert  glare 
than  the  pinkish,  almost  pigmentless  retina  of  tru,  blond  white  man. 

80  Baur,  E.,  Fischer,  E.,  and  Lenz,  E.,  Human  Heredity,  p.  f  A. 
*  Wilmer,  W.  H.,  Atlas  Fundus  Oculi. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  277 

Black  skin  and  a  black  eye,  then,  may  be  variables  which  are  advan- 
tageous under  hot,  bright,  equatorial  light  conditions.  A  partially  depig- 
mented  skin  and  fundus  condition  can  perhaps  survive  without  disadvan- 
tage only  in  a  climate  where  the  light  is  weak.  Blond  hair,  however,  cannot 
be  assigned  any  survival  value  of  either  a  negative  or  a  positive  character. 
Until  definite  experimental  evidence  is  at  hand,  we  must  postulate  that 
only  through  its  partial  genetic  linkage  with  skin  and  eye  color  is  the 
blondism  or  darkness  of  hair  determined.  On  the  whole,  the  totality  of 
evidence  in  regard  to  blondism  as  a  unit  indicates  that  this  phenomenon 
is  a  recessive  trait  endemic  in  the  white  racial  stock,  and  that  it  has  be- 
come a  major  racial  character  only  among  groups  of  people  living  at  one 
time  under  light  conditions  of  sub-glacial  intensity.  This  applies  to  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  strain  in  part  or  as  a  whole,  and  to  certain  of  the  more 
northerly  Mediterranean  branches.  The  mongoloids  and  American  In- 
dians living  under  parallel  conditions  apparently  lack  the  initial  mutative 
tendency  necessary  for  its  development. 

In  the  European  zone  of  maximum  blondism  are  included  tall  and  short 
populations,  long-headed  and  round-headed,  eagle-beaked  and  snub- 
nosed;  many  such  variations  occur  to  which  degree  of  pigmentation  seems 
complacent,  Within  the  two  main  types  of  blondism,  racial  sortings  are 
clearer,  but  on  the  whole  blondism  alone  assumes  the  character  of  an 
unlinked  mutant. 

Without  actual  maps,  there  is  little  use  in  reviewing  the  distribution  of 
the  pilous  system  and  soft  parts,  in  more  than  a  cursory  manner,  since 
these  will  be  discussed  at  greater  length  in  the  chapters  to  follow.  Hair 
form,  which  according  to  Haddon  is  the  most  important  racial  criterion 
to  be  found  in  man,  is  of  little  use  in  distinguishing  white  sub-groups. 
Most  European  hair  is  straight  or  slightly  wavy,  although  exceptional  in- 
dividuals in  the  straightest-haired  groups  have  ringlet  forms.  Curly  hair 
of  this  description  is  quite  common  in  western  Ireland  and  in  Wales;  it  is 
also  frequent  in  the  whole  of  North  Africa  and  in  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean shorelands  of  Europe.  Eastern  Europe  is  predominantly  straight 
haired,  and  as  one  approaches  mongoloid  territory  this  condition  of  course 
becomes  more  pronounced. 

The  amount  of  body  hair  on  the  adult  male  is  closely  correlated  with  the 
amount  of  beard,  and  both  are  linked  with  age,  for  a  hairy  man  grows 
hairier  as  he  becomes  older.  At  the  same  time,  baldness  is  most  frequent 
among  those  with  heaviest  body  hair  and  heaviest  beards.  Browridges, 
and  other  bony  excrescences  of  a  hypermasculine  nature,  are  closely  linked 
with  excessive  pilous  development  of  the  body  and  beard,  and  with  a 
tendency  to  baldness.  Europeans,  on  the  whole,  are  among  the  hairiest- 
bodied  and  heaviest-bearded  groups  of  men,  being  equalled  or  exceeded 


278  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

only  by  the  Australians  and  the  Ainu.  Both  negroid  and  mongoloid  skin 
conditions  are  inimical  to  excessive  hair  development  except  upon  the 
scalp. 

The  Mediterranean  peoples,  on  the  whole,  are  less  hairy  than  other 
Europeans.  Pure  dolichocephalic  Europeans,  of  normal  Mediterranean 
type,  whether  blond  or  brunet,  tend  to  a  hairless  chest  and  a  patchy  beard. 
Among  Arabs  a  complete  beard  is  rare,  and  is  considered  a  sign  of  evil 
character.  One  must  look  upon  great  hairiness,  and  a  great  beard  de- 
velopment, as  well  as  a  high  incidence  of  baldness,  as  a  multiple  endocrine 
manifestation  associated  with  relatively  great  sex  differentiation  in  a 
masculine  direction.  Alpines  and  Central  Europeans,  in  general,  show  an 
excess  of  this  combination,  and  so  do  many  Balkan  peoples  and  Near 
Eastern  Asiatics.  This  combination  is  in  Europe  associated  with  the  non- 
Mediterranean  element  in  the  composition  of  the  white  stock,  although  in 
Asia  the  cleavage  is  not  so  clear.  The  baldness  which  is  part  of  this  com- 
plex is  of  genetic  motivation,  and  differs  in  cause  from  the  dry-scalped, 
fine-haired  alopecia  associated  with  extreme  hair  blondism. 

The  morphology  of  the  external  eye  is  also  subject  to  regional  distribu- 
tion. High  orbits,  with  no  folds,  are  characteristic  of  Binaries,  and  of  most 
Near  Eastern  peoples;  orbits  of  moderate  height,  and  with  a  tendency  to 
external  folding  in  maturity  and  old  age,  go  with  long-headed  peoples  of 
both  blond  and  brunet  varieties,  while  a  median  fold,  indicative  of  both  a 
low  orbit  and  a  thick  fat  deposit  in  the  eye  region,  goes  rather  with  the 
Finnic  and  Slavic  blond  mesocephals  and  brachycephals.  The  true  inter- 
nal or  mongoloid  fold  is  not  common  in  Europe  and  is  found  in  numbers 
only  in  the  east,  in  the  Kalmuck  and  Tatar  districts  of  Russia,  and  in  the 
far  north. 

Extreme  cragginess  and  ruggedness  of  facial  features,  including  the 
forehead,  the  superciliary  region,  the  malars,  the  jaws,  and  the  nose,  are 
associated  with  the  western  marginal  fringe  area,  and  especially  with  the 
region  of  largest  heads  and  maximum  Palaeolithic  survival.  Nordics  and 
Mediterraneans,  whether  in  Europe,  North  Africa,  or  southwestern  Asia, 
have  a  maximum  of  facial  relief,  without  this  appearance  of  bony  massive- 
ness.  The  malars  are  laterally  compressed,  the  nose  thin  and  often  beaked. 
Facial  flatness,  intensified  by  fatty  deposits  over  the  malars,  while  more 
typical  of  mongoloids,  becomes  characteristic  in  eastern  Europe  and  ex- 
tends into  Poland,  Finland,  and  Hungary. 

The  maximum  nasality  of  the  Near  Eastern  peoples,  of  whatever  head 
form,  is  accompanied  by  a  number  of  related  features.  One  of  these  is  the 
concurrency  of  the  eyebrows  over  the  nose,  which  is  geographically  cen- 
tered in  the  Near  East.  Another  is  the  predominant  convexity  of  the  nose 
as  a  whole,  and  the  depression  of  the  tip,  especially  in  old  age.  In  man  the 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  279 

nose  passes  through  a  definite  and  continuous  cycle  of  growth  changes 
comparable  in  form,  if  not  in  degree  nor  in  exact  anatomical  detail,  to 
those  found  in  the  proboscis  monkey.  The  nearest  approach  to  the  pro- 
boscis in  the  extent  of  nasal  change  is,  however,  found  among  Near 
Easterners  from  Armenia  to  Afghanistan.  In  Europe  the  same  is  true  to 
a  lesser  degree  in  Albania  and  Montenegro. 

A  map  showing  the  form  of  the  nasal  profile  would  have  centers  of  con- 
vexity in  the  Dinaric  area  and  throughout  western  Asia,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Arabia;  centers  of  concavity  would  lie  in  the  north  of  Scandinavia, 
and  across  the  whole  of  eastern  Europe  from  the  Baltic  onward.  The  rest 
of  the  map  would  be  relatively  undifferentiated,  with  all  forms  present, 
but  the  straight  profile  most  common. 

(6)   RACIAL   CLASSIFICATION   WITHIN  THE   WHITE  FAMILY 

We  have  reviewed  some  of  the  characters  upon  which  race,  in  the 
sense  of  sub-divisions  of  the  so-called  white  branch  of  living  humanity, 
may  be  classified.  It  has  become  apparent  from  this  review,  as  from  the 
earlier  chapters,  that  the  "white"  racial  family  is  a  composite  amalgam- 
ation of  peoples  thrown  together  by  accident  of  geography,  blended  into 
some  semblance  of  homogeneity  in  major  diagnostic  features,  and  altered 
by  environmental  and  cultural  circumstances  and  by  migration.  Before 
attempting  to  propose  a  classification  of  living  whites,  however,  it  may 
be  wise  to  pass  in  brief  review  the  more  important  or  more  influential 
theories  by  which  race  has  been  classified  in  the  past.  The  history  of 
racial  classification  is  a  subject  for  a  book  in  itself,  and  here  we  propose 
to  limit  our  discussion  to  its  minimum. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  when  man  began  to  classify  himself  into  races. 
Knowledge  of  racial  differences  must,  however,  be  as  old  as  these  differ- 
ences, and  must  from  the  beginning  have  been  a  factor  in  their  develop- 
ment. The  Egyptians  were  well  aware,  of  the  racial  problem,  and  took 
pains,  in  their  art,  to  differentiate  between  the  various  kinds  of  men  that 
they  knew.  The  Greeks  likewise  made  classifications;  both  Hippocrates 
and  Aristotle  were  strong  environmentalists,  as  were  the  mediaeval  Arab 
geographers  who  followed  the  classical  tradition.  Since  these  ancients 
and  mediaevals  wrote  before  the  discovery  of  the  bell-shaped  curve  (normal 
probability  curve),  probable  error,  correlation,  or  of  the  cephalic  index, 
their  system  of  classification  was  both  observational  and  intuitive,  and 
operated  by  the  mechanism  of  generalization.  Despite  the  work  of  the 
biometricians,  and  the  mechanization  of  physical  anthropology  during 
the  last  half  century,  all  important  or  influential  systems  of  classification 
yet  devised  still  operate  on  the  same  principle.  . 

Aside  from  the  ancients  and  their  mediaeval  followers,  the  modern 


280  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

period  in  physical  anthropology  begins  with  Blumenbach,  whose  system 
is  still  employed  by  most  grade  school  geographers.  Blumenbach,  some 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  divided  mankind  into  the  familiar  white, 
black,  brown,  yellow,  and  red  races,  basing  his  primary  classification  upon 
skin  color,  although  he  considered  other  characters  as  well.  In  breadth 
of  popular  acceptance,  his  is  still,  in  its  simplest  form,  the  most  influential 
classification.  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  world 
of  science  as  well  as  the  public  was  inclined  to  accept  Blumenbach' s  divi- 
sions without  too  much  protest,  but  in  the  period  from  1860  to  1890, 
Europe  was  rife  with  attempts  to  classify  mankind  into  orderly  sys- 
tems.32 

In  1878  Topinard  proposed  a  classification  based  not  on  skin  color,  but 
on  hair  form.33  Haeckel 34  and  Miiller  35  proposed  the  same  diagnostic  one 
year  later.  Topinard  did  not,  however,  rely  on  one  character  alone,  but 
included  skin  color  and  nose  form  as  subsidiary  diagnostics.  During  this 
general  period  of  activity  systems  were  proposed  by  such  varied  authorities 
as  Huxley,  Geoffrey  de  St.  Hilaire,  and  de  Quatrefages;36  it  was  the  last 
named,  who,  during  the  war  of  1870,  first  prostituted  the  materials  of 
physical  anthropology  for  the  purposes  of  nationalistic  propaganda.  The 
gauntlet  flung  down  by  de  Quatrefages,  who  called  the  Germans  "Huns," 
was  seized  by  his  enemy  and  converted  into  the  more  effective  weapon  of 
Nordicism. 

It  remained  for  another  Frenchman,  however,  to  coin  the  word  "Nor- 
dic." This  was  Deniker,37  who  has  had  a  greater  influence  upon  the  sub- 
sequent classification  of  race  than  any  of  his  nineteenth  century  contem- 
poraries, and  who  still  remains  the  most  important  classifier.  In  view  of  the 
lack  of  scientific  method  available  at  his  time — his  classification,  later 
modified  slightly,  was  first  published  in  1889 — his  intuitive  genius  and 
his  grasp  of  patent  situations  were  extraordinary.  Born  in  Russia  and 
educated  in  St.  Petersburg  as  an  engineer,  he  had  travelled  widely  through- 
out eastern  Europe  and  the  Caucasus  before  he  settled  in  Paris  in  1876, 
at  the  age  of  twenty-four,  to  begin  his  career  as  an  anthropologist. 

The  first  step  in  Deniker's  system  was  to  divide  mankind  on  the  basis 
of  a  combination  of  hair  form,  hair  and  eye  color,  and  nose  form,  with 
hair  form  as  the  principal  diagnostic.  He  made  six  primary  divisions,  as 
shown  on  page  281. 

82  Deniker,  J.,  The  Races  of  Man,  pp.  280-284. 
88  Topinard,  P.,  RDAP,  second  series,  vol.  1,  p.  509,  1878,  etc. 
84  Haeckel,  E.  H.,  Naturliche  Schopjungsgeschichte,  vol.  7,  pp.  626,  647. 
^Muiler,  Fr.,  Allgemeine  Ethnographie,  pp.  17-19. 
38  Deniker,  J.,  loc.  cit. 

37  Deniker,  J.,  BSAP,  vol.  12,  1899,  p.  320;  JRAI,  vol.  34,  1904,  pp.  181-206;  Th$ 
Races  of  Man,  pp.  285-286. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  281 

A.  Woolly  Hair,  Broad  Nose. 

B.  Curly  or  Wavy  Hair. 

C.  Wavy  Brown  or  Black  Hair,  Dark  Eyes. 

D.  Fair,  Wavy  or  Straight  Hair,  Light  Eyes. 

E.  Straight  or  Wavy  Hair,  Dark,  Black  Eyes. 

F.  Straight  Hair. 

Within  these  primary  divisions  he  based  his  further  classification  upon 
combinations  of  skin  color,  nose  form,  stature,  cephalic  index,  pilous  de- 
velopment, browridges,  and  other  characters.  By  this  means  he  properly 
separated  the  Bushman  into  a  separate  class  of  group  A;  the  Australian 
as  well  as  the  Dravidian  went  into  group  B,  and  were  thus  separated  from 
a  major  "black  race."  Within  the  straight-haired  class  the  Lapps,  Mongo- 
loids, and  American  Indians  were  arranged  into  what  seemed  then  a 
reasonable  order. 

The  white  group,  with  which  alone  we  are  concerned,  falls  almost  en- 
tirely into  his  C  and  D  categories,  with  one  segment  in  B.  The  table  on 
page  282  gives  this  section  of  his  classification  in  full.38 

In  that  table,  Deniker  lists  a  number  of  races  found  both  in  Europe 
and  outside  that  continent,  of  which  eleven,  not  counting  the  Ainu, 
might  be  classified  as  basically  white.  His  #5,  the  Ethiopian,  is  the 
Hamitic  race  of  East  Africa,  with  or  without  a  slight  negroid  increment; 
his  #9,  the  Indo-Afghan,  is  the  hook-nosed  type  of  Mediterranean  which 
we  have  found  to  extend  from  Mesopotamia  to  India  across  the  highland 
belt,  from  at  least  the  third  millennium  B.C.  onward;  his  #8  is  Armenoid. 
The  inclusion  of  the  Ethiopian  and  Assyrioid  with  Australians  and  Dravid- 
ians  rather  than  with  whites,  while  inexact,  points,  in  the  first  case,  to 
the  negroid  admixture  of  modern  Ethiopians,  and  in  the  second,  to  a 
realization  of  the  affinities  of  Australoids  and  Veddoids  to  the  white  group 
as  a  whole. 

Besides  these  three,  in  effect,  Hamitic,  Armenoid,  and  Irano-Afghan, 
he  finds  two  other  white  races  outside  the  continent  of  Europe  proper: 
these  are  his  Arab  and  Berber.  Thus  we  find  a  total  of  five  morphologi- 
cally white  races  in  Asia  and  Africa;  four  of  these  are  actually  sub-divisions 
of  the  cranially  unaltered  basic  Mediterranean  stock. 

In  Europe  itself  he  finds  six  races;  the  Littoral  European,  also  called 
Atlan to-Mediterranean,  is  the  tall  Mediterranean  associated  in  antiquity 
with  Megalithic  cultures,  and  may  be  related  basically  to  Deniker's 
Ethiopian.  His  Ibero-Insular  is  the  short  Mediterranean  race  of  Spain 
and  the  western  islands,  and  corresponds  to  the  Neolithic  Mediterranean 
type  in  these  regions.  Deniker  distinguished,  therefore,  between  certain 

88  Based  upon  Deniker' s  1912  classification  with  some  reference  to  his  1889  scheme 
as  well. 


282 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


B.   CURLT  OR    WAVY  HAIR 

Reddish-brown,  narrow  nose,  j 

tall  stature,  dolichocephalic.  J 

Chocolate-brown,  broad  nose,  1 

medium  stature,  dolichocephalic.  J 

Brownish-black,  broad  or  narrow  j 

nose,  short  stature,  dolicho-  I 

cephalic.  J 

2.  SKIN  OF  tawny  white,  nose  narrow, 

hooked,  with  thick  top,  brachycephalic. 


1.  DARK 
SKIN 


C.    WAVY  BROWN  OR  BLACK  HAIR,   DARK  EYES 

1.  SKIN  clear  brown,  black  hair,  narrow,  \ 

straight  or  convex  nose,  tall  \ 

stature,  dolichocephalic.  J 


Ethiopian 

Australian 

Dravidian  (sub-races 
Platyrrhine  and  Lep- 
torrhine) 

Assyrioid 


Indo- Afghan 


Aquiline  nose,  promi- 
nent occiput,  dolicho- 
cephalic, elliptical 
form  of  face. 

Arab  or 
Semite 

10 

2.  SKIN 
TAWNY 

Tall 
stature, 
elongated 
face 

Straight,  coarse  nose,        j 
dolichocephalic,                 i 
square  face.                        J 

Berber 

(4  sub-races) 

11 

WHITE,    - 
BLACK 

Straight,  fine  nose, 
mesocephalic,  oval  face. 

Littoral 
European 
(  A  tlan  to- 
Mediterranean) 

12 

HAIR 

Short  stature,  dolichocephalic 

Ibero-Insular 

13 

3.  SKIN  DULL 
WHITE, 

Short  stature,  strongly  brachy-          1 
cephalic,  round  face.                           j 

Western 
European 

14 

BROWN 
HAIR 

Tall  stature,  brachycephalic, 
elongated  face. 

)    Adriatic 
j     (Dinaric) 

15 

D.   FAIR,    WAVY,   OR  STRAIGHT  HAIR,   LIGHT  EYES 

SKIN  REDDISH     (  Somewhat  wavy,  reddish,  tall 
stature,  dolichocephalic. 

>    Nordic 

16 

WHITE, 
Somewhat  straight,  flaxen  haired, 
HAIR  FLAXEN       s^ort  stature,  sub-brachycephalic. 

(Eastern 
European 
(R.  Orientals) 

17 

E.   STRAIGHT  OR   WAVY  HAIR,  DARK,  BLACK  EYES 

SKIN  LIGHT  BROWN,  very  hairy  body,  broad  and  concave  A . 

i  i«  i         i    i»  Ainu 

nose,  dolichocephalic. 


18 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  283 

of  the  basic  sub-varieties  of  the  Mediterranean  family,  and  except  for 
the  categories  Arab  and  Berber,  this  distinction  is  on  the  whole  accurate. 
He  was  aware  of  the  differences  between  the  three  most  important  sur- 
viving divisions;  (a)  Short  Mediterranean,  (b)  Tall,  Megalithic,  and  East 
African  variety,  and  (c)  Hook-nosed,  Indo- Afghan  or  Irano- Afghan  variety. 

At  the  same  time,  he  was  aware  of  the  distinction  between  the  Alpines 
and  Binaries,  both  in  form  and  in  geographical  distribution.  In  his 
placing  of  the  blonds  into  a  separate  category,  he  was  following  a  taxo- 
nomic  system  rather  than  an  estimate  of  relationships.  His  Nordics  are 
accurately  defined  on  the  basis  of  living  peoples;  they  are  given  a  cephalic 
index  of  77  to  79,  instead  of  a  non-existent  lower  mean;  and  they  are 
segregated  from  the  blond  brachycephals  of  central  and  eastern  Europe. 

In  order  to  accommodate  other  racial  elements  not  fully  covered  by 
these  classes,  Deniker  devised  certain  sub-races:  (1)  The  Northwestern 
sub-race,  a  division  of  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean,  to  accommodate  es- 
pecially the  dark-haired  western  Irish.  (2)  A  Sub-Nordic,  which  differs 
from  the  Nordic  in  the  possession  of  mesocephaly,  a  square  face,  and  a 
turned-up  nose;  this  was  devised  to  accommodate  peoples  living  to  the 
east  of  the  Baltic  and  in  northern  Germany.  (3)  The  Vistulan  race  is  a 
branch  of  the  eastern  European  or  Oriental.  The  Oriental  is  described  as 
short  statured  (163-164  cm.);  moderately  brachycephalic  (GJ.  =  82-83); 
and  possessing  light  yellow  or  flaxen  hair,  a  square  cut  face,  a  nose  which 
is  frequently  turned  up,  and  blue  or  gray  eyes.  This  race  is  associated 
with  the  eastern  Slavs  and  Finns  for  the  most  part,  while  the  Vistulan  is 
a  variety  of  the  same  race  with  shorter  stature  and  mesocephaly.  The 
last  of  Deniker's  secondary  races  is  the  Sub- Adriatic,  described  as  a  slightly 
shorter,  slightly  less  brachycephalic  and  blonder  variety  of  Dinaric,  with 
a  stature  of  166  cm.,  a  C.  I.  of  82-85;  and  derived  from  a  blend  of  Dinaric 
with  Sub-Nordic. 

Two  other  authorities  of  what  might, be  called  the  prestatistical  school 
deserve  mention  at  this  point — Sergi  and  Ripley.  Sergi,39  whose  main 
interest  was  the  Mediterranean  race,  based  his  classification  primarily 
upon  the  circumferential  profile  of  the  head  when  seen  from  above,  and 
worked  more  with  crania  than  with  the  living.  His  chief  contribution 
was  the  realization  of  the  basic  unity  of  the  Mediterranean  race,  in  both 
its  blond  and  brunet  forms,  and  its  connection  with  the  bearers  of  Euro- 
pean civilization.  Thus  he  anticipated  the  findings  of  the  archaeologists 
that  the  Neolithic  economy  was  brought  into  the  western  world  by  Med- 
iterraneans. 

He  also  made  it  clear  that  the  so-called  Brown  Race,  in  its  dolicho- 
cephalic and  leptorrhine  or  mesorrhine  forms,  was  for  the  most  part  an 

89  Sergi,  G.,  Specie  e  vaneta  umane;  UUomo;  Le  Origini  Umane;  The  Mediterranean  Race. 


284  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

extension  of  the  same  Mediterranean  family  into  southern  Asia.  He  divided 
whites  into  Eurafricans,  which  is  another  word  for  basic  Mediterraneans, 
and  Eurasiatics,  under  which  he  included  all  brachycephals  of  white  affin- 
ity. Sergi  anticipated  the  discovery  not  only  of  the  unity  and  cultural  im- 
portance of  the  Mediterraneans,  but  also  the  dual  origin  of  the  white  race. 

If  the  schoolchildren  and  the  unerudite  public  at  large  still  follow 
Blumenbach,  and  the  anthropologists  themselves  devise  classificatory 
schemes  based  upon  Deniker,  the  large  intermediate  group  of  educated 
laymen  rely  almost  entirely  upon  Ripley.40  Ripley,  writing  in  1899,  was 
aware  of  Deniker 's  work,  but  rejected  it.  He  considered  that  Deniker 
had  made  the  picture  much  too  complicated,  and  that  there  were  but 
three  white  races,  the  Teutonic  (Nordic),  the  Alpine,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  Nordic  and  Mediterranean  were  old  European  branches  of 
an  earlier  white  stock,  while  the  Alpines  were  immigrants  from  Asia  who 
had  brought  agriculture  and  the  whole  Neolithic  economy  with  them. 
The  Alpines,  besides  introducing  a  new  physical  type,  parted  the  Nordics 
from  the  Mediterraneans  geographically,  so  that  the  two  might  develop 
separately,  and  that  the  Nordics  in  particular  might  derive  their  tall 
stature  and  blondism  from  environmental  causes  in  isolation. 

The  above  brief  exposition  has  many  advantages.  It  is  simple,  it  is 
lucid,  it  is  easily  remembered.  It  fitted  into  the  linguistic  picture  of  Aryan 
culture  bearers  plodding  across  Europe  from  their  simple  home  in  the 
Hindu-Kush,  developed  by  nineteenth  century  philologists,  although 
Ripley  himself  was  vehement  in  his  rejection  of  linguistics  as  a  proper 
approach  to  racial  study.  At  the  same  time  it  explained  the  newly-found 
and  well-preserved  Neolithic  remains  of  the  Swiss  lake  dwellings. 

With  such  a  simple  scheme,  it  was  easy  for  Ripley's  followers  to  tack 
psychological  characters  to  the  three-fold  framework,  and  the  "Nordic 
with  a  genius  for  leadership  and  government,"  "the  stolid,  unimaginative, 
plodding  but  virtuous  Alpine,"  and  the  "gay,  artistic,  and  sexy  Mediter- 
ranean" soon  followed.  Hilaire  Belloc's  famous  verses,  published  orig- 
inally in  the  New  Statesman^  satirize  this  attitude  perfectly. 

"Behold,  my  child,  the  Nordic  man, 
And^  be  as  like  him  as  you  can : 
His  legs  are  long — his  mind  is  slow 
His  hair  is  lank  and  made  of  tow. 

"And  here  we  have  the  Alpine  race. 
Oh !  what  a  broad  and  brutal  face. 
His  skin  is  of  a  dirty  yellow 
He  is  a  most  unpleasant  fellow. 

*°  Ripley,  W.  Z.,  The  Races  of  Europe. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  285 

"The  most  degraded  of  them  all 
Mediterranean  we  call. 
His  hair  is  crisp  and  even  curls 
And  he  is  saucy  with  the  girls." 

Ripley  himself  had  little  or  nothing,  in  a  direct  sense,  to  do  with  this 
efflorescence  of  speculative  psychology,  for  the  attitude  of  differential 
racial  values  had  been  crystallized  as  early  as  Gobineau;  41  but  he  did 
give  the  exponents  of  this  school  a  facile  terminology.  Racial  nationalism 
had  been  growing  before  Ripley' s  time;  but  he,  for  the  first  time,  gave  the 
laymen  a  racial  classification  which  they  could  understand,  and  which 
could  be  converted  into  catchwords. 

Like  his  predecessors,  Ripley  was  discreet  about  the  age  of  white  men 
on  European  soil;  only  in  the  case  of  the  Alpines  was  he  willing  to  set  a 
culturally  stabilized  date.  In  his  day  it  was  generally  believed  that  the 
Neolithic  went  back  to  anywhere  from  eight  to  fourteen  thousand  B.C., 
and  the  Mesolithic  period  was  not  generally  recognized.  Furthermore 
the  function  of  the  glacier  in  regard  to  human  habitat  was  but  poorly 
comprehended.  Ripley  did,  however,  make  one  speculation  about  the 
survival  of  preglacial  man  in  Europe;  he  postulated  that  some  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Dordogne  region  in  France  might  be  Cr6-Magnon 
descendants. 

Some  twenty  years  previously  Verneau  ^  had  remarked  upon  the  re- 
semblance between  Guanche  crania  from  the  Canary  Islands  and  these 
Cr6-Magnon  skulls,  and  had  postulated  a  genetic  relationship  between  the 
two  peoples  so  separated  in  space  and  in  time.  In  1896  von  Luschan  and 
Meyer  43  reaffirmed  this  relationship,  and  this  endorsement  prepared  the 
way  for  a  more  accurate  realization  of  the  part  played  by  survivors  from 
the  last  glacial  period  in  the  modern  peopling  of  Europe.  It  was  soon 
realized  that,  if  Upper  Palaeolithic  man  could  survive  in  the  Canary 
Islands,  he  could  persist  elsewhere  as,well,  and  from  this  start  arose  the 
theory  that  the  Crd-Magnon  people  had  retreated  northward  with  the 
glacier,  and  had  survived  in  Scandinavia.  Paudler,44  in  his  Die  kellfar- 
bigen  Rassen,  first  put  this  thesis  into  digestible  form,  and  distinguished 
between  his  "Dalo-Nordic"  or  "Palish"  (Gunther),  which  is  tall,  long- 
headed, with  a  mesorrhine  nose  and  short,  broad  face,  and  a  "Teuto- 
Nordic"  which  is  also  tall  and  long  headed,  but  has  a  long,  narrow  nose 

41  Gobineau,  A.  de,  Essai  sur  Vinegalite  des  races  humaines. 

42  Verneau,  R.,  BMSA,  Paris,  ser.  2,  vol.  2,  1876,  pp.  408-417;  Arch  des  Missions 
Scientifiques  et  Litteraires,  Paris,  1887,  ser.  3,  vol.  13,  pp.  567-817. 

48  Meyer,  H.,  Die  Insel  Tenerijfe;  Uber  die  Urbewohner  der  Canarischen  Inseln. 
Luschan,  F.  von,  article  in  Meyer,  Tenerijfe. 

44  Paudler,  F.,  Die  hellfarbigen  Rassen.  See  also  his  earlier  article  in  Anthropos,  vols.  12- 
13,  1917-18,  pp.  641-694. 


286  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

and  face  form.  The  first  is  considered  to  be  the  primary  Cro-Magnon 
descendant. 

From  this  thesis  has  arisen  the  idea,  in  conjunction  with  philology  and 
archaeology,  that  the  Germanic  peoples,  as  descendants  of  Cr6-Magnon, 
represent  the  racial  and  linguistic  nucleus  of  the  Indo-Europeans;  that 
European  Neolithic  civilization  and  Indo-European  speech  both  had 
their  origin  in  northern  Germany  and  Scandinavia;  that  the  Corded 
people,  a  Nordic  variety,  originated  and  spread  from  here;  and  that  in 
effect,  the  Nordic  race,  Indo-European  speech,  and  European  culture  in 
its  basic  form,  arose  from  Palaeolithic  racial  and  cultural  origins  in  this 
northwestern  European  glacial  center.  This  theory,  bolstered  on  the 
archaeological  side  by  Kossinna,45  is  popular  in  Germany,  but  is  by  no 
means  endorsed  by  all  German  physical  anthropologists. 

The  modern  German  school  has  made  a  great  advance  over  Deniker 
and  his  contemporaries,  and  over  Ripley,  in  the  realization  that  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  modern  European  racial  conglomerate  is  of  glacial 
antiquity  in  Europe.  The  difference  between  their  conclusions  and  those 
of  the  present  study  lies  mainly  in  my  acceptance  of  Childe's  derivation 
of  the  Neolithic  economy,  and  Menghin's  as  well,  rather  than  that  of 
Kossinna.  Von  Eickstedt,46  the  most  articulate  of  the  modern  German 
raciologists,  in  his  derivation  of  European  peoples  from  Asia  at  various 
periods,  does  not  emphasize  the  introduction  of  the  food-producing 
economy  in  this  connection. 

It  would  be  outside  the  scope  of  the  present  study  to  attempt  a  complete 
survey  of  current  ideas  and  current  classifications  which  concern  the 
European  races.  A  partial  survey  would,  on  the  other  hand,  be  unfair  to 
those  who  might,  through  limitations  of  space,  be  neglected.  1  shall, 
therefore,  limit  my  exposition  to  the  systems  of  two  authors,47  von  Eick- 
stedt and  Czekanowski,  who  have  been  particularly  occupied  with  the 
question  of  racial  taxonomy  and  who  are  the  most  vocal  members  of  the 
German  and  Polish  bodies  respectively.  Their  influence  has  been  con- 
siderable, and  their  schemes  are  articulate  and  orderly. 

Von  Eickstedt,  whose  Rassenkunde  und  Rassengeschichte  der  Menschheit 
represents  the  most  ambitious  attempt  at  world-classification  yet  made, 
follows,  in  his  European  sections,  three  masters:  Ripley,  Deniker,  and 
Montandon.  It  is  the  combination  of  these  three,  skilfully  blended, 
which  has  produced  his  system.  In  the  first  place,  he  agrees  with  Ripley 
that  there  are  but  three  basic  races  in  Europe;  Nordic,  Alpine,  and  Med- 
iterranean. These  three  are  typically  confined  to  three  climatic  and 

46  Kossinna,  G.,  Ur sprung  und  Verbreitung  der  Germanen,  MannusB,  #6a,  1928. 
46  Eickstedt,  E.  von,  Rassenkunde  und  Rassengeschichte  der  Menschheit. 
47 1  am  omitting  Giinther,  despite  his  great  vogue,  since  his  system  is  a  close  Germani- 
zation  of  Deniker's,  with  a  few  changes. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  287 

geographical  zones;  the  cold  northern  plain,  the  central  mountain  belt, 
and  the  warm  belt  reaching  along  the  Mediterranean  shores,  and  over 
Arabia  and  Iran  to  India. 

He  differs  from  Ripley,  however,  in  that  he  divides  his  three  zones  into 
sub-races,  and  here  he  follows,  for  the  most  part,  Deniker.  The  northern 
zone  is  occupied,  at  its  western  extremity,  by  the  Nordics;  at  its  eastern 
by  his  Osteuropid  race,  the  Orientale  of  Deniker,  and  the  East  Baltic  of 
Nordenstreng  and  of  authors  writing  in  English.48  The  central  mountain 
belt  is  occupied,  reading  from  west  to  east,  by  the  Alpines,  the  Binaries, 
and,  in  Asia,  the  Armenoids,  and  the  Turanids,  the  latter  being  the  leptor- 
rhine  brachy cephalic  central  Asiatic  Turkish  racial  form.  The  southern 
zone  is  occupied  by  the  Mediterraneans  on  the  west,  then  the  Orientalids 
(Beniker's  Indo-Afghan)  in  North  Africa,  and  thence  over  to  Khyber 
Pass,  where  the  Indid  race  begins. 

In  the  differentiation  between  the  segments  of  each  zone,  Montandon's 
ideas,49  elaborated  from  those  of  Rosa,  come  into  play.  Von  Eickstedt, 
following  the  principles  of  the  ologenesis  theory,  has  decided  that  some 
races  are  progressive  in  the  evolutionary  sense,  while  others  are  primitive. 
The  two  words,  here  simply  Anglicized  from  the  German,  are  apparently 
translations  of  Montandon's  precoce  and  tardif.  The  distinction  is  that  one 
is  capable  of  further  evolution,  the  other  is  not.  In  the  von  Eickstedt 
sense,  the  primitive  branch  is  usually  earlier.  Thus  he  makes  the  Alpines, 
in  particular,  primitive;  the  Binaries,  in  contrast,  are  progressive  forms 
of  the  same  original  root. 

According  to  von  Eickstedt,  the  races  which  come  under  his  classifi- 
cation entered  Europe  in  post-glacial  times.  First  came  the  Mediter- 
raneans, during  the  Mesolithic;  then  the  Alpines,  who  approached  the 
Swiss  lake  dwellings  from  the  east,  but  still  in  Mesolithic  times;  the 
Binaries  go  back  only  to  the  Bronze  Age.  The  Alpines  were  a  forest 
people,  and  spread  out  into  the  forests  of  northern  Europe  as  well  as  of 
those  which  covered  the  mountains  in  the  center.  An  extra-primitive 
proto-Alpine  type  went  to  Benmark  to  associate  itself  with  the  Magle- 
mose  culture.  Then  the  Nordics  broke  through  along  the  newly-formed 
northern  steppes,  and  entered  Scandinavia  over  Benmark,  passing  into 
Norway  by  two  routes:  around  by  Oslo;  and  through  the  gap  between  the 
two  melting  nuclei  of  the  glacier,  into  Trondelagen.  Earlier  brachy- 
cephals  are  found  at  the  termini  of  these  routes. 

According  to  his  system  the  Lapps  are  Alpines  isolated  in  the  north; 
they  are  the  purest  Alpines  of  all  and  are  not  mongoloid.  The  Nordics 

48  Nordenstreng,  R.,  Europas  Manniskoraser  och  Folkslag. 

Lundborg  and  Linders,  Racial  Characters  of  the  Swedish  Nation,  pp.  50—52. 
Hooton,  E.  A.,  Up  from  the  Ape,  pp.  508-5Q9,  535. 

49  Montandon,  G.,  La  Race,  Les  Races. 


288 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


are  divided  into  three  sub-divisions:  Teuto-Nordic,  the  original  and  basic 
form;  the  Dalo-Nordic,  which  is  the  same  plus  Cr6-Magnon  mixture;  and 
a  Fenno-Nordic,  reddish  haired  and  water-blue  eyed,  which  is  the  eastern- 
most, largely  Asiatic  branch,  now  found  only  in  solution.  The  Osteuropids 
are  a  separate  race,  a  Nordic-Mongoloid  transitional  form,  dating  from 
the  time  of  differentiation  between  these  two  stocks;  and  not  a  Nordic 
Mongoloid  mixture,  since  its  superior  blondism  and  possession  of  dis- 
tinctive traits  make  its  mixed  derivation  impossible.  This  race  developed 
in  the  swamps  and  forests  of  the  Obi  drainage,  and  entered  Europe  only 
in  modern  times;  its  penetration  of  eastern  and  central  Europe  is  a  recent 
phenomenon. 

So  much  for  von  Eickstedf  s  classification.  It  fits  with  some  fidelity  the 
facts  of  racial  distribution  in  Europe,  but  it  does  not  fit  all  of  the  facts  of 
history.  In  this  respect  we  may  apply  the  same  criticism  to  the  system  of 
Czekanowski,  which  is  illustrated  by  the  diagram  below:  50 


According  to  Czekanowski,  there  are  four  basic  white  races,  located 
schematically  at  the  corners  of  the  square;  and  six  sub-races  or  mixed 
types,  which  result  from  the  crossing  of  the  four  fundamental  ones.  These 
races  and  sub-races,  with  their  Greek  letters,  may  be  listed  as  follows: 


alpha 
epsilon 
lambda 
chi 


iota 

gamma 

omega 

rho 

beta 

delta 


PURE  RACES 

Nordic 
Ibero-Insular 
Lapponoid 
Armenoid 

MIXED  TYPES 

Northwestern 

Subnordic 

Alpine 

Littoral 

Pile  Dwelling 

Dinaric 


(alpha — epsilon) 
(alpha — lambda) 
(alpha — chi) 
(epsilon — chi) 
(epsilon — lambda) 
(lambda — chi) 


This  scheme  is  obviously  an  attempt  to  place  Deniker's  system  in  a 
mathematically  orderly  form.     Czekanowski  defines  his  Lapponoid  in 

»  Czekanowski,  Jan,  AAnz,  vol.  5,  1928,  pp.  335-359;  AASF,  ser.  A,  vol.  25,  #2, 
1925. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  289 

such  a  way  as  to  include  the  Alpine  of  Ripley,  as  well  as  the  Lapps  proper. 
In  this  identification  of  Lapps  and  Alpines,  Czekanowski  and  von  Eick- 
stedt  agree.  The  Dinaric  becomes  a  mixture  of  Lapponoid  and  Armenoid, 
which  is  difficult  to  follow;  the  "Pile  Dwelling,"  being  a  mixture  of  Lap- 
ponoid and  Mediterranean  is,  however,  fully  in  accordance  with  the 
facts  in  regard  to  the  crania  of  Swiss  Lake  Dwellers, 61  concerning  which 
Gzekanowski  is  a  specialized  authority.52  It  seems  unfortunate  that  the 
word  "Alpine,"  should  be  torn  from  its  context,  immortalized  by  Ripley, 
and  applied  to  a  hypothetical  Nordic- Armenoid  cross,  thus  further  abet- 
ting the  confusion  prevalent  among  even  professional  anthropologists, 
a  confusion  which  Gunther,  in  his  wholesale  swapping  of  names,  has  done 
much  to  foster.58 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  present  survey  to  criticize  in  detail  the  two 
schemes  chosen  for  presentation.  Czekanowski,  like  Gunther,  von  Eick- 
stedt,  and  others,  has  rescued  the  Armenoid,  which  was  first  carefully 
described  by  von  Luschan,54  from  the  obscure  companionship  of  Aus- 
tralians and  Ethiopians  in  which  Deniker  had  thrown  it;  he  also,  antici- 
pating von  Eickstedt  and  following  the  early  example  of  Pruner  Bey,55 
has  attempted  to  salvage  the  Lapps  from  a  mongoloid  category  and  to 
make  them  full-fledged  if  primitive  Europeans.  But  his  scheme  is  mani- 
festly too  pat,  too  regular,  and  too  mathematical,  to  agree  fully  with 
nature,  and,  furthermore,  it  disagrees  in  many  respects  with  the  findings 
of  the  historical  discipline. 

In  making  our  own  classification,  let  us  first  review  the  system  which 
grew  out  of  the  skeletal  study  in  Chapters  II  to  VII.  The  groundwork  of 
this  system,  and  the  list  of  types,  may  be  gathered  from  the  study  of  the 
lower  half  of  Fig.  30.  In  this  chart  an  attempt  is  made  to  separate  the 
purely  sapiens  Mediterranean  group  from  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  mixed 
sapiens  and  Neanderthal  races.  Thus  the  Mediterranean  sub-groups, 
races  of  food- producers  which  had  already  become  differentiated  before 
the  great  migrations  into  Europe,  are  listed  as  follows:  Irano- Afghan, 
Corded,  Atlanto-Mediterranean,  Cappadocian,  Mediterranean  Proper, 
and  Danubian.  The  old  hunting  and  fishing  population  is  divided  into: 
Brunn,  Borreby,  and  Alpine;  while  that  branch  which  bears  a  considerable 
strain  of  incipient  mongoloidism,  includes  Lappish  and  Ladogan,  the 
latter  being  the  vaguely  mongoloid  mixed  meso-  and  brachycephalic 
element  which  appeared  sporadically  in  the  forest  region  of  Russia,  and 
occasionally  to  the  south,  from  the  beginning  of  the  Russian  Neolithic 

61  See  Chapter  IV,  pp.  113-115. 

52  Czekanowski,  J.,  AFA,  vol.  48,  1925,  pp.  65-76. 

88  Gunther,  H.,  Rassenkunde  der  deutschen  Votkes. 

**  Luschan,  F.  von,  JRAI,  vol.  41,  1911,  pp.  221-244. 

86  Pruner  Bey,  F.,  MSAP,  vol.  2,  1865,  pp.  417-432. 


290 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  291 

onward.  To  this  same  side  of  the  chart  arc  added  the  modern  mongoloids 
and  the  mongoloid  element  in  the  American  Indian. 

The  lower  half  of  the  chart  seems  relatively  simple  in  comparison  with 
the  upper  portion,  in  which  an  attempt  is  made  to  show  the  relationships 
between  these  skeletal  races  and  the  living.  The  comparative  simplicity 
of  the  lower  portion,  however,  may  reflect  ignorance  on  our  part  rather 
than  actual  genetic  isolation,  since  there  was  undoubtedly  much  mixing 
back  and  forth  between  the  branches  of  each  of  the  major  lines,  as  well 
as  between  the  lines  themselves. 

The  proposed  classification  of  living  whites  and  near-whites,  which  is 
shown  on  the  top  of  the  chart,  may  be  listed  in  more  detailed  form  as 
follows: 

A.  LARGE-HEADED  PALAEOLITHIC  SURVIVORS 

(1)  Brunn:    (Cr6-Magnon,   to   some   extent)    found    in   solution  with   Borreby, 
Nordic,  and  other  elements,  mostly  in  Scandinavia  and  the  British  Isles, 
also  in  North  Africa  and  Canary  Islands.    May  appear  in  comparatively 
pure  form  among  individuals  although  nowhere  as  a  total  population. 

(2)  Borreby;  Large-headed  brachycephals  of  Omet-Afalou  type,  the  unreduced 
brachycephalic  strain  in  Cro-Magnon;  found  in  solution  in  peripheral  re- 
gions of  northwestern  Europe,  and  as  a  major  population  element  in  most 
of  northern  and  central  Germany,  and  in  Belgium.    Like  the.  Briinn  race, 
with  which  it  is  often  associated,  it  occurs  also  in  North  Africa  and  the 
Canary  Islands. 

B.  PURE    AND    MIXED    PALAEOLITHIC    AND    MESOLITHIC    SUR- 
VIVORS OF  MODERATE  HEAD  SI^E™ 

(3)  Alpine:  A  reduced  and  somewhat  foetalized  survivor  of  the  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic population  in  Late  Pleistocene  France,  highly  brachycephalized;  seems 
to  represent  in  a  large  measure  the  bearer  of  the  brachycephalic  factor  in 
Cr6-Magnon.    Close  approximations  to  this  type  appear  also  in  the  Balkans 
and  in  the  highlands  of  western  and  central  Asia,  suggesting  that  its  ancestral 
prototype  was  widespread  in  Late  Pleistocene  times.    In  modern  races  it 
sometimes  appears  in  a  relatively  pure  form,  sometimes  as  an  element  in 
mixed  brachycephalic  populations  of  multiple  origin.    It  may  have  served 
in  both  Pleistocene  and  modern  times  as  a  bearer  of  the  tendency  toward 
brachycephalization  into  various  populations. 

(4)'  Ladogan:  I  propose  to  give  this  name  to  the  descendants  of  the  mesocephalic 
and  brachycephalic  forest-dwelling  population  of  northern  Europe  east  of 
the  Baltic  in  Kammkeramik  times.  This  type  is  a  blend  of  a  partly  mongo- 
loid brachycephalic  element  with  a  mesocephalic  form  of  general  Upper 
Palaeolithic  aspect;  these  elements  are  seen  in  crania  from  Lake  Ladoga 
and  Salis  Roje.  (See  Chapter  IV,  section  13,  pp.  125-126.)  Corded  and /or 
Danubian  elements  are  inextricably  blended  here,  although  the  mongoloid 

66  Foetalization  in  a  skeletal  sense,  which  is,  for  obvious  reasons,  the  only  sense  im- 
plicit here,  involves  a  reduction  of  male  secondary  sex  characters  in  the  skull,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  reduction  in  skeletal  sex  differentiation. 


292  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  Upper  Palaeolithic  elements  seem  at  present  more  important.    In  its 
present  form  this  composite  type  shows  two  numerous  variants: 

(a)  Neo-Danubian:  Strongly  mixed  with  the  old  Danubian,  and  to  a  lesser 
extent  other  elements,  to  form  the  common  peasant  type  of  eastern 
Europe,  with  many  local  variants. 

(b)  East  Baltic:  Strongly  mixed  with  Corded,  Iron  Age  Nordic,  and  western 
Palaeolithic  survivors  to  form  the  predominant  population  of  much  of 
Finland  and  the  Baltic  States. 

(5)  Lappish:  A  stunted,  highly  brachycephalized,  largely  brunet  relative  of  the 
Ladogan,  originally  living  to  the  east  of  the  Ladogan  type  area,  in  the  Urals 
and  western  Siberia.     Has  probably  assimilated  some  evolved  mongoloid, 
but  owes  its  partly  mongoloid  appearance  more  to  the  retention  of  an  early 
intermediate  evolutionary  condition.     In  modern  times  much  mixed  with 
Ladogan  and  Nordic. 

C.   PURE    AND    MIXED    UNBRACHTCEPHALI^ED    MEDITERRANEAN 
DERIVA  TIVES 

(6)  Mediterraneans:  Within  this  general  class,  which  still  retains  much  of  its 
original  racial  unity,  the  following  sub-classes  may  at  present  be  distin- 
guished: 

(a)  Mediterranean   Proper:   Short-statured,   dolicho-  and   mesocephalic  form 
found  in  Spain,  Portugal,  the  western  Mediterranean  islands,  and  to 
some  extent  in  North  Africa,  southern  Italy,  and  other  Mediterranean 
borderlands.     Its  purest  present-day  racial  nucleus  is  without  doubt 
Arabia.     Most  of  the  Cappadocian,  isolated  in  the  skeletal  material, 
seems  to  have  been  absorbed  into  the  western  Mediterranean  variety 
after  its  early  Metal  Age  migration,  while  that  which  remained  in  Asia 
Minor  became  assimilated  into  the  Dinaric  and  Armenoid.    It  still  ap- 
pears, however,  among  individuals  in  its  original  form,  and  is  particu- 
larly common  among  Oriental  Jews. 

(b)  Atlanto-Mediterranean:  The  tall,  straight-nosed  Mediterranean,  not  meso- 
cephalic, as  Deniker  erroneously  stated,  but  strongly  dolichocephalic. 
Today  this  race  forms  the  principal  element  in  the  population  of  North 
Africa,  and  is  strong  in  Iraq,  Palestine,  parts  of  Arabia,  and  the  eastern 
Balkans;  in  solution  with  varying  degrees  of  negroid  it  is  also  the  prin- 
cipal race  in  the  whole  of  East  Africa.    In  Europe  it  is  a  minority  ele- 
ment in  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  Italy,  and  the  British  Isles. 

(c)  Irano-Afghan:  The  long-faced,  high-headed,  hook-nosed  type,  usually  of 
tall  stature,  which  forms  the  principal  element  in  the  population  of 
Iran,  Afghanistan,  and  the  Turkoman  country,  and  which  is  also  present 

-     in  Palestine,  parts  of  Arabia,  and  North  Africa.    It  is  probably  related 

to  the  old  Corded  type  of  the  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Age. 
(7)  Nordics:  The  basic  Nordic  is  the  Corded-Danubian  blend  of  the  Aunjetitz 
and  of  the  Early  Iron  Age  in  central  Europe.   This  type  includes  some  Bell 
Beaker  Dinaric  absorbed  in  early  Metal  Age  times.    Although  Danubian 
and  Corded  types  may  appear  as  individuals,  they  may  nowhere  be  isolated 
as  populations.  The  most  important  living  Nordic  varieties  are: 
(a)  Keltic  Iron  Age  Type:  The  Keltic  sub-type,  mesocephalic  and  low-vaulted, 
with  a  prominent  nose.    Commonest  in  the  British  Isles  where  in  places 


INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  LIVING  293 

it  forms  the  principal  element  in  the  population,    Also  a  major  element 
in  Flanders  and  the  Prankish  country  in  southwestern  Germany. 

(b)  Anglo-Saxon  Type:  The  old  Germanic  Reihengraber  type,  a  heavy-boned, 
rather  high-headed  Nordic  variety,  most  prevalent  in  northern  Germany 
and  England. 

(c)  Trondelagen   Type:  A  hybrid  type  of  Nordic  with  Corded  and  Briinn 
elements,  frequent  in  the  central  coastal  provinces  of  Norway,  north 
of  the  Dovre  Mountains;  the  principal  form  in  Iceland,  and  among 
the  Frisians,  and  common  in  the  British  Isles,    The  Anglo-Saxon  type 
lies  between  it  and  the  true  Nordic. 

(d)  Osterdal  Type:  The  original  Hallstatt  Nordic,  smaller-headed  and  finer 
boned  than  (b)  or  (c);  occurs  in  many  populations  as  individuals, 
typical  only  in  Sweden  and  in  the  eastern  valleys  of  Norway. 

D.   BRACHYCEPHALIZED    MEDITERRANEAN    DERIVATIVES,    PROB- 
ABLT  MIXED 

(8)  Dinarics:  A  tall  brachycephalic  type  of  intermediate  pigmentation,  usually 
planoccipital,  and  showing  the  facial  and  nasal  prominence  of  Near  Eastern 
peoples.    The  basic  population  of  the  whole  Dinaric-Alpine  highlands  from 
Switzerland  to  Epirus,  also  in  the  Carpathians  and  Caucasus,  as  well  as 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor.     Apparently  a  brachycephalized  blend  in  which 
Atlanto-Mediterranean  and  Cappadocian  strains  are  important,  with  Alpine 
acting  as  the  brachycephalizing  agent  in  mixture.     Borreby  and  Corded 
elements,  also  Nordic,  appear  to  be  involved  in  some  regions. 

(9)  Armenolds:  A  similar  brachycephalic  composite  type,  with  the  same  head 
form  as  the  Dinaric,  but  a  larger  face  and  nose.  The  pigmentation  is  almost 
entirely  brunet,  the  pilous  development  of  beard  and  body  abundant,  the 
nose  high  rooted,  convex,  and  the  tip  depressed,  especially  in  advanced  age. 
The  difference  between  the  Armenoid  and  the  Dinaric  is  that  here  it  is 
the  Irano-Afghan  race  which  furnishes  the  Mediterranean  element,  brachy- 
cephalized by  Alpine  mixture. 

(10)  None:  A  blond,  planoccipital  brachycephal  frequently  encountered  in  South 
Germany  and  elsewhere  in  central  Europe.  This  is  apparently  an  Iron  Age 
Nordic  brachycephalized  by  Dinaric  mixture  and  seems  in  most  respects  to 
take  the  form  of  a  blond  Dinaric  variant.  Both  Deniker  and  Czekanowski 
have  recognized  this  type,  and  it  is  a  standard  race,  under  various  names,  in 
most  Russian  studies.  The  name  Noric  was  given  it  by  Lebzelter.  A  brachy- 
cephalized Neo-Danubian,  common  in  Jugoslavia,  is  a  parallel  or  variant 
form. 

The  ten  racial  types  within  the  white  race  listed  above,  with  their  sub- 
types, form  two  of  the  three  main  divisions  of  the  white  race,  in  its  widest 
sense,  when  segregated  on  the  basis  of  head  size.  The  third  division,  that 
of  the  peoples  with  small  heads,  includes  the  aboriginal  population  of 
southern  Arabia  east  of  the  Yemen,  and  various  groups  in  Baluchistan, 
and  again  in  southern  India.  This  third  variety  is  characterized  by  an 
abundance  of  wavy  or  ringleted  hair,  and  facial  features  of  a  Veddoid 
character  which  in  some  instances  suggest  Australoid  affinities.  This  third 


FACIAL 
DISTRIBUTION 


o     o     oo.ooo     o     o     o     o.o 

O       O      o'l    O       O        O       O        O        O       O       O 

o      o     o     o     o     o     o      o      o      oooooo 

O       Q      Qj     O       O       O        O        O       O       O       O      O      OOP 


MAP 


Mongoloid 

Mongoloid 

Lappish 

strain,  Tronder,  etc.,  yn 
d,only  partly  bradiycepna 


LBaltic 

istocene^Mediterra 
rvivor  (Teviec  Type, 

Alpine 


(Ladogan+Danubian) 
Neo-Danubian  element  as 
mority 

Mediterranean 


Atlanto-Mediterranean 


A      A 
A      A      A    A     A      A 

AAAAA          ..     . 
A.     A      A    A     A     A      A 
A    A    A     A     A     A 


A    -     -v*-A,/ 

A       A     -         - 
AAAAA 

AAAAA 
AAAAA 

AAAAA 


OA\A      A     AAA     AAAAAA     A 
A      A^AK     A     A    'A    A     AAAAAA 
A°    A     'A~\A     A    A     A     A    A     A 


296  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

division  need  not,  however,  concern  us  here,  because  it  falls  outside  the 
major  range  of  the  white  race.  It  will  be  dealt  with  in  some  detail  in  the 
proper  section  of  the  regional  study. 

Besides  the  European  races  proper,  as  listed  in  the  preceding  para- 
graphs, and'  their  Veddoid  collaterals,  there  are  certain  fully  evolved  non- 
white  races  which  have  influenced  the  European  population  by  intrusion 
and  blending.  These  include  at  least  two  of  the  sub-divisions  of  the  mon- 
goloid  family — the  Buryat- Mongol,  to  which  the  Avars  in  part  belonged, 
and  which  is  today  represented  on  European  soil  by  the  Samoyeds;  and 
the  Tungusic,  the  type  of  the  early  Huns.  To  these  may  be  added  an 
apparently  stabilized  mixed  form,  resembling  a  partially  mongoloid 
Dinaric,  to  which  many  central  Asiatic  Turkish  tribesmen  belong.  In 
addition  to  these  Asiatics,  there  remains  the  African  Negro,  which  has  had 
certain  influences  upon  the  formation  of  race  in  the  Mediterranean  region, 
especially  in  North  Africa,  and  in  parts  of  Arabia.  Other  non-white 
stocks,  such  as  the  Australoid,  Negrito,  and  Khoi-San  (Bushman-Hotten- 
tot), have  not  affected  the  white  group  in  its  homelands  in  any  discernible 
way. 


Chapter  IX 
THE   NORTH 

(1)    INTRODUCTION 

The  remaining  chapters  of  this  book  will  be  devoted  to  a  rapid  survey 
of  the  continent  of  Europe,  country  by  country  and  people  by  people,  and 
of  the  contiguous  portions  of  Asia  and  Africa  occupied  by  basically  white 
populations.  The  treatment  of  the  skeletal  documents  in  prehistory  and 
history,  and  the  survey  of  the  living  material  as  a  whole,  which  have  pre- 
ceded this  section,  will  make  elaborate  introductions  unnecessary.  Here 
it  is  proposed  to  cover  the  geography  of  the  white  race  piecemeal,  for  the 
convenience  of  the  reader  interested  in  specific  local  problems,  as  well  as 
to  examine  in  further  detail  the  nature  of  the  white  human  division  as  a 
whole. 

Every  map  is  two  dimensional,  and  every  consecutive  written  work  one 
dimensional.  There  is  a  conflict,  therefore,  at  the  start  between  the  nature 
of  any  geographical  material  and  the  medium  through  which  it  is  to  be 
described  and  explained.  The  choice  of  a  starting  point  is  a  purely  arbi- 
trary affair,  and  the  sequence  of  areas  followed  must  be  equally  dogmatic. 
Perhaps  because  of  our  European  habit  of  starting  a  written  page  at  the 
upper  left  hand  corner  and  working  down,  strip  by  strip,  we  shall  follow 
this  system,  more  or  less,  in  our  study  of  the  map  of  Europe. 

By  following  this  method  we  shall  first  deal  with  the  very  northernmost 
zone,  which  is,  in  effect,  a  more  or  less  unified  environmental  area.  It  is 
at  the  same  time  the  last  portion  of  the  European  land-mass  to  receive 
permanent  settlement,  and  the  last  to  receive  the  cultural  stimulus 
of  agriculture.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  all  of  which  resolve  them- 
selves ultimately  into  the  fact  that  northwestern  Europe  was  the  center 
of  Old  World  glacial  activity  during  the  last  age  of  ice,  the  far  north  has 
played  the  zoological  r61e  of  a  marginal  area.  Its  racial  history,  while 
complex  enough  in  the  absolute  sense,  is  relatively  simple  and  relatively 
easy  to  untangle,  as  has  been  shown  in  previous  chapters. 

Aside,  from  the  Russian  Slavs  whose  appearance  in  the  north  is  of 
recent  historical  date,  ,we  have,  in  this  zone,  to  deal  with  two  linguistic 
groups — the  Uralic,  with  sub-divisions  into  Finnic,  Ugric,  and  Samoyedic; 
and  the  Indo-European,  in  Scandinavian  and  Baltic  forms.  From  the 
standpoint  of  race  in  the  sense  of  major  world  groupings,  we  are  con- 
cerned with  two — the  white  and  the  mongoloid.  In  the  historical  sense, 

297 


298  THE   RACES  OF   EUROPE 

we  are  confronted  again  with  a  division  between  Palaeolithic  survivors, 
and  the  descendants  of  the  farthest  wandering  of  Mediterranean  food- 
producers.  From  the  standpoint  of  environmental  conditioning  in  its 
effect  upon  the  human  form,  we  have  reached  an  area  of  maximum 
differentiation.  Northern  Europe,  especially  northwestern  Europe,  has 
served  not  only  as  a  refuge  area  for  archaic  humanity,  but  also  as  a  source 
from  which  migrations  of  vast  compass  have  spread  southward  into 
warmer  lands  at  times  of  environmental  distress.  Emigrants  forced  out 
by  the  vagaries  of  its  treacherous  climate  have  not  only  affected  in  varying 
measure  the  rest  of  Europe,  but  have  likewise  played  a  principal  part  in 
the  peopling  of  the  New  World. 

(2)   THE   LAPPS 

If  the  white  race  spreads  far  beyond  the  arbitrary  boundaries  of  the 
European  continent  to  the  south  and  east,  the  opposite  may  be  said  of 
the  north.  In  the  circumpolar  zone  which  fringes  the  Arctic  Sea,  Asia 
encroaches  upon  Europe,  and  except  for  Iceland,  the  racial  uniformity 
of  this  frigid  ring  is,  superficially  at  least,  complete.  In  a  far  less  super- 
ficial sense,  is  the  cultural  uniformity  valid.  From  Greenland  to  Lapland 
one  finds  short,  lank-haired  people  driving  across  the  frozen  tundra  in 
bone-shod  sleds,  drawn  by  dog  or  reindeer;  these  hyperboreans  dress 
themselves  in  warmly  tailored  fur  garments,  with  trousers  for  both  sexes 
alike;  they  live  in  conical  huts  of  birch  bark,  or  domes  of  rock  and  sod; 
they  venerate  the  bear  and  witness  the  supernatural  spirit  flights  and 
ventriloquistic  conversations  of  their  shamans. 

With  few  exceptions  they  are  all  short  in  stature,  and  this  shortness 
reaches  its  extreme  at  the  two  ends  of  the  circumpolar  zone,  Greenland 
and  Lappland.  This  shortness  is  accentuated  in  all  of  the  circumpolar 
groups  by  a  relative  reduction  in  leg  length,  with  a  greater  trunk  height. 
The  same  reduction  in  length,  probably  produced  by  the  same  mechanism, 
has  been  noted  in  the  case  of  the  Magdalenian  hunters  in  late  glacial 
times.  These  same  Magdalenians,  notably  Chancelade  and  the  male 
Obercassel,  showed  at  the  same  time  an  incipient  degree  of  mongoloid 
adaptation,  insofar  as  this  adaptation  is  visible  in  the  skull  and  especially 
the  facial  skeleton.  It  is  likely  that  the  occurrence  of  partial  mongoloid 
traits  in  many  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivor  groups  may  be  due  to  the 
retention  of  traits  acquired  during  the  final  glacial  maximum.  In  the 
same  way  all  of  the  circumpolar  groups  show,  in  one  degree  or  another, 
a  certain  amount  of  mongoloidism,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  mongoloid 
stock  as  a  whole  represents  a  progressive  mutation  from  a  proto-white 
stock,  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  variety,  which  began  in  the  Late  Pleistocene 
and  reached  various  degrees  of  specialization  in  post-glacial  times. 


THE  NORTH  299 


The  westernmost  representatives  of  this  circumpolar  ring  of  peoples  are 
the  Lapps,  who  call  themselves,  in  their  own  archaic  variety  of  Finnic 
speech,  Samen.  Their  country,  Lapland,  has  no  political  existence,  but 
is  no  less  real  an  entity.  It  consists  of  the  forested  highlands  of  northern 
Sweden,  which  afford  ideal  reindeer  pasturage,  and  the  tundra-covered 
stretches  of  northern  Finland,  with  the  Norwegian  coastal  provinces  of 
Troms  and  Finnmark,  and  much  of  the  Russian  Kola  Peninsula.  Except 
for  small  patches  of  forest  and  mountain,  the  Lapps  are  not  alone  in  this 
country,  but  share  it  with  a  more  numerous  population  of  Finns  and 
Norwegians,  with  whom  they  have,  for  centuries,  been  mixing. 

There  are,  in  the  whole  world,  probably  no  more  than  32,000  Lapps.1 
Of  these  about  21,000  live  in  Norway,  7000  odd  in  Sweden,  and  3000 
more  are  evenly  divided  between  Finland  and  Russia.  In  Norway,  which 
holds  thus  two- thirds  of  the  total,  between  ten  and  eleven  thousand  are 
concentrated  in  the  province  of  Finnmark,  where,  in  1920,  they  formed 
24  per  cent  of  the  population.  In  Sweden  the  greatest  concentration  is  in 
Norrbottens  Ian,  which  holds  4500.  The  Lapps  are  not,  from  the  stand- 
point of  numbers,  an  important  people  in  the  world.  They  are  one  of 
the  marginal,  vestigial  groups  destined  to  disappear  by  the  process  of 
absorption.  Their  importance  lies,  however,  in  their  taxonomic  position, 
and  in  the  influence  which  they  have  had  in  the  past,  and  may  have  in 
the  future,  on  other  European  peoples  with  whom  they  have  blended  and 
will  blend. 

Their  predilection  for  this  blending  process  is  so  great  that  it  is  really 
very  difficult  to  estimate  their  numbers,  and  the  figures  given  above  are  by 
no  means  definitive.  They  include  Lapps  who  speak  their  own  language 
and  call  themselves  ethnically  Samen,  and  exclude  those  who  have  passed 
over  into  other  populations,  notably  the  northern  Norwegian.  At  the 
same  time  they  include  many  Norwegian,  Swedish,  and  Finnish  genetic 
lines  which  have  been  incorporated  intcf  the  culturally  Lappish  body. 

Norwegian  writers  usually  divide  the  Lapps  into  two  main  classes,  the 
Reindeer  Lapps,  living  in  the  forests  and  mountains,  and  the  Sedentary 
Lapps,  living  along  the  coast  and  rivers,  subsisting  mostly  on  fish.  It  is 
generally  believed  that  the  original  Lapps  who  entered  Scandinavia  were 
reindeer-herders,  and  that  for  many  of  them  the  sedentary  life  is  a  rela- 
tively recent  readaptation.  Today,  however,  no  more  than  five  thousand 
still  herd  reindeer,  and  of  these  five,  three  live  in  Sweden.  Thus  although 
Norway  holds  the  majority  of  the  world's  Lapps,  those  who  preserve  the 
purest  Lappish  type,  both  in  culture  and  race,  live  over  the  Swedish  border. 

The  Lapps  present  a  distinct  problem  to  students  of  race,  which  has 
been  answered  in  one  way  or  the  other  by  various  authors  since  the  middle 

*  Wiklund,  K.  B.,  GE,  vol.  13,  1923,  pp.  223-242. 


300  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

of  the  last  century.  The  problem  is:  are  they  primitive  European  brachy- 
cephals,  related  to  the  Alpines  of  west  central  Europe,  or  are  they  mon- 
goloid  invaders  from  Asia?  This  question  is  of  more  than  taxonomic 
value,  because  it  is  intimately  concerned  with  the  historical  position  of 
all  the  western  European  brachycephals  as  well  as  with  the  validity  of  the 
classifications  employed  by  the  present  schools  in  Poland  and  Germany. 
Fortunately,  with  the  publication  in  1935  of  Schreiner's  %ur  Osteologie  der 
Lappen^  we  are  at  length  in  a  position  to  answer  the  Lapp  question  in  a 
definite  manner,  and  with  some  degree  of  assurance.  The  answer  lies 
partly  in  the  historical  field,  and  partly  in  that  of  somatology. 

The  historical  evidence  does  not  favor  the  Alpine  or  local  shrunken- 
Palaeolithic-survivor  theory.  In  the  first  place,  the  Lapps  speak  a  Finnic 
dialect  which  is  classified  with  the  extinct  Chude,  spoken  in  the  early 
centuries  of  the  present  era  in  Finland  and  the  regions  immediately  east 
and  north  of  the  present  city  of  Leningrad. 3  The  Chudes  were  Volga  Finns 
who  migrated  in  early  times  into  the  regions  later  to  be  occupied  by  their 
modern  Finnish  and  Esthonian  relatives,  who  eventually  absorbed  them. 
In  the  Lappish  language  are  also  found  certain  loan  words  from  Letto- 
Lithuanian,  and  others  from  early  Scandinavian.  Letts  and  Lithuanians 
arrived  in  the  Baltic  lands  only  in  the  middle  of  the  first  millennium  A.D. 
Then  the  Lapps  could  not  have  moved  to  the  far  northwest  much  before 
this  time.  Furthermore,  in  order  to  have  borrowed  their  language  from 
the  Ghudes,  who  themselves  did  not  arrive  there  much  earlier,  the  Lapps 
must  have  mixed  to  some  extent  with  them,  and  indeed  the  Lappish 
skeletons  disinterred  in  Scandinavia  show  mixture  with  a  Finnic  type 
from  the  beginning.4 

In  the  fourteenth  century  the  Lapps  were  mentioned  in  the  Lake  Onega 
region,  and  tax  registers  from  the  sixteenth  century  establish  their  pres- 
ence as  far  south  as  Lake  Saima,  a  short  distance  farther  north;  hence  it 
is  certain  that  the  Lapps  had  not  been  fully  pushed  up  into  their  Arctic 
environment  until  recent  times.  In  Norway,  the  earliest  graves,  found  in 
Finnmark,  may  date  from  late  "Roman"  times,  near  the  middle  of  the 
first  millennium  A.D.,  but  the  presence  of  the  Lapps  in  this  country  is  not 
absolutely  certain  before  the  ninth  century.  At  this  time  Norse  traders 
and  settlers  were  sailing  around  the  North  Cape,  into  the  previously  un- 
known provinces  of  Troms  and  Finnmark,  and  they  met  Lapps  there  and 
mixed  with  them.  A  rich  Viking  grave  of  the  tenth  century,  in  eastern 
Finnmark,  contains  the  skeleton  of  a  twenty  year  old  youth  of  manifestly 
mixed  Norse  and  Lappish  ancestry.5 

2  Schreiner,  K.  E.,  %ur  Osteologie  der  Lappen. 

8  Wiklund,  K.  B.,  loc.  cit. 

4  Schreiner,  K.  E.,  op.  cit.,  vol.  2,  p.  279. 

6  Schreiner,  Alette,  Antkropologische  Untersuchungen  in  Norge;  Hellemo. 


THE  NORTH  301 


Schreiner  has  collected  some  300  Lapp  skeletons  from  graves  along  the 
Norwegian  coast,  all  of  which  were  of  Lappish  construction  or  contained 
typically  Lappish  grave  furniture;  there  is  no  reason  to  confuse  them 
either  with  contemporary  Viking  graves  or  with  the  earlier  remains  of 
the  Stone  Age  people  of  this  region,  for  the  Lapp  graves  are  manifestly 
late  and  intrusive.  Furthermore  they  are  geographically  restricted,  for 
the  Lapps  did  not,  before  the  sixteenth  century,  range  below  63°  N.  Lati- 
tude, and  the  most  southerly  Lappish  burials  yet  found  are  at  Steinkjaer 
on  the  inner  Trondhjem  fjord.  The  Lapp  inroad  of  the  eighteenth  century 
into  South  Trondelag  and  Hedmark  came  not  from  the  north,  but  from 
the  Swedish  provinces  of  Jamtland  and  Hardjedalen,  to  the  east.  The 
Lapps  did  not,  therefore,  extend  south  into  central  Norway  until  very 
recent  times,  and  had  no  opportunity  to  mix  with  Norwegians  in  any 
numbers  south  of  Tydsfjord,  the  northernmost  fjord-valley  of  Nordland. 
They  cannot,  therefore,  have  been  responsible  for  the  brachycephaly  in 
southern  Norway.  Although  there  is  no  skeletal  material  from  the  Stone 
Age  sites  of  northern  Norway,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  these 
people  were  the  ancestors  of  the  Lapps,  since  Lapp  sites  and  Stone  Age 
sites  are  distinct,  and  nothing  transitional  has  been  found. 

On  the  historical  side,  the  evidence  is  clear.  In  regard  to  somatology 
we  may  be  equally  positive,  since  there  is  no  lack  of  anthropometric 
material.  Series  by  Bryn,6  Alette  Schreiner,7  Gjessing,8  Geyer,9  Kajava,10 
and  Zolotarev  n  represent  Lapps  from  Norway,  Sweden,  Finland,  and 
Russia;  these  studies  are  all  modern  and  cover  the  living  material  fully, 
while  K.  E.  Schreiner's  skeletal  series  provides  a  check  upon  the  dead. 
All  of  these  series  show  that  the  Lapps  are  very  mixed,  and  that  they 
contain  not  only  Nordic  blood,  derived  from  Norwegian  contact,  in- 
tense during  the  last  four  centuries,  but  also  a  blond  brachycephalic 
element  which  presumably  comes  from  their  even  commoner  mixture 
with  the  Kvaens,  the  northernmost  of  Finns.  Several  attempts  have 
been  made  to  isolate  "pure"  Lapps,  but  this  isolation  must  be  relative 
since  they  were  probably  mixed  before  they  arrived  in  the  present  Lapp- 
land. 

It  is  generally  assumed  that  the  Lapps  were  originally  brunet,  and  that 
what  blondism  they  possess  has  been  acquired  through  this  mixture. 
There  is,  of  course,  no  factual  basis  for  this  assumption,  and  if  it  be  true, 
the  Lapps  must  have  more  non-Lapp  than  Lapp  blood.  Hair  color  was 

«Bryn,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  62,  1932,  pp.  1-74. 

7  Schreiner,  A.,  Die  Nord-Norweger;  Hellemo  (Tysfjord  Lappen). 

8  Gjessing,  R.,  Die  Kautokeinolappen. 

9  Geyer,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  62,  1932,  pp.  163-209. 

10  Kajava,  Y.,  Beitrage  zwr  Kenntnis  der  Rasseneigenschaften  der  Lappen  Finnlands. 

11  Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  Kolskie  Lopari. 


302  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

observed  by  means  of  the  Fischer  scale  in  six  modern  studies,12  while  in 
two  others  l3  no  scale  was  employed,  but  the  material  is  capable  of  com- 
parative use.  In  these  series  the  adult  male  Lapps  vary,  in  black  to  dark 
brown  hair  colors,  from  forty  to  eighty  per  cent;  the  beard  color,  when 
observed,  is  lighter.  There  is  some  argument  as  to  whether  the  pure 
brunet  Lapp  hair  is  really  black  or  dark  brown,  which  would  indicate 
that  it  often  falls  into  a  borderline  category.  When  blond,  it  is  usually 
ashen,  and  almost  never  golden  or  red.  The  selected  "pure"  groups, 
Bryn's  Reindeer  Lapps,  and  some  of  Geyer's  mountain  and  forest  Lapps 
from  Sweden,  have  seventy  per  cent  or  over  of  this  dark  hair,  while  the 
fairest  Lapps,  with  a  majority  of  brown  and  blond  shades,  are  found  in 
Finland  and  in  the  Kola  Peninsula. 

Pure  dark  eyes  are  found  among  one-third  of  Reindeer  Lapps,  and 
among  as  few  as  eight  per  cent  in  the  total  of  Lapps  from  Norway.14  Pure 
light  and  light-mixed  eyes  are  commonest  among  the  Lapps  of  Finland, 
where  they  total  between  thirty  and  forty  per  cent,  and  least  common 
among  the  Reindeer  Lapps  of  interior  Norway  and  Sweden.  Even  among 
the  purest  selected  sub-groups,  such  as  that  of  Geyer,  who  isolated  from  a 
larger  Swedish  Lapp  sample  a  few  individuals  of  most  pronounced  Lap- 
pish type,  at  least  a  third  are  light  or  light-mixed  in  iris  color. 

The  skin  color  of  Lapps  with  light  hair  and  eyes  is  as  light  as  that  of 
Norwegians  and  Finns,  but  in  the  majority,  with  mixed  or  dark  hair  and 
eye  pigmentation,  the  skin  tends  to  a  grayish  yellow  to  yellowish  brown, 
with  some  moderately  dark  individuals,  equivalent  in  pigment  intensity 
to  Spaniards  or  Italians.15  On  the  whole  the  skin  is  lighter  on  the  face 
and  darker  on  the  body,  and  is  usually  darkest  on  the  abdomen  and 
genitalia.16  Among  the  old  this  skin  becomes  deeply  wrinkled,  since  it  is 
then  deficient  in  sub-cutaneous  fat.  The  eyes  are  set  in  deeply  excavated 
sockets  in  senility,  owing  to  the  same  fat  deficiency. 

The  Lapp  hair  is  thick  on  the  head,  usually  straight  or  but  slightly 
wavy;  it  is  of  moderate  texture,  and  seldom  coarse  or  wiry  in  a  truly 
mongoloid  manner.  Graying  begins  late,  and  baldness  is  rare.  The  beard, 

12Bryn,  H.,  MAGW,  1932. 
Geyer,  E.,  MAGW,  1932. 
Gjessing,  R.,  Die  Kautokeinolapptn. 
Schreiner,  A.,  Die  Nord-Norweger;  Hellemo. 

Luther,  M.,  unpublished  data  in  Peabody  Museum.  Actual  hair  samples  collected, 
and  later  matched  in  the  laboratory. 

13  Kajava,  Y.,  Beitrage  %ur  Kenntnis  der  Rassemigenschaftm  der  Lappen  Finnlands. 
Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  Kolskie  Lopari. 

14  Schreiner,  A.,  Die  Nord-Norweger,  Martin's  numbers  2-4,  total  of  254  males. 

16  Bryn,  H.,  MAGW,  1932,  finds  20  per  cent  to  have  von  Luschan  #3;  the  darkest 
shade  which  he  records  is  #12. 
16  Schreiner,  A.,  Hellemo^  p.  15. 


THE  NORTH  303 


except  where  much  Nordic  blood  is  apparent,  is  very  scanty,  consisting 
of  a  few  widely  separated  hairs.  The  body  hair  again  is  largely  deficient, 
for  there  is  seldom  any  on  the  chest  or  abdomen;  even  the  pubic  hair  is 
scanty,  and  on  men  as  well  as  on  women  its  area  of  growth  is  sharply  out- 
lined at  its  upper  border.  The  external  genitalia  which  this  hair  partly 
conceals  are  as  a  rule  small. 

Thirty  different  series  give  the  stature  of  the  Lapps  over  a  span  of 
130  years.  Eleven  series  published  between  1870  and  1900,  give  means 
of  138  to  156  cm.,  which  could  be  averaged  at  151  cm.  Twenty-seven 
others,  measured  between  1905  and  1934,  and  including  several  thousand 
Lapps,  range  from  155  to  164  cm.;  17  during  this  period  the  Lapps  grew, 
apparently,  seven  or  eight  centimeters.  This  may  be  accounted  for  either 
as  evidence  of  continuous  progressive  mixture,  or  the  influence  of  the 
stature  increase  tendency  in  northwestern  Europe,  or  both. 

A  study  of  Lapp  bodily  proportions  shows  that  the  trunk  is  long  in 
proportion  to  the  legs,  which  are  especially  short  in  the  tibial  segment, 
and  often  bowed;  the  arms  are  relatively  long,  especially  in  the  humeral 
segment.  The  hands  and  feet  are  as  a  rule  small  and  delicate.  Despite 
the  great  relative  arm  length,  both  shoulders  and  hips  are  narrow,  and 
these  peculiarities  are  especially  accentuated  in  the  more  brunet,  shorter, 
and  presumably  less  mixed  segment  of  the  Lapp  population.18 

The  head  of  the  Lapps,  while  large  in  proportion  to  the  body  size,  is 
absolutely  small.  The  length  ranges  in  the  low  180's,  and  the  breadth 
in  the  150's,  while  the  height  is  probably  about  122  mm.  The  cephalic 
index  means  range  from  80  to  88;  and  a  large  list  of  series  shows  no  change 
during  the  last  century.  There  are,  however,  regional  differences;  the 
center  of  extreme  round  headedness  lies  among  the  inland  groups  in 
northern  Norway,  while  the  Swedish,  Finnish,  and  Kola  Peninsula  Lapps 
become  progressively  narrower  headed.  The  mean  for  the  purest  Rein- 
deer Lapps  of  Norway  is  87;  for  the  easternmost  Lapps,  80  to  83. 

The  forehead  of  the  Lapps  is  narrow  in  proportion  to  the  parietal 
breadth;  the  profile  of  the  head  from  above  is  a  short  ovoid.  The  occiput 
is  flat-curved,  with  some  flattening  at  lambda.  Browridges,  as  a  rule,  are 
absent,  and  the  forehead  is  usually  steep,  and  frequently  equipped  with 
frontal  bosses.  The  faces  of  the  Lapps  are  extraordinarily  short,  with  well- 
substantiated  means  of  112  mm.  for  nasion-menton  height.  These  may  be 
compared  with  the  means  of  124-126  mm.  usual  among  either  Norwegians 
or  Finns.  In  this  the  Lapps  differ  from  known  whites  or  mongoloids  to 
an  extraordinary  degree,  and  an  extreme  absolute  facial  shortness  must 

17  For  a  complete  bibliography  of  early  Lappish  series,  see  the  lists  of  Bryn,  the  two 
Schreiners,  Geyer,  Kajava,  and  Zolotarev. 
»8  Geyer,  MAGW,  1932. 


304  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

be  considered  a  distinctive  Lapp  feature.  Upon  further  examination,  it 
may  be  seen  that  this  shortness  lies  almost  entirely  in  the  masticatory 
segment  of  the  face  height;  the  alveolar  borders  of  the  maxillae  are  extra- 
ordinarily shallow,  and  the  mandible  is  very  low,  weak,  and  feebly  de- 
veloped.19 The  jaw  is  not,  however,  narrow  at  the  rear,  for  the  bigonial 
diameter  is  as  great  as  108  mm.  on  Norwegian  Lapps,  and  greater  even 
among  "pure"  Nomads.20  The  jaw  converges  rapidly  toward  the  chin, 
which  is  small,  pointed,  and  frequently  receding.  The  teeth  are  very  small, 
and  their  roots  short.  Thus  the  Lapp  face  is  distinguished  by  a  reduction 
of  jaw  size  and  an  oral  shallowness  extreme  and  perhaps  unique  among 
mankind.  It  must  be  considered  as  a  Lapp  specialization  coincident  with 
their  extremely  short  stature,  and  especially  with  the  shortening  of  the 
distal  leg  segment. 

Otherwise  the  Lapp  face  takes  a  position  midway,  in  many  respects, 
between  whites  and  rnongoloids.  The  bizygomatic  diameter,  of  140  mm., 
or  thereabouts,  is  in  the  white  range;  it  is  narrow  in  proportion  to  the 
vault,  but  it  seems  wide  in  relationship  to  jaw  and  forehead.  The  malars, 
while  not  notable  for  lateral  jut,  project  forward  prominently.  The  nose 
is  on  the  whole  low  and  flattish;  with  a  straight  or  concave  bridge,  low 
root,  and  a  peculiar  snubbed  or  pointed,  up-turned  tip.  This  prominence 
of  the  tip  is  retained  characteristically  in  mixture.  On  the  whole  the  nose 
is  mesorrhine,  and  is  in  this  respect  not  unlike  those  of  many  of  the 
Finnish  and  Slavic  peoples  in  eastern  Europe.  The  eyes  are  widely 
separated,  set  in  low  orbits,  and  overhung  in  some  instances  with  median 
or  external  folds,  rarely  with  the  mongoloid  epicanthus. 

On  the  whole,  the  Lapp  crania,  as  the  Lapp  soft  parts,  take  an  inter- 
mediate position  between  mongoloid  and  white  standard  forms.  In  some 
special  characters  the  Lapps  are  unique,  as  in  the  masticatory  develop- 
ment, and  in  the  orbit,  where  Hisinger-Jagerskiold  has  found  a  curiously 
primitive  bony  conformation.21  The  possession  of  these  peculiar  special- 
izations and  primitive  traits  should  prevent  the  Lapps  from  being  con- 
sidered a  hybrid  mongoloid-white  racial  form.  Compared  to  central 
Asiatic  mongoloids,  the  Lapps  are  little  specialized.  The  soft  and  often 
fine  head  hair,  the  absence  of  the  blue-black  hair  pigment  shade,  the 
infrequency  of  the  mongoloid  eyefold,  and  the  absence  of  an  excessive 
lateral  malar  development  or  of  great  facial  width,  are  evidence  of  this 
lack  of  specialization  in  a  mongoloid  direction. 

There  are  many  features  which  give  the  Lapps  an  infantile  appearance 
which  cannot  be  accidental;  these  include  the  body  and  limb  proportions, 

19  Schreiner,  K.  E,,  £ur  Osteologie  der  Lappen. 
2°Bryn,  H.,  MAGW,  1932. 

21  Kajava,  Y.,  Beitrdge  zur  Kenntnis  der  Rasseneigenxchaftm  der  Lappen  Finnlands,  p.  35, 
after  Hisinger-Jagerskiold,  E.,  FFVS,  vol.  55,  1913. 


THE   NORTH  305 


the  sparseness  of  body  hair,  the  small  genitals,  the  bulbous  forehead  with  a 
smooth  supraorbital  region,  the  weak  chin,  and  the  low,  child-like  nose.22 
Some  environmental  mechanism  working  upon  the  mineral  economy  of 
this  peripheral  human  group  has  probably  produced  this  size  reduction 
and  infantilism.23 

Schreiner's  opinion,  based  upon  a  detailed  study  of  Lapp  craniology 
as  well  as  upon  the  living  material,  is  simple  and  adequate.  Translated 
into  the  terms  of  the  present  study,  it  signifies  that  the  original  ancestral 
Lapps  represented  a  stage  in  the  evolution  of  both  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 
Europeans  and  the  mongoloids,  and  that  while  the  mongoloids  have 
specialized  in  their  own  characteristic  way,  and  while  the  Ice-Age  Euro- 
pean strain  was  modified  by  mixture  with  and  virtual  absorption  by  the 
encroaching  post-Pleistocene  food  producers,  the  ancestral  Lapps  were, 
in  their  turn,  modified  largely  by  a  general  size  reduction  and  an  increas- 
ing infantilism.  The  jaw  reduction  of  the  Lapps  is  their  most  easily  iden- 
tified specialization. 

In  view  of  the  known  history  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  whites  and  of  mon- 
goloids, this  divergence  of  the  Lapps  from  the  others  must  have  taken 
place  as  early  as  the  Laufen  glacial  retreat.  Their  area  of  specialization 
was  presumably  western  Siberia,  where  they  found  room  in  which  to 
specialize  with  little  interference.  From  here  they  must  later  have  spread 
over  Finland  and  northwestern  Russia,  whence  they  entered  northern 
Scandinavia  sometime  during  the  first  millennium  of  the  Christian  era,  by 
a  gradual  trickling  process.  In  their  northern  wanderings  they  may  have 
met  the  Samoyed,  and  from  them  acquired  their  domestic  reindeer  and 
the  habit  of  reindeer  milking.  Since,  according  to  both  Laufer  and  Hatt,24 
this  last  trait  did  not  develop  in  its  central  Asiatic  home  much  before  the 
middle  of  the  first  millennium  B.C.,  the  Lapps  could  not  have  acquired  this 
practice  much  before  their  arrival  in  Scandinavia.  The  acquisition  of  this 
superior  economy  must  have  given  them  an  impetus  for  northward  ex- 
pansion, as  it  did,  farther  east,  with  the'Tungus. 

We  must  not  look  for  Lappish  ancestors,  therefore,  in  the  large-headed 
Borreby  people  of  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic  Denmark,  nor  in  the  occu- 
pants of  the  Stone  Age  sites  of  northernmost  Norway;  if  we  find  Lapp-like 

22  This  general  estimate  of  the  Lapp  racial  position  is  for  the  most  part  a  paraphrase 
of  K.  E.  Schreiner's  conclusions  in  his  %ur  Osteologie  der  Lappen,  by  far  the  most  erudite 
work  yet  to  appear  on  the  Lapp  question. 

23  Gjessing,  R.,  Die  Kautokeinolappen,  pp.  90-95. 
Marett,  J.  R.  de  la  H.,  Race,  Sex,  and  Environment. 

24  Hatt,  G.,  Notes  on  Reindeer  Nomadism,  MAAA,  vol.  6,  1919.   This  is  one  of  the  few 
points  regarding  the  history  of  reindeer  husbandry  upon  which  these  two  authorities 
agree. 

Laufer,  B.,  The  Reindeer  and  Us  Domestication,  MAAA,  vol.  4,  #2,  1917;  AA,  vol.  22, 
1920,  pp.  192-197. 


306  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

physical  traits,  as  do  Czekanowski,  Mydlarski,  and  others,  among  eastern 
European  brachycephals,  and  even  among  western  European  Alpines, 
we  must  remember  that  some  of  the  Lappish  peculiarities,  including 
perhaps  their  specialized  nasal  tip  form,  may  have  been  common  posses- 
sions of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  European  peoples  as  well.  As  we  shall  see 
later,  there  may  have  been  transitional  forms  between  Lapps  and  Euro- 
peans, and  this  general  class  of  humanity  may  be  responsible  for  the  wide- 
eyed  brachycephals  who,  as  we  saw  in  our  historical  chapters,  appeared 
now  and  then  in  southern  Russia  and  Poland  from  the  beginning  of  the 
Neolithic  onward. 

(3)   THE  SAMOYEDS26 

In  the  eastern  extension  of  their  territory  the  Lapps  share  the  Kola 
Peninsula  with  their  neighbors  and  fellow  reindeer-herders,  the  Samoyeds. 
The  Lapps  represent,  however,  a  much  older  population,  for  the  Samoyeds 
have  only  lived  there  for  a  few  centuries.  There  are,  according  to  Russian 
authorities,  only  V>,500  Samoyeds  in  the  world;  of  these  4000  live  on  the 
Kola  Peninsula,  another  5000  range  between  the  White  Sea  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Yenisei  River,  and  the  rest  hunt  between  the  Obi  and 
Yenisei  rivers,  and  in  the  Yenisei  drainage.  Thus  the  bulk  of  the  Sam- 
oyeds still  inhabit  their  Siberian  home.  All  of  those  mentioned  speak  a 
language  which  constitutes  one  of  the  two  primary  divisions  of  Uralic 
speech.  It  seems  to  be  definitely  related  to  Finno-Ugrian,  although  its 
supposed  kinship  to  Tungus,  Mongol,  and  Turkish  has  been  questioned. 

Other  Samoyeds,  who  have  been  Turkicized  in  language,  and  to  a  large 
extent  in  manner  of  living,  dwell  in  southern  Siberia,  in  the  provinces  of 
Yeniseisk,  Tomsk,  and  Irkutsk,  and  also  in  Mongolia.  These  go  under 
the  names  of  Soyots,  Karagas,  and  Uriankhai;  they  are  more  numerous 
than  the  Samoyeds  proper.  Whatever  their  earlier  history,  the  Samoyeds, 
without  reasonable  doubt,  may  be  considered  to  have  developed  as  an 
ethnic  and  linguistic  group  in  the  region  north  of  the  Altai  Mountains, 
the  general  center  of  Altaic-speaking  Mongoloids.26  Their  spread  north- 
ward into  Siberia  and  thence  to  the  Arctic  rim  of  Europe  must  have  been 
a  relatively  recent  phenomenon. 

In .  central  Asia  the  Turkicized  Samoyeds  are  definitely  and  fully 
mongoloid,  and  belong  to  the  Buryat-Mongol  variety,  which  we  have 
encountered  historically  among  the  Avars.  Those  who  live  in  Europe  have 
brought  the  same  physical  type  with  them  with  but  little  modification. 

26  Non-anthropometric  data  mostly  from  Jochelson,  W.,  Peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia;  and 
from  Les  Voyages  du  Professeur  Pallas. 

26  Professor  G.  J.  Ramstedt  of  Helsingfors  University  has  expressed  the  opinion  that 
the  original  bearers  of  Samoyedic  speech  must  at  one  time  have  moved  to  the  Altai 
region  from  a  point  nearer  the  Finno-Ugrian  homeland. — Private  Communication. 


THE  NORTH  307 


Cranially  they  resemble  the  Lapps  in  vault  size  and  dimensions,27  but  the 
Samoyed  facial  skeleton  is  wider  and  larger,  with  a  more  nearly  mon- 
goloid  development  of  the  malars. 

Our  material  on  the  living  is  sufficient  in  numbers  and  detail  to  permit 
a  confirmation  of  this  mongoloid  character.28  The  stature,  with  a  mean 
of  154  cm.  in  1887,  had  risen  to  156.8  cm.  in  1914,  providing  that  the 
same  groups  were  represented.  Like  the  Lapps,  the  Samoyeds  are  short, 
and  like  them  relatively  long  bodied.  They  are  brachycephalic,  but  not 
to  the  extent  attained  by  the  western  Lapps  in  Norway;  they  are  eury- 
prosopic  and  mesorrhine. 

Although  the  mongoloid  character  of  the  Samoyed  may  easily  be  seen 
in  their  flattish,  round  faces,  everted  lips,  and  up-tilted,  low-bridged  nose, 
and  in  their  scarcity  of  beard,  one  cannot  call  them  purely  or  completely 
mongoloid.  Photographs  of  Samoyeds  29  show  a  considerable  number 
with  partially  European  features.  Sommier's  data  on  hair  and  eye  color, 
again,  shows  some  thirty  per  cent  with  mixed  or  light  eyes,  and  the  same 
number  with  hair  ranging  from  medium  brown  to  blond.  As  with  the 
Lapps,  the  women  are  notably  darker  in  hair  and  eye  color  than  the  men. 
This  pigmentation  variability,  in  view  of  the  sex  linkage,  would  indicate 
that  the  Samoyeds  as  well  as  the  Lapps,  but  in  lesser  degree,  had  been 
subjected  to  mixture  with  peoples  of  European  racial  character.  This 
mixture  may  be  explained  in  several  ways:  (a)  by  the  retention  of  an 
early  non-mongoloid  condition  derived  from  ancient  Uralic-speaking 
ancestors;  (b)  by  contact  with  central  Asiatic  Nordics  before  the  depar- 
ture of  the  Samoyeds  for  Europe;  (c)  by  mixture  with  Ugrians,  Finns, 
Slavs,  and  others  in  western  Siberia  and  northern  Russia. 

(4)    SCANDINAVIA;   NORWAY 

The  northern  zone  of  Europe  which  we  have  chosen  as  the  subject  of 
our  first  regional  chapter  is  in  reality  two  zones;  besides  the  northern- 
most, which  runs  closely  around  the  Arctic  rim,  is  a  second,  that  of  Scan- 
dinavia and  the  lands  to  the  east  of  the  Baltic.  Here  food  production  is 
possible,  and  the  effect  of  environment  does  not  necessarily  take  the  form 
of  infantilism  and  stunting.  In  contrast  to  the  first,  this  second  zone  is 
occupied  by  large,  typically  European  groups  of  people. 

27  Schreiner,  K.  E.,  %ur  Osteologie  der  Lappen,  pp.  280-281. 

Sommier,  S.,  APA,  vol.  17,  1887,  pp.  71-222. 

Klimek,  S.,  ibid.,  vol.  59,  1929,  pp.  13-31. 

^Roudenko,  S.  I.,  BMSA,  set.  6,  vol.  5;  1914,  pp.  123-143. 

Sommier,  loc.  cit. 

Zograf,  N,  J.,  AAM,  1879,  vol.  2,  pp.  61-87.  From  resum6  by  Stieda,  AFA,  vol.  14, 
1883,  p.  291. 

29  Peabody  Museum  Collection.  Courtesy  of  the  Institute  of  Northern  Peoples, 
Leningrad. 


308  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Norway  occupies  the  poorer  and  more  rugged  half  of  the  Scandinavian 
Peninsula.  The  mountain  crest  which  separates  it  from  Sweden  runs  to 
the  west  of  a  central  line,  and  swings  to  the  northeast  in  such  a  way  as  to 
give  to  Norway  the  northernmost  part;  so  that  much  of  Norway,  and  rela- 
tively little  of  Sweden,  lies  within  the  Arctic  circle.  Deep  fjords  along 
most  of  the  Norwegian  coast  cut  far  into  the  land,  in  some  cases  nearly 
bisecting  the  kingdom.  A  large  proportion  of  the  country  is  mountainous, 
but  aside  from  the  central  spine,  only  one  range  deserves  mention  here — 
that  of  the  Dovre  Mountains,  which  separates  M0re  and  Tr^ndelagen 
on  the  north  from  Opland  and  Hedmark  on  the  south.  Only  in  the  long, 
eastern  valleys  such  as  0sterdal  and  Gudbrandsdal,  and  on  the  plain  of 
Oslofjord,  are  large  unbroken  stretches  of  reasonably  flat  farm  lands  to 
be  found. 

The  topography  of  Norway,  as  outlined  above,  is  important  in  its  effect 
upon  the  present  distribution  of  its  peoples.  While  Sweden,  a  lake- 
studded  plain  sloping  gently  from  the  western  mountain  barrier  to  the 
Baltic,  is  inhabited  by  a  regionally  uniform  population,  Norway,  with  its 
rugged  fjords  and  deeply  folded  valleys,  provides  shelter  and  differentia- 
tion room  to  a  number  of  local  types.  Norway's  geography,  in  combina- 
tion with  her  climatic  and  cultural  history,  makes  her  one  of  the  most 
marginal  areas,  in  a  racial  sense,  in  Europe.  Yet,  despite  her  marginal 
character,  Norway  has  played  an  important  part  in  European  racial  his- 
tory, since  this  nation  has  been  a  source  of  emigration  to  Iceland,  to 
Normandy,  and  to  the  British  Isles.  Hence  it  has  had  much  to  do  with 
the  modern  settlement  of  the  New  World,  which  Norwegians  discovered. 
The  physical  types  of  many  British  and  Americans  may  be  traced  directly 
to  a  Norwegian  origin. 

The  racial  history  of  Norway  has  been  covered,  insofar  as  we  know  it, 
in  the  preceding  chapters.  The  northern  coastal  regions  had  a  very  late 
age  of  chipped  stone,  and  an  even  later  Neolithic.  Food-producing  peoples 
were  few  in  Norway  before  the  Middle  and  Late  Bronze  Ages,  and 
not  until  the  Iron  Age  and  the  full  Viking  period  was  this  country  fully 
inhabited.  The  greatest  pre-Iron  Age  concentration  was  along  the  south- 
western coast.  Nordland,  Troms,  and  Finnmark  were  explored  during 
the  pre-Christian  Viking  period;  Troms  and  Finnmark  were  abandoned 
during  the  Middle  Ages  and  only  resettled  from  the  sixteenth  century 
onward.  Our  skeletal  material,  wholly  Iron  Age  in  date,  shows  a  medley 
of  normal  Iron  Age  Nordic  crania  with  Borreby  brachycephals  and  other 
skulls  which  could  be  fitted  without  difficulty  into  a  dolichocephalic 
Upper  Palaeolithic  category.  That  the  Norwegian  climate  has  not 
exerted  a  size-reducing  tendency  such  as  that  which  somewhere  modi- 
fied the  ancestors  of  Lapps,  is  therefore  shown  by  the  survival  of 


THE  NORTH  309 


what  appear  to  be  full-sized  Ice-Age  cranial  types  into  the  present  millen- 
nium. 

The  study  of  living  Norwegians  has  been  carried  on  with  excep- 
tional competence  by  three  modern  investigators — Halfdan  Bryn,  K.  E. 
Schreiner,  and  Mme.  Alette  Schreiner.  The  monumental  Somatologie  der 
Norweger^  by  the  first  two  named,  supplemented  by  the  regional  studies 
of  the  first  and  third,31  continue  the  earlier  work  of  Arbo,  Helland,  Larsen, 
and  the  Daaes,32  and  present  us  with  a  body  of  accurate  and  objectively 
interpreted  anthropometric  data  unsurpassed  elsewhere. 

The  Norwegians,  as  a  whole,  are  tall  by  absolute  standards,  and  blond, 
with  moderate  body  proportions  which  include  relatively  long  legs  and 
short  arms.  Most  of  them  are  mesocephalic,  with  meso-  to  leptoprosopic 
faces,  and  their  noses  are  usually  leptorrhine.  Regional  variations  in 
Norway  are  relatively  great  for  Scandinavia,  but  are  no  greater  than  those 
found  in  many  European  countries.  Except  for  the  far  North,  local 
stature  means  run  from  about  168  to  175  cm.,  while  the  cephalic  index 
varies  by  parishes  between  the  extreme  means  of  76  and  84.  In  hair  and 
eye  color,  blonds  and  mixed  forms  are  everywhere  more  numerous  than 
brunets;  dark  eyes,  for  example,  never  reach  the  figure  of  20  per  cent. 

Within  these  relatively  restricted  ranges  there  is  a  definite  pattern  of 
regional  distribution,  and  there  are  four  definite  areas,  each  of  which  has 
its  own  racial  peculiarities.  These  four  areas  are,  (1)  Eastern  Norway, 
(2)  Western  Norway,  (3)  North-central  Norway,  (4)  the  Far  North.33 

Eastern  Norway  consists  of  the  seven  following  provinces:  Hedmark, 
Akershus,  Ostfold,  Vestfold,  Opland,  Buskerud,  and  Oslo.  This  section  of 
the  country,  which  includes  the  Oslofjord  region  and  the  long  valleys 
which  run  towards  the  Dovre  Mountains,  forms  a  definite  ethnic  unit, 
within  which  much  internal  movement  takes  place  between  valleys  and 
provinces,  and  much  migration  from  the  country  districts  to  the  city  of 
Oslo.  It  has,  however,  but  little  to  do  with  other  parts  of  Norway,  which 
are  isolated  from  it  by  a  number  of  barriers.  The  population  of  this  eastern 
section  is  relatively  uniform,  both  locally  and  as  a  whole. 

Although  there  seems  to  be  an  almost  completely  submerged  brachy- 
cephalic  element  along  the  coast,  this  is  not  very  much  in  evidence,  for 
the  main  racial  type  of  eastern  Norway  is  a  regular  Halstatt  Iron  Age 

80  Bryn,  H.,  and  Schreiner,  K.  E.,  Somatologie  der  Norweger. 

81  Bryn,  H.,  Homo  Caesius;  Bryn,  H.,  AAnz,  vol.  9,  1932,  #2,  pp.  141-164,  and  earlier 
works. 

Schreiner,  Alette,  Die  Nord-Norweger;  Anthropologische  Lokaluntersuchungen  in  Norge; 
Voile,  Hdlandsdaly  und  Eidfjord. 

32  For  bibliography  of  these  authors,  see  Bryn  and  Schreiner,  pp.  607-608. 

33  Unless  otherwise  designated,  the  following   pages  are  based  upon  Bryn  and 
Schreiner. 


310  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Nordic.  This  type,  although  predominant  throughout  the  region,  seems 
to  be  especially  concentrated  in  the  five  valleys  of  0sterdal,  Gudbrandsdal, 
Valders,  Hallingdal,  and  Numendal,  forming  parts  of  the  three  provinces 
of  Hedmark,  Opland,  and  Buskerud.  Here,  in  a  region  almost  unoccu- 
pied before  the  Iron  Age,  Bryn  34  believes  to  have  found  a  refuge  area  of 
the  classic  Nordic  race,  with  less  admixture  of  other  stocks  than  is  the  case 
elsewhere  in  Norway,  or  for  that  matter,  in  Europe.  Hence  his  specifica- 
tions, both  metrical  and  morphological,  may  serve  as  a  standard  of  future 
comparison  for  use  in  the  study  of  less  typically  Nordic  populations. 

Army  recruits  from  this  region  serve  as  a  basis  of  study,  while  a  series 
of  farmers  of  old,  indigenous  ancestry  forms  a  check  series  which  repre- 
sents the  original  Iron  Age  population  with  a  minimum  of  more  recent 
admixture.  These  people  must  be  considered  tall,  since  the  men  attain 
in  adult  life  the  mean  height  of  172  cm.,  but  from  the  Norwegian  stand- 
point this  stature  is  not  unusual.  In  bodily  proportions  this  type  is  rela- 
tively long  legged  and  short  bodied,  moderately  broad  shouldered,  and 
relatively  short  armed.  The  bones  are  typically  small  and  fine,  and  the 
general  musculature  tends  to  leanness,  while  corpulence  is  very  rare.  On 
the  whole  the  impression  is  given  that  the  muscles  lie  close  under  the  skin, 
and  stand  out  in  clear  relief.  A  predominantly  leptosome  constitutional 
type  seems  to  be  characteristic. 

The  mean  vault  dimensions  of  the  recruits  from  these  valleys  are: 
length,  195  mm.,  breadth,  149  mm.,  and  auricular  height,  126  mm.,  with 
a  cephalic  index  of  76.8.  The  native  farmers  are  even  longer  headed,  with 
a  mean  index  of  75.5.  Since  these  indices  reflect  figures  of  73-75  on  the 
skull,  it  may  be  readily  seen  that  the  original  Iron  Age  Nordic  vault  form 
has  been  transferred  to  eastern  Norway  with  little  or  no  modification. 
Frontal  and  bigonial  diameters  average  105  mm.,  while  the  bizygomatic 
mean  is  135  mm.  The  face  height,  given  by  Bryn  as  122  mm.,35  is  only 
moderately  long.  The  nasal  dimensions,  of  55  or  56  mm.  by  33.8,  produce 
an  index  of  60  or  6 1.36 

Ash-blond  hair  is  typical  of  one-half  of  the  native  farmers,  the  rest 
having  light  brown  and  brown  shades;  only  four  per  cent  have  hair  that 
is  black  or  dark  brown.  The  rufous  tinges  of  hair  color  are  especially  rare. 
Among  the  recruits,  unselected  as  to  provenience  of  ancestry,  dark  hair 
is  twice  as  common,  and  the  ash-blond  shades  are  found  in  only  one-third 
of  the  group.  Thus  we  may,  from  this  material,  specify  that  the  typical 

84  Bryn,  H.,  AAnz,  1932;  also  Homo  Caesius. 

86  It  seems  likely  that  Bryn  located  nasion  a  little  lower  than  did  A.  Schreiner,  judging 
by  comparisons  elsewhere.  It  is  also  likely  that  this  mean  should  be  nearer  125  or  126 
mm. 

36  Here  again  I  feel  that  Bryn's  mean  nose  height  of  54.7  mm.  is  a  little  too  low,  and 
that  his  nasal  index  of  61.8  is  somewhat  high. 


THE  NORTH  311 


hair  color  of  the  living  examples  of  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  race  ranges  from 
a  medium  brown  to  an  ash-blond,  with  a  minimum  of  rufosity,  and  a 
small  brunet  minority. 

The  hair  form  most  prevalent  in  Norway  is  a  low  waviness.  Although 
low  waves  are  characteristic  of  the  southeastern  valley  country  as  well  as 
of  other  regions,  there  is,  nevertheless,  a  higher  ratio  of  straight  hair  among 
this  long-headed  population  than  in  other  parts  of  Norway.  Although  the 
ratio  is  only  30  per  cent,  as  against  66  per  cent  for  the  low- waved  variety, 
yet  these  figures  are  so  at  variance  with  those  for  the  rest  of  the  kingdom 
that  one  may  specify  the  hair  form  of  this  type  as  low-waved  to  straight. 
The  beard  is  of  but  moderate  abundance,  although  it  increases  consid- 
erably with  age,  and  the  body  not  especially  hairy. 

In  eye  color  as  in  hair  color,  the  native  farmers  are  lighter  than  the 
recruits,  with  86.5  per  cent  of  light  and  light-mixed  eyes  (Martin  #12-16) 
as  against  76  per  cent.  Of  the  recruits,  38.5  per  cent  have  pure  light  eyes 
(Martin  #15-16).  This  is  by  no  means  the  lightest-eyed  region  in  Norway. 
This  material  shows  us  what  had  been  previously  suspected,  that  the 
Nordic  eye  must  be  considered  light  mixed  in  typical  form,  rather  than 
pure  light.  According  to  Bryn  the  commonest  form  of  unpigmented  eye 
found  in  this  region  is  a  light  blue  one,  with  large  meshes  and  iris  fibers 
set  quite  far  apart,  so  that  the  iris  pattern  appears  open. 

The  skin  color  in  this  area,  as  in  most  of  Norway,  is  almost  invariably  a 
pinkish  white  (von  Luschan  #3).  This  skin  is  of  a  fine  texture;  according 
to  Bryn  it  is  soft  and  easily  punctured  by  a  hypodermic  needle.  Owing 
to  this  thinness  and  the  delicate  quality  of  the  skin,  the  cartilaginous  and 
osseous  structure  of  the  face  is  often  clearly  discernible  beneath  it. 

The  forehead  of  this  type  is  for  the  most  part  sloping,  forming  a  profile 
line  parallel  to  that  of  the  nose.  It  is  medium  to  narrow  in  breadth,  and, 
in  comparison  to  other  Norwegian  types,  relatively  flat  in  both  planes. 
The  browridges  are  usually  present,  but  are  weakly  developed,  and  the 
depression  of  the  nasal  root  moderate.  The  nose  may  be  described  as  thin, 
steep-walled,  and  high-bridged.  In  profile,  it  is  for  the  most  part  straight 
or  slightly  convex,  with  a  high  incidence  of  wavy  forms,  and  there  is 
usually  a  noticeable  transition  between  the  bony  and  cartilaginous  por- 
tions. Owing  to  the  thinness  of  the  skin,  the  line  of  suture  between  the 
two  nasal  bones  may  frequently  be  observed.  The  tip  of  the  nose  is  thin, 
and  for  the  most  part  raised  slightly  above  the  horizontal  plane.  The 
nasal  wings  are  compressed,  and  the  nostrils  form  long  ovals,  set  at  a  very 
acute  angle  from  one  another.  These  nostrils  are  visible  from  the  side, 
and  slightly  visible  from  in  front. 

The  bony  orbit  of  the  eye  is  rather  high,  and  the  eye  normally  quite 
wide  open,  with  the  upper  lid  reaching  down  over  the  upper  quadrant  of 


312  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

the  iris,  and  the  lower  lid  touching  its  rim.  The  eye  slits  themselves  are 
horizontal,  and  are  often  partially  covered,  especially  in  old  age,  by  a 
fold  which  hangs  from  the  outer  corner  of  the  upper  orbit. 

The  eyebrows  are  thin,  somewhat  bowed,  and  seldom  concurrent  over 
the  nasal  bridge.  The  malars,  small  in  size,  are  typically  flattened  in  front. 
The  zygomatic  arches,  however,  are  often  bowed  outward  enough  to  give 
the  face  a  pentagonoid  appearance.  This  appearance  is  due  to  the  flat- 
ness of  the  temples  and  the  thinness  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  arches,  rather 
than  to  their  skeletal  prominence. 

The  cheeks  are  in  most  cases  thin,  and  the  lower  jaw  long  and  deep, 
curving  in  front  to  a  well-developed  chin,  with  the  gonial  angles  com- 
pressed and  usually  not  visible.  One  of  the  outstanding  features  of  this 
type,  and  of  the  Nordic  race  as  a  whole,  is  the  great  distance  between 
the  borders  of  the  lower  teeth  and  the  point  of  the  chin.  The  total  im- 
pression of  the  face  is  that  of  a  long,  narrowish  oval,  often  slightly  rhom- 
boid, with  prominent  bony  portions  when  seen  in  profile.  The  lips  are 
usually  thin,  the  mouth  rather  small,  and  the  nasal  sills  well  developed. 

The  cranium  itself  is  a  long  oval  when  seen  from  above,  with  almost 
parallel  sides,  and  a  marked  transition  from  the  frontal  to  the  temporal 
bones.  The  greatest  breadth  is  located  as  often  in  front  of  the  center  as 
behind  it.  Seen  from  the  front,  the  cranium  looks  steep  or  parallel  sided, 
and  arched  or  vaulted  on  top.  From  the  side,  the  contour  of  the  head 
sweeps  flatly  back  from  a  somewhat  retreating  forehead  to  a  curved  or 
projecting  occiput.  The  highest  point  of  the  head  is  over  the  ears,  and 
there  is  no  pronounced  tendency  for  either  the  forward  or  rear  portion  of 
the  head  to  be  higher  than  the  other.  Judging  by  gross  bulk  measure- 
ments the  heads  of  individuals  of  this  type  may  not  be  classed  as  large, 
nor  high;  their  principal  character  is  narrowness,  a  feature  which  con- 
tinues down  to  the  face,  and  also  to  the  nose. 

Although  this  distinctive  type  is  today  most  concentrated  in  the  long 
valleys  of  southeastern  Norway,  it  is  by  no  means  confined  to  that  region. 
It  is  found  all  over  Norway  in  greater  or  lesser  solution,  as  is  to  be  ex- 
pected, since  it  is  the  racial  type  of  the  invaders  who  brought  Iron  Age 
civilization  to  Scandinavia.  Besides  this  clearly  differentiated  Nordic 
type,  there  seem,  however,  to  be  various  submerged  minority  elements  in 
the  eastern  Norwegian  population  which  are  not  limited  to  any  one  dis- 
trict, but  are  diffuse  throughout.  One  is  a  shorter,  somewhat  darker  and 
less  dolichocephalic  element  which  may  in  part  represent  an  aboriginal 
coastal  population,  but  which  may,  to  a  greater  extent,  consist  rather  of 
racial  elements  brought  from  central  Europe  in  solution  by  the  Iron  Age 
Nordic  invaders.  Some  of  it,  again,  is  undoubtedly  descended  from  the 
thrall  population  brought  from  many  parts  of  western  Europe  by  the 


THE   NORTH  313 


Vikings.  The  fact  that  it  is  shorter,  darker,  and  less  dolichocephalic  than 
the  more  clearly  designated  Nordic  type  does  not  mean  that  it  is  very 
short,  very  round  headed,  or  very  dark. 

Besides  this  submerged  element,  or  medley  of  elements,  which  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  isolate,  there  is  a  third  type,  characterized  especially 
by  a  broad  face  and  a  broad  mandible,  which  may  be  attributed  without 
question  to  recent  Finnish  influence.  Finns  settled  here  in  the  Grue 
district  of  Hedmark  some  300  years  ago,  and  have  since  been  largely  as- 
similated to  Norwegian  nationality  and  absorbed  into  the  Norwegian 
population.  Very  few  members  of  this  colony  still  speak  Finnish,  or 
identify  themselves  as  Finns. 

On  the  whole,  despite  these  influences,  the  eastern  provinces  of  Norway 
form,  apart  perhaps  from  Sweden,  the  most  characteristic  concentration 
area  of  the  central  Nordic  racial  form  in  the  world.  This  residual  enclave 
is  directly  descended  from  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  population  which  once 
occupied  an  immense  area  on  the  plains  of  central  and  eastern  Europe 
and  western  Siberia,  and  which  elsewhere  has  been  replaced,  altered,  or 
absorbed. 

Western  Norway,  the  next  section  under  consideration,  includes  the 
provinces  of  Telemark,  Aust-Agder,.  Vest-Agder,  Rogaland,  Hordaland, 
Sogn  og-Fjordane,  Bergen,  and  M0re.  Within  these  provinces  there  are, 
in  contrast  to  those  farther  east,  considerable  local  differences;  as  a  rule, 
many  round-headed  peoples  live  along  the  coast,  while  rnesocephals  pre- 
dominate in  the  inland  valleys. 

In  the  province  of  Rogaland  the  brachycephalic  element  reaches  its 
maximum  and  here,  in  fact,  is  located  its  center  of  greatest  concentration 
in  all  Norway.  The  inner  nucleus  of  this  brachycephalic  area  is  Jaeren,37 
a  flat  coastal  plain,  locally  uniform  in  race,  but  regionally  distinct.  Here 
alone,  in  all  of  Norway,  occur  natural  deposits  of  flint,  and  for  this  reason 
Jaeren  must  have  been  an  important  source  of  implement  material  for 
both  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic  peoples.  On  the  plain  the  pre-Iron  Age 
population  must  have  been  particularly  dense. 

In  Jaeren,  Arbo  found  82  per  cent  of  brachycephals,88  a  ratio  as  high 
as  that  usual  in  southern  Germany,  and  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  83.2. 
The  three  other  districts  of  Rogaland,  by  comparison,  have  mean  indices 
of  81-82.  The  Jaeren  people  form,  as  a  whole,  a  very  definite  and  easily 
observed  type  which  has  been  most  fully  described  by  Larsen.39  This  type 
is  most  concentrated  in  the  parishes  of  Haaland,  H^iland,  Klepp,  and 

37  Bryn  and  Schreiner,  pp.  431-449.  Arbo's  and  other  previous  studies  are  covered  in 
this  section. 

88  Arbo,  using  the  Broca  system  of  parti tionment,  included  all  indices  of  80,1  and 
over,  pooling  Broca's  sub-brachycephalic  and  brachycephalic  classes. 

89  Larsen,  C.  F.,  Om  Jaedertypen. 


314  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Time.  It  has  a  large  cranial  vault  of  medium  height,  very  broad,  and  of 
considerable  length.  Individual  cephalic  indices  go  as  high  as  90  or  more, 
but  the  mode  for  the  type  as  a  whole  is  84.  The  occiput,  nearly  vertical, 
often  shows  a  slight  degree  of  flattening.  The  temporal  bones  are  weakly 
curved,  but  the  parietal  tuberosities  are  strong.  The  forehead  is  broad, 
only  slightly  curved,  and  quite  high,  and  usually  of  but  little  slope.  The 
browridges  are,  on  the  whole,  of  moderate  size.  The  head  exhibits  from 
above  a  roundish,  oval  form;  it  is  not  an  evolved  planoccipital  skull,  al- 
though individual  crania  have  a  tendency  in  this  direction.  The  face  is 
notable  for  its  breadth,  both  between  the  zygomata  and  in  the  mandible, 
which  is  frequently  heavy  and  deep.  The  nasal  profile  is  usually  straight, 
but  in  one  case  out  of  six  it  is  concave.  The  chin  is  pronounced,  and  some- 
times pointed.  Together,  the  face  and  head  give  an  impression  of  square- 
ness, owing  to  the  prominence  of  frontal  and  parietal  tuberosities,  and  to 
the  breadth  of  the  face  and  jaw. 

In  pigmentation,  these  brachycephals  are  slightly  less  fair  than  the 
few  dolichocephals  found  in  the  same  region,  but  they  are  still  predom- 
inantly blond.  Eighty-one  per  cent  have  blue  eyes,  and  only  3  per  cent 
brown.  Most  of  the  hair  is  either  light  or  medium  brown;  only  30  per 
cent  have  dark  brown  hair,  and  less  than  2  per  cent  black. 

Correlations  within  the  Rogaland  population  prove  little.  The  few 
dolichocephals  jare  very  little  taller  than  the  brachycephals,  who  are  as 
tall  as  the  eastern  Norwegian  Nordics,  with  a  mean  of  172  cm.  Red  hair 
and  brown  hair  are  associated  with  the  highest  cephalic  index  level,  and 
the  round-heads  tend  to  have  longer  and  heavier  bodies,  and  broader  and 
heavier  faces,  than  the  long  heads.  That  the  brachycephalic  type  in 
Jaeren  is  basically  of  light- mixed  pigmentation  is  made  especially  clear 
by  the  fact  that  what  few  brunets  there  are  in  Rogaland  run  taller,  longer- 
headed,  and  finer-nosed  than  the  population  as  a  whole.  The  Jaeren 
brachycephals,  therefore,  are  not  short  and  dark  as  often  stated,40  but  arc 
tall  and  predominantly  light-mixed  people  with  large  heads.  There  is 
no  question  here  of  a  short,  dark,  brachycephalic  population  having  been 
absorbed  into  a  Nordic  body,  since  the  brachycephalic  group  in  Jaeren 
is  numerically  the  principal  one. 

In  Hordaland,  north  of  Rogaland,  one  finds  a  continuation  of  the  same 
contrast  between  coast  and  inland  valleys  which  occurs  farther  south. 
The  brachycephaly  of  Jaeren,  which  extends  southwards  into  the  two 
Agders,  also  stretches  northward  in  an  attenuated  form  into  Mid-Horda- 
land,  where  it  is  gradually  submerged  in  the  mesocephalic  population. 

40  Arbo,  to  whom  this  statement  has  often  been  attributed,  stated  merely  that  the 
Jaeren  brachycephals  were  shorter  and  more  brunet  than  their  long-headed  brethren. 
The  differences  are  actually  very  slight. 


THE  NORTH  315 


Secondary  nuclei  of  brachycephaly  occur  sporadically  farther  north, 
notably  in  Sunnfjord  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  great  Sogn  fjord,  and  in 
the  coastal  districts  and  islands  of  M0re. 

So  great  has  been  the  interest  in  the  coastal  brachycephals  of  western 
Norway  that  the  equal  importance  of  the  mesocephalic  population  living 
more  typically  in  the  inland  valleys  and  mountains  of  this  part  of  the 
country  has  been  somewhat  obscured.  On  the  basis  of  the  cephalic  index 
alone,  it  would  be  easy  to  dismiss  them  as  a  transitional  form  between  the 
Iron  Age  Nordics  of  the  east  and  the  Borreby  type  brachycephals  of  the 
coast,  but  a  number  of  considerations  make  this  disposal  impossible.  The 
western  Norwegian  mesocephals  are  taller,  blonder,  and  larger  headed 
than  either  of  the  two  types  mentioned.  In  these  and  in  other  respects, 
they  form  a  special  population  of  their  own. 

In  many  districts  of  these  provinces  mean  recruit  statures  of  175  cm. 
have  been  recorded,  with  a  record  mean  of  178  cm.  in  the  Voss  district 
of  Hordaland.  The  cephalic  index  of  78  or  79,  which  is  so  constant  here, 
is  not  a  composite  of  dolichocephals  and  brachycephals,  but  represents  a 
truly  mesocephalic  condition. 

Mme.  Schreincr,  in  order  to  study  this  special  group  in  greater  detail 
than  the  recruit  material  permits,  selected  the  high  mountain  district  of 
Valle  in  Setesdal,  in  the  northern  part  of  Aust-Agder;  and  also  two  iso- 
lated districts  of  Hordaland,  Halandsdal  and  Eidfjord.41  Of  these  three, 
Valle  yielded  the  largest  series,  and  the  most  extreme  local  form  of  the 
population  under  consideration.  This  site  was  especially  chosen  because 
it  is  probably  the  most  secluded,  most  conservative  place  in  all  Norway; 
its  inhabitants  are  still  living  in  many  respects  in  the  saga  period,  and 
mingle  little  with  outsiders. 

Valle  was  first  settled  in  the  second  and  third  centuries  of  the  present 
era,  while  a  second  wave  of  colonists  arrived  in  the  ninth.  Since  the  dia- 
lect spoken  in  Valle  is  purely  west  Norwegian,  we  may  assume  that  the 
present  inhabitants  represent  a  survival  of  that  segment  of  the  coastal 
population  which,  during  the  first  millennium,  forsook  the  shore  for  the 
mountains  behind  it. 

In  body  measurements  the  Valle  people  are  large,  although  the  mean 
stature  of  174.7  cm.  for  one  hundred  adult  males  is  not  the  greatest  in  this 
region.  The  women,  with  a  mean  of  160.0  cm.,  are  much  smaller.  The 
sex  difference  in  height,  as  in  many  other  features,  is  particularly  great 
here,  and  much  greater  than  in  Norway  as  a  whole;  it  totals  14.1  cm.  in 
Valle,  as  against  10.0  cm.  in  the  entire  country.  The  Valle  people  are,  as  a 
rule,  heavy  boned,  and  like  the  rest  of  the  population  of  which  they  are  a 
part,  longer  and  heavier  bodied  than  members  of  the  eastern  Nordic  type. 

41  Schreiner,  A  ,  Valle  ^  Halandsdal,  und  Eidfjard, 


316  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  mean  head  length  of  the  Valle  males  reaches  the  extreme  figure  of 
198  mm.,  considerably  longer  than  that  of  the  dolichocephalic  eastern 
Norwegian  Nordics;  the  breadth,  154.9  mm.,  is  as  great  as  that  among 
many  brachycephals,  although  in  this  case,  in  view  of  the  exceptional 
head  size,  the  resultant  cephalic  index  mean  is  only  78.9.  A  mean  head 
height  of  125  mm.  is,  however,  moderate.  The  face  is  large,  with  a  mean 
nasion-menton  height  of  128.3  mm.,  and  a  bizygomatic  breadth  of 
142.9  mm.  The  forehead  and  jaw  are  broader,  likewise,  than  in  most  of 
Norway,  with  means  of  106.6  and  109.2  mm. 

By  and  large,  the  morphological  observations  bear  out  the  impression 
of  robusticity  shown  by  the  measurements;  the  forehead  is  often  quite 
sloping,  the  browridges  frequently  heavy,  the  faces  angular,  the  jaws  firm 
and  deep.  In  keeping  with  the  cultural  recessiveness  of  Valle,  the  palate 
and  dental  regions  are  large  and  primitive,  in  a  mediaeval  or  Iron  Age 
sense.  The  pigmentation  is  exclusively  light  or  light  mixed,  for  in  Mme. 
Schreiner  *s  sample  which  included  one-fourth  of  the  total  population,  not 
a  single  brown  eye  nor  head  of  black  or  dark  brown  hair  was  discovered. 
Among  the  men,  90  per  cent  of  pure  and  nearly  pure  light  eyes  were  found, 
with  but  3  per  cent  dark  mixed;  among  the  women,  as  is  frequently  the 
case  elsewhere,  the  light-eyed  category  is  smaller  than  that  of  the  men  by  a 
full  10  per  cent.  In  hair  color  the  Valle  males  show  40  per  cent  of  ash- 
blond,  an  equal  number  of  various  shades  of  brown,  and  the  remaining 
20  per  cent  of  light  golden  blonds. 

Mme.  Schreiner,  as  well  as  Arbo  thirty  years  earlier,  considered  that  the 
Valle  people  represent  a  retarded  sample  of  the  Viking  population  which 
lived  in  western  Norway  a  thousand  years  ago,  and  this  conclusion  is  based 
on  geographical  and  ethnological  as  much  as  on  racial  grounds.  If  this  be 
true,  and  there  seems  little  reason  to  dispute  it,  then  we  may  at  last  have 
found  the  living  counterparts  of  the  Iron  Age  crania  which  might,  in  many 
respects,  have  been  those  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  men.  Historically  we 
know  that  from  the  Neolithic  onward  no  racial  types  could  have  entered 
this  region  except  for  a  pre-Iron  Age  Borreby-Megalithic-Corded  blend, 
and,  later,  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  race  which  we  have  already  seen  in  the 
provinces  to  the  east.  Both  Arbo  and  Mme.  Schreiner  detected  a  minor 
element  in  the  Valle  population  which  was  smaller  and  finer  boned,  and 
which  was  presumably  Nordic  in  the  Iron  Age  sense. 

The  third  section  of  Norway,  usually  designated  as  a  racial  center,  is 
the  north  central  group  of  three  provinces,  M0re,  South  Tr^ndelag,  and 
North  Tr^ndelag,  with  especial  emphasis  upon  the  two  latter.  The  two 
Tr0ndelags  include  several  great  valleys:  Namdal,  Orkdal,  Meldal, 
Galdal,  and  Tydal,  and  a  number  of  large  islands  as  well.  To  the  south- 
east, this  region  is  effectively  blocked  from  contact  with  eastern  Norway 


THE  NORTH  317 


by  the  Dovre  Mountains.  During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
this  was  the  most  populous  and  most  important  part  of  Norway,  in  which 
was  located  Nidaros,  the  capital  of  the  Norse  kings.  This  region  was  a 
center  of  Norwegian  aristocracy,  and  a  base  for  extensive  Viking  expedi- 
tions. As  a  result  of  these  voyages,  the  whole  Trondhjem  region  must 
have  received  a  relatively  large  influx  of  foreign  slaves  and  thralls,  while 
in  some  of  the  valleys,  Saxons  and  Bohemians  were  especially  imported  as 
skilled  laborers.  Tyrker,  the  famous  Rhineland  German  who  discovered 
the  grapes  on  Vinland  and  made  the  New  World's  first  wine,  was  probably 
one  of  these  immigrants. 

The  modern  population  of  the  Tr^ndelag  region  is  notable  in  that  it 
exceeds  the  rest  of  Norway  in  a  number  of  important  features.  One  is  in 
stature,  for  the  tallest  provincial  means  are  found  here;  another  is  in  the 
height  of  the  cranial  vault,  which  reaches  a  mean  of  128  mm.;  a  third  is 
in  the  percentage  of  blue  eyes,  for  this  is  the  lightest-eyed  region  of  Norway. 
The  hair,  by  contrast,  is  by  no  means  the  blondest,  but  there  are  significant 
deficiencies  of  ash-blond,  and  excesses  of  golden  and  of  brown.  This  type 
is  also  characterized  by  a  considerable  face  length,  with  narrower  bizy- 
gomatic  and  bigonial  diameters  than  are  found  in  Norway  as  a  whole. 
The  type  which  possesses  the  characters  enumerated  above  is  especially 
concentrated  in  South  Trjzfndelag,  and  most  strongly  in  the  valley  of 
Orkdal.  The  other  districts  of  the  two  Tr0ndelags  show  a  tendency  for 
this  special  Nordic  type  to  blend  into  the  mesocephalic  western  form  which 
reaches  its  culmination  in  Valle. 

Bryn  has  compared  the  Tr0ndelagen  people  in  observations  with  the 
eastern  Norwegian  Nordics,  and  his  contrast  here  is  as  valid  in  most  re- 
spects for  the  western  Norwegian  mesocephals  as  for  the  Tr0ndelagen 
people  themselves,  since  the  latter  two  are  morphologically  much  alike. 

The  Trj^ndelagen  population  has  the  same  proportion  of  dark  hair  as  is 
found  in  the  eastern  Norwegian  valleys;  but  differs  from  the  classic  Nordic 
type  in  a  low  ratio  of  ash-blond  (26  per  cent)  and  a  correspondingly  high 
proportion  of  golden  and  brown.  The  hair  form  in  Tr^ndelagen  is  usually 
wavy;  it  is  coarser,  and  more  abundant  on  beard  and  body. 

Although  the  Trjzfndelagens  are  the  two  lightest-eyed  provinces  in 
Norway,  their  commonest  iris  type  is  very  light  mixed  (Martin  13-14) 
rather  than  pure  blue.  According  to  Bryn,  the  typical  Tr0nder  iris  is 
close  grained  and  opaque,  for  the  fibers  are  dense  and  closely  imbricated. 
Bryn  contrasts  this  iris  type  with  that  of  eastern  Norway.  The  skin,  while 
as  light  in  color  as  that  of  the  eastern  Nordics,  is  coarser  in  texture  and 
much  tougher.  As  a  result  of  this  density  of  the  integument,  the  bony  and 
cartilaginous  parts  of  the  face  do  not  stand  out  in  fine  relief. 

The  forehead  of  the  special  Tr^nder  type  is  higher,  broader,  and  much 


318  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

less  sloping,  and  the  profiles  of  the  forehead  and  nose  are  not  parallel,  but 
form  a  distinct  broken  angle.  Frontal  bosses,  which  do  not  appear  in  the 
Eastern  Valley  type,  are  frequently  found,  and  the  temporal  region  is 
fuller.  The  transitions  from  frontal  to  temporal  and  frontal  to  parietal 
regions  are  smooth  and  difficult  to  find,  whereas  with  the  eastern  type 
they  are  clearly  marked.  The  nose  of  the  Tr0nder  type,  while  equally  high 
or  higher,  is  typically  straight  or  convex,  with  many  wavy  or  undulating 
profile  forms.  The  side  walls  are  less  steep,  and  the  transition  from  bone 
to  cartilage  difficult  to  find  without  palpation.  The  tip  is  somewhat 
thicker,  especially  in  old  age,  and  the  wings  less  compressed. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  zygomatic  arches  are  less  prominent  than  those 
of  the  eastern  type.  Not  only  are  they  somewhat  more  compressed,  but, 
at  the  same  time,  the  temporal  region  above  them  is  broader  and  fuller, 
so  that  the  lateral  profile  of  the  face  falls  usually  in  an  unbroken  sweep  from 
the  side  of  the  head  to  the  lower  jaw  line.  As  with  the  Eastern  Valley  type, 
the  gonial  angles  are  not  noticeable.  The  cranium  as  a  whole  is  shorter, 
higher,  and  more  rounded,  and  the  occiput  less  prominently  curved.  On 
the  whole,  the  impression  is  given  of  a  better  filled,  more  rounded,  and 
less  angular  head  and  face.  If  one  leaves  in  the  description  of  hair  and 
integument,  and  adds  a  prominence  of  zygomata  and  of  mandible,  this 
description  will  apply  to  the  other  end  type  of  the  tall,  mesocephalic 
population  of  western  and  central  Norway,  that  of  Valle. 

In  reviewing  the  data  on  the  coastal  and  mountain  population  of  western 
and  north  central  Norway,  from  Aust-Agder  to  North  Trjzfndelagen,  we 
find  ample  evidence  of  the  major  survival  of  a  pre-Iron  Age  population. 
Within  this  population  at  least  three  elements  are  seen. 

(a)  A  tall,  heavily  built,  large-headed  type,  with  a  stature  of  about 
170-172  cm.;  the  cephalic  index  is  about  84,  which  would  correspond  to 
82  on  the  dry  cranium;  the  face  is  broad,  the  jaw  broad  and  heavy,  the 
occiput  often  flattish,  the  skull  square  in  appearance  more  frequently  than 
round;  the  pigmentation  is  partly  but  not  extremely  blond,  with  light- 
mixed  eyes,  and  hair  which  is  medium  brown  to  light  brown  on  the  golden 
side  in  the  majority  of  cases. 

(b)  An  extremely  tall,  somewhat  slenderer  type,  with  a  stature  of 
174  crn.;  mesocephalic,  with  a  more  moderate  head  size  in  length  and 
breadth  diameters,  but  with  a  vault  attaining  128-130  mm,  in  auricular 
height,  which  is  very  great  for  living  races;  a  long  face,  narrower  in  bi- 
zygomatic  and  bigonial  widths  than  (a),  and  as  narrow  in  these  respects 
as  that  of  Iron  Age  Nordics;  heavier,  with  craggier  facial  features  and 
thicker,  coarser  soft  part  anatomy  than  the  Iron  Age  Nordics,  in  this  re- 
spect approximating  type  (a);  characterized  in  pigmentation  by  almost  a 
totality  of  very  light-mixed  eyes,  especially  of  the  blue  variety  with  a 


THE  NORTH  319 


minimum  of  yellow  and  brown  spotting;  and  by  a  brown  or  golden-brown 
to  golden  hair  color  range. 

(c)  A  type  which  in  reference  to  (b)  is  equally  tall,  equally  meso- 
cephalic,  but  lower-vaulted  and  larger  in  length  and  breadth  dimensions 
of  the  vault;  equally  long-faced,  but  wide  in  both  malar  and  gonial  diam- 
eters, heavy-jawed,  large  faced;  similar  in  pigment  characters  to  (b),  but 
not,  in  all  regions,  equally  blond;  large-bodied,  rugged,  and  large-boned, 
with  a  great  sex  difference  in  stature. 

In  all  three  of  these,  the  later  Iron  Age  Nordic  element  has  blended. 
Despite  this  influence,  type  (a)  in  its  concentrated  form,  as  at  Jaeren, 
seems  to  have  reemerged  as  what  appears  to  be  a  faithful  replica  of  the 
Borreby  race  in  its  various  forms,  while  (b),  a  blend  of  Corded  with  (a) 
and  with  elements  of  glacial  age,  forms  a  special  and  very  characteristic 
and  historically  important  Nordic  sub-type.  In  both  (a)  and  (b)  the 
Borreby  element,  which  entered  Norway  from  Denmark  during  the  Neo- 
lithic, is  probably  more  important  than  the  local  post-glacial  race  of 
Palaeolithic  tradition,  remnants  of  which  are  probably  masked  in  both, 
but  appear  in  strongest  solution  in  (c) .  Individuals  of  type  (c)  may  well 
recapitulate,  in  most  essential  features,  Upper  Palaeolithic  Western 
European  man. 

In  any  case,  the  deviation  of  the  western  and  north-central  Norwegians 
from  the  standard  eastern  Norwegian  form  is  indicative  of  the  absorption 
of  the  latter  by  pre-food-producing  Scandinavian  strains,  as  well  as  by 
pre-Iron  Age  Corded  blood.  The  oft-stated  and  overemphasized  resem- 
blance between  the  western  Norwegians  and  central  European  Alpines 
reflects  merely  the  common  origin  in  the  glacial  period  of  Borreby  and 
Alpine  ancestors.  The  Alpines,  however,  have  undergone  modifications 
involving  size  reduction  below  the  earlier  form,  while  the  Norwegian  sur- 
vivors have  retained  their  ancestral  dimensions. 

For  the  purposes  of  classification,  I,  propose  to  lump  the  types  (b)  and 
(c)  together,  using  Bryn's  name  of  Tr^nder  type,  to  designate  all  tall, 
coarsely  built,  mesocephalic  blonds  who  show  a  predominance  of  Corded 
and  Upper  Palaeolithic  elements,  in  contrast  to  the  classic,  finer  Nordic 
type.  This  lumping  may  be  justified  by  the  supposition  that  (b)  and  (c) 
form  but  local  end  types  of  a  larger  population  in  which  both  are  present 
but  less  distinct. 

The  fourth  Norwegian  area  which  merits  separate  consideration  is  the 
Far  North,  including  the  provinces  of  Nordland,  Troms,  and  Finnmark. 
In  this  region  it  is  not  the  description  and  identification  of  a  special  type, 
but  the  interactions  of  several  different  ethnic  elements,  and  their  reactions 
to  a  rigorous  environment,  which  are  important.  These  elements  are  the 
Lapps,  whom  we  have  already  discussed;  the  Kvaens,  who  are  Finlanders 


320  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

of  late  arrival  and  who  will  be  discussed  in  a  later  section  of  this  chapter; 
and  the  Norwegians,  most  of  whom  are  recent  immigrants  from  other 
parts  of  the  kingdom. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  Norwegian  historical  period,  HlUogaland,  which 
included  Nordland  and  the  southern  part  of  Troms  up  to  Malangenfjord, 
was  thickly  settled  with  Norwegians  who  lived  along  the  coast  and  es- 
pecially on  the  islands,  and  whose  ancestors  had  come  up  in  open  boats  in 
order  to  carry  on  fishing.  These  prehistoric  settlers  came  from  Tr^ndelag, 
M0re,  and  also  from  more  southerly  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  ninth 
century,  at  the  latest,  Norwegians  from  HMogaland  sailed  farther  north 
to  hunt  walrus  and  to  exchange  goods  with  the  Lapps.  A  number  of  them 
settled,  and  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  whole  coast  of  Finnmark  had  a 
scattered  Norwegian  population.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  Finnmark  con- 
tained at  least  6000  Norwegians. 

For  the  next  three  hundred  years  the  Bergen  merchants  held  a  trade 
monopoly  which  prevented  private  enterprise,  and  destroyed  the  incentive 
for  northward  migration.  Many  of  the  earlier  settlers  returned  southward, 
leaving  a  shortage  of  workers.  In  consequence  of  this,  King  Christian  V 
sent  a  mixed  company  of  thieves,  prostitutes,  and  other  undesirables  to 
the  north  country  from  southern  Norway  and  from  Denmark,  in  order  to 
reenforce  the  population  of  the  fishing  villages.  In  1815,  however,  Nor- 
wegians began  coming  north  in  large  numbers,  most  of  them  from  the 
southern  part  of  the  kingdom.  Up  until  the  eighteenth  century,  fishing 
and  trade  were  almost  the  only  occupations,  but  about  that  time  agricul- 
ture was  begun  in  the  broad  valleys  of  Nordland  and  Troms,  and,  under 
the  influence  of  the  newer  settlers  from  the  south,  it  became  an  important 
economic  factor. 

During  the  fifty  years  which  elapsed  between  1869  and  1920,  the  popu- 
lation of  the  north  country  grew  from  fifty  to  ninety-eight  thousand.  That 
of  Nordland  increased  88  per  cent,  of  Troms  92  per  cent,  and  of  Finnmark 
102  per  cent.  The  bulk  of  this  increase  was  caused  by  the  influx  of  Nor- 
wegians. In  1920  Norwegians  or  people  who  considered  themselves  Nor- 
wegians constituted  99  per  cent  of  the  population  in  Nordland,  89  per  cent 
in  Troms,  and  61  per  cent  in  Finnmark.  Since  these  figures  include, 
especially  in  Troms  and  Finnmark,  a  number  of  mixtures  between  Norwe- 
gians and  Lapps,  Kvaens,  and  both,  the  Norwegian  population  of  these 
provinces  deviates  from  the  means  of  the  kingdom  in  several  respects, 
especially  in  a  lowering  of  stature  and  a  heightening  of  the  cephalic  index. 
Kvaen  influence  may  be  detected  most  clearly  in  an  excessive  breadth  of 
face  and  mandible. 

Norwegians  of  pure  descent  from  immigrants  born  in  the  south-eastern 
provinces  have  retained  their  original  stature  and  head  form,  as  well  as 


THE  NORTH  321 


their  high  incidence  of  ash-blond  hair,  but  they  have  been  modified 
through  an  increased  bigonial  breadth  and  a  decreased  minimum  frontal 
diameter.  Mme.  Schreiner,  who  has  studied  with  great  diligence  a  large 
series  of  North  Norwegians  of  all  ancestries,  suggests  that  this  condition 
may  be  a  result  of  environmental  influences  which  have  caused  a  thicken- 
ing of  the  tympanic  plate  and  the  development  of  a  palatal  torus  among 
most  circumpolar  peoples,  including  such  varied  groups  as  Eskimos, 
Lapps,  and  Icelanders.42 

In  studying  the  racial  characters  of  the  Norwegian  people  we  have 
made  use  of  a  body  of  well-documented  material,  unique  in  Europe.  By 
means  of  it  we  have  been  able  to  reconstruct  a  probable  scheme  of  Nor- 
wegian racial  history.  There  is  one  further  source,  however,  which  should 
not  be  overlooked,  and  that  is  the  large  corpus  of  Norse  mythology  and 
oral  history.  This  source  should  not,  as  is  commonly  the  case  with  folklore, 
be  relegated  to  the  ash-heap  of  what  the  scientist  is  wont  to  call  mere  litera- 
ture, since  a  careful  study  of  the  social  attitudes,  descriptions,  and  events 
so  well  recorded  in  the  saga  material  shows  that  these  documents  agree 
with  and  supplement  the  findings  of  archaeology  and  of  physical  anthro- 
pology. Two  sources  which,  in  this  regard  are  of  especial  value  are  the 
Rigsthula  lay  of  the  Poetic  Eddaf*  and  the  historical  work  of  Snorre 
Sturlason,44  a  prominent  political  and  scholastic  figure  in  twelfth  century 
Iceland.45 

According  to  the  Rigsthula,  the  social  classes  of  the  Norse  people  were 
begotten  in  a  mythical  and  rather  simple  way.  The  early  god  Heimdal 
travelled  about  his  domain  in  disguise,  making  use  of  the  assumed  name 
Rig.  In  this  capacity  he  had  sexual  relations  with  three  women,  each  of 
whom  bore  him  children.  The  first  woman  gave  birth  to  a  brood  of  short, 
dark,  and  ugly  offspring,  who  became  thralls,  and  were  relegated  to 
agricultural  toil  and  unskilled  manual  labor.  The  second  produced  the 
carls,  large,  healthy,  red-faced,  red-haired  men,  with  big  muscles,  who 
became  smiths  and  craftsmen,  who  performed  skilled  tasks,  ,and  who 
were  also,  in  many  cases,  small  land  owners.  The  third  woman  was  de- 
livered of  the  jarls,  the  aristocrats,  tall,  lean  men  with  blond  hair  and  hard, 
cold,  snake-like  eyes,  who  fought  and  practiced  the  use  of  weapons,  hunted, 
played  games,  and  did  no  work. 

The  poet  who  described  so  vividly  these  three  classes  in  the  Norse  popu- 
lation has  given  us  a  priceless  picture  of  the  people  of  Scandinavia  during 

42  Hooton,  E.  A.,  AJPA,  vol.  1,  1918,  pp.  53-76. 
Schreiner,  A.,  Die  Nord-Norweger. 

Schreiner,  K.  E.,  £ur  Osteologie  der  Lappen^  vol.  1,  pp.  161-177. 

43  Bellows,  H.  A.,  Poetic  Edda  (translation),  pp.  201-216. 

44  Sturlason,  Snorre,  Heimskringla,  edited  by  Erling  Mousen,  see  esp.  pp.  1-12. 
15  See  also  in  this  respect,  Shetelig,  Falk,  and  Gordon,  Scandinavian  Archaeology. 


322  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

the  pre-Christian  Iron  Age,  as  he  saw  them.  The  thralls,  landless  serfs, 
were,  in  part,  prisoners  brought  to  Scandinavia  by  the  Norse  seafarers,  but 
this  explanation  cannot  apply  to  the  thrall  class  as  a  whole.  A  three  class 
system  was  an  old  Nordic  institution,  common  to  most  Indo-European- 
speaking  peoples,  and  it  is  unlikely  that  the  Iron  Age  invaders  from 
central  Europe  had  entered  Scandinavia  without  their  henchmen.  Part, 
at  least,  of  the  thrall  class  must  be  considered  the  descendants  of  Danubi- 
ans,  Binaries,  and  Alpines  who  were  imported  by  their  more  aristocratic 
overlords,  and  who  formed,  in  solution  with  Nordic,  the  lower  class  of  the 
original  population. 

The  carls  find  no  ready  counterpart  in  central  Europe,  and  were  prob- 
ably largely  indigenous,  the  Bronze  Age  prototypes  of  the  peoples  of 
Jaeren,  Tr^ndelag,  and  Valle.  The  physical  attributes  of  these  carls  are 
clearly  contrasted  with  the  more  purely  Nordic  description  of  the  jarls, 
who  formed  obviously  the  upper  class  of  the  Iron  Age  invading  group, 
including  many  of  the  bondi,  or  free  land  owners  without  title,  and  who 
were  apparently  a  numerous  body. 

Let  us  turn  for  a  moment  to  consider  the  historical  work  of  Snorre 
Sturlason.  This  erudite  scholar  deals  with  the  gods  as  if  they  were  men, 
and  treats  their  mythical  actions  as  history.  His  rationalization  seems  to 
have  been  uncannily  accurate.  In  the  first  place,  Asgard,  the  home  of 
the  gods,  was  a  town  on  the  northern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  These  gods 
fought  a  people  called  the  vanir,  with  whom  they  eventually  agreed  to 
exchange  hostages.  Odin,  the  king  of  the  gods,  agreed  to  take  Frey  and 
Freya,  two  of  the  vanir,  and  these  were  soon  deified  along  with  their  hosts. 
The  gods  then  left  Asgard;  and  moved  northwestward;  they  sojourned  in 
Denmark,  and  passed  without  much  ado  into  Sweden.  This  country  be- 
came their  main  home,  and  Uppsala  their  chief  center.  Odin  worship, 
which  arose  among  their  descendants,  the  kings  and  jarls,  was  centered 
especially  in  this  neighborhood,  and  the  worship  of  Frey  and  Freya  as 
well.  , 

Thor,  who  was  a  rough-and-tumble  bucolic  god,  is  little  mentioned  in 
this  Asgardian  history;  he  was  apparently  an  earlier  god  and  the  especial 
deity  of  the  coastal  people  of  Norway.  Odin  was  a  sophisticated  person- 
age, wearing  a  finely  woven  blue  cape  and  carrying  an  iron  spear;  Thor, 
who  clothed  himself  in  skins,  carried  a  hammer  as  his  weapon,  and  drove 
about  in  a  goat-drawn  chariot.  If  we  grant  that  Odin  was  the  chief 
god  brought  in  by  the  Iron  Age  invaders,  and  surrounded  with  their 
classically-inspired  trappings  of  luxury,  then  Thor  was  apparently  the 
god  of  the  older  people,  of  the  carl  class,  and  he  represents  in  his  per- 
son and  attributes  a  blend  between  the  robust  Mesolithic  hunters  and 
fishermen,  and  the  Megalithic  and  Corded  people.  His  association 


THE  NORTH  323 


with  the  last  named  is  clearly  shown  by  his  devotion  to  the  double- 
headed  hammer,  which  was  probably  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the 
boat-axe. 

The  worshippers  of  Odin  and  Frey  were  especially  interested  in  the 
horse;  horse  sacrifices  were  made  to  these  gods,  and  to  Frey  was  dedicated 
the  cult  of  the  embalmed  horse's  penis.  In  Norway  the  horse  was  replaced 
to  a  certain  extent  as  a  funeral  object  by  the  ship;  and  the  ships  were  made 
by  the  carls,  who  had  learned  their  craft  from  their  Megalithic  predeces- 
sors and  ancestors.  With  the  introduction  of  iron,  ship-building  flourished, 
and  the  Viking  was  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  sea-going  central  Euro- 
pean Nordic,  who  had  exchanged  his  horse  for  a  steed  suited  to  a  new 
environment,  with  the  cooperation  of  a  vigorous  body  of  indigenous 
craftsmen  and  warriors,  into  whose  racial  body  his  own  group  was  soon 
blended. 

(5)   ICELAND 

Iceland  46  was  first  discovered  by  the  Irish,  but  when  this  event  took 
place  we  do  not  know.  Our  first  reliable  account  of  their  voyages  to  Ice- 
land is  the  book  of  the  Irish  monk  Dicuil,  written  in  825  A.D.  At  that  time, 
and  presumably  for  some  years  before,  the  only  occupants  of  the  island 
had  been  Irish  hermits,  who  found  their  arctic  retreat  an  excellent  asylum 
from  the  ills  of  the  world.  It  was  probably  from  the  Irish  that  the  Norse- 
men obtained  their  knowledge  of  this  island,  before  the  motive  had 
arrived  for  them  to  go  there  and  live  in  it. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  ninth  century  King  Harald  Fairhair  united 
Norway  under  his  own  command,  and  then  tried  to  extend  his  authority 
to  the  Norsemen  living  in  the  Orkneys  and  other  outlying  regions.  As  a 
result  of  his  activities  the  noblemen  who  refused  to  submit  sailed  forth  on 
Viking  expeditions,  and  the  Norse  population  in  the  British  Isles  increased. 
Iceland,  however,  being  a  country  which  was  practically  uninhabited, 
offered  a  ready  refuge  to  these  political  malcontents,  who  comprised,  it  is 
said,  the  highest  nobility  of  Norway. 

In  870  A.D.  Ingolf  Arnarsson  first  settled  in  Iceland,  and  a  period  of 
intensive  colonization  followed  which  lasted  from  874  A.D.  to  930  A.D.  The 
high  nobles,  including  kings,  jarls,  and  peers  of  lesser  rank,  brought  with 
them  their  entire  households,  consisting  of  wives,  concubines,  housecarls, 
and  slaves.  Four  hundred  such  chiefs  are  mentioned  in  the  Landnamabok, 
the  unique  document  describing  in  detail  the  settlement  of  Iceland  and  the 
parti tionment  of  its  land.  Various  estimates  reckon  the  population  at  the 

46  The  bulk  of  this  section  is  derived  from  Harmesson,  G.,  Korpermasse  und  Kbrperpro- 
portionen  der  Islander,  and  from  Seltzer,  C.  C.,  The  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Mediaeval 
Icelanders,  unpublished  MS.  in  Peabody  Museum.  Author's  permission. 


324  THE   RACES  OF  EUROPE 

year  950  A.D.  between  the  figures  of  20,000  and  50,000.  The  lower  figure 
is  probably  more  nearly  correct  than  the  higher.  At  any  rate,  the  chances 
are  that  the  servants  and  other  undistinguished  persons  made  up  the 
majority,  and  that  although  the  proportion  of  noblemen  was  high,  it  was 
not  high  enough  to  predominate  in  a  numerical  sense. 

The  Landnamabok  names  the  homes  of  1003  of  these  immigrants.  Of 
them  846  came  from  Norway,  30  from  Sweden,  1  from  the  Faroes,  and 
126  from  the  British  Isles.  Of  those  coming  directly  from  Norway,  the 
homes  of  461  are  known,  as  follows:  Nordland,  51;  Tr^ndelag  and  M0re, 
95;  Sogn  og  Fjordane,  128;  Hordaland,  77;  Rogaland  10  (3  from  Jaeren); 
Agder,  Telemark,  Vestfold,  67;  the  eastern  valleys,  33.  Of  113  known 
homes  in  the  British  Isles,  the  list  is:  Ireland,  52,  Scotland,  31,  Hebrides, 
26,  and  Orkneys,  4.  Thus  the  Norsemen  who  came  from  Norway  came 
mostly  from  the  coastal  regions,  and  especially  from  Hordaland,  Sogn  og 
Fjordane  and  points  northward.  Few  were  from  the  eastern  valley  region 
and  fewer  from  the  brachycephalic  nucleus  in  Rogaland.  Those  from  the 
British  Isles  were  presumably  Norse  who  had  not  occupied  their  new 
homes  long  enough  to  lose  their  Norwegian  identity. 

The  Vikings  who  came  from  the  British  Isles  brought  with  them  Keltic- 
speaking  slaves  and  concubines,  who  formed  a  considerable  community 
and  who  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  sagas.  Some  of  the  leaders  un- 
doubtedly had  Irish  mothers.  The  exact  ratio  of  these  people  to  the  total 
population  is,  however,  a  matter  of  controversy.  Hannesson,  who  has 
measured  the  living  Icelanders,  estimates  the  Irish  and  other  Keltic  ele- 
ments to  have  formed  some  1 3  per  cent  of  the  whole.  At  any  rate,  since 
the  tenth  century  no  new  immigrants  have  entered  Iceland  in  any  num- 
bers, and  hence  the  living  Icelanders  are  the  direct  and  unassimilated 
descendants  of  the  Viking  settlers  and  of  their  retainers. 

In  a  total  of  33  of  the  longer  poems,47  the  bards  who  composed  the  sagas 
gave  physical  descriptions  of  67  early  Icelandic  persons,  all  important 
and  drawn  mostly  from  the  noble  class.  Of  these  54  were  called  large  or 
tall,  and  only  3  medium  sized.  In  regard  to  hair  quantity,  8  out  of  9  men 
were  said  to  have  long  hair,  and  one  thick.  Six  out  of  seven  men  had 
curly  hair,  and  one  straight.  The  following  hair  colors  were  observed  for 
19  males:  gray  2,  white  1,  golden  blond  2,  blond  3,  red  3,  light  brown  1, 
brown  4,  black  3.  One  female  was  given  black  hair.  Of  three  beard  colors 
noticed,  two  were  red  and  one  gray.  One  man  had  blue  eyes,  and  two 
women  black.  Although  these  observations  do  not  form  a  statistically 
valid  series  or  a  random  sample,  yet  they  may  be  regarded  as  ample  proof 
that  the  ancestors  of  the  Icelanders  were  of  variable  pigmentation.  Since 
the  persons  described  were  all  of  high  rank,  the  chances  are  that  most  of 
«  Heinzel,  R.,  SAWV,  vol.  97,  1881,  p.  107. 


THE  NORTH  325 


them  were  pure  Norwegians,  and  that  the  pigmentation  map  of  western 
Norway  was  not  very  different  a  thousand  years  ago  from  what  it  is 
today. 

The  modern  Icelanders,  with  a  mean  stature  of  173.6cm.,  are  taller 
than  most  Norwegian  groups,  and  come  closest  in  general  bulk  to  the 
Valle  and  Tr^ndelagen  populations.  In  bodily  proportions,  too,  they  seem 
to  be  moderately  thick-set  and  heavily  muscled,  and  to  be  long  spanned 
and  relatively  long  bodied.  In  these  general  somatic  characters  they  reveal 
the  fact  that  their  ancestors  came  more  from  the  coast  than  from  the  in- 
terior of  Norway. 

Their  heads,  being  very  long,  with  a  mean  of  197.3  mm.,  and  rather 
broad  (154.1  mm.),  may  be  duplicated  in  size  only  in  Valle,  and  in  Ire- 
land. A  head  height  of  126  mm.  likewise  fits  into  the  general  West  Nor- 
wegian picture,  as  does  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  78.1. 

The  Icelanders,  with  a  nasion-menton  height  of  130.1  mm.,  are  very 
long  faced,  but  their  excess  over  the  Norwegians  in  this  character  is  partly 
a  matter  of  technique.48  They  are  actually  not  much  longer  in  this  char- 
acter than  the  people  of  Valle.  The  breadths  of  the  face,  the  minimum 
frontal,  bizygomatic,  and  bigonial  (106.5,  140.6,  and  108.5  mm.),  are  all 
broader  than  the  corresponding  dimensions  in  Norway  as  a  whole,  but 
they  are  comparable  to  those  found  in  the  provinces  from  which  the  Ice- 
landic ancestors  came.  The  excess  of  the  jaw  breadth  over  that  of  the  fore- 
head may  indicate  an  adaptation  resulting  from  rigorous  dietary  condi- 
tions,49 as  Mme.  Schreiner  also  observed  in  northern  Norway.60  The 
noses  are  very  high  (58.8  mm.),  and  of  moderate  breadth,  with  a  nasal 
index  (60.2)  on  the  lower  border  of  leptorrhiny.  One-half  of  the  nasal 
profiles  are  straight,  one-third  concave;  the  remaining  17  per  cent  are 
mostly  undulating,  with  a  few  convex.  On  the  whole,  less  convexity  is 
found  here  than  in  most  districts  of  Norway  or  of  Ireland. 

Hannesson,  although  he  used  the  Fischer  chart,  divides  his  hair  color 
categories  in  such  a  way  that  one  cannot  distinguish  the  ash-blond  from  the 
golden  class.  Other  evidence,  however,  clearly  indicates  that,  of  the  two, 
the  latter  is  in  the  majority.  Of  pure  blond  hair  (Fisher  #12-24)  he  finds 
but  .8  per  cent  as  against  13.1  per  cent  for  Norway,61  and  5.5  per  cent  from 
Sogn  og  Fjordane,  the  province  from  which  the  largest  number  of  settlers 
to  Iceland  came.  In  his  light  brown  class  (Fischer  #7-11,  25-26),  which 
includes  what  other  authorities  usually  call  ash-blond,  he  finds  52  per  cent 

48  In  recruit  material  used  in  the  Somatologie  nasion  is  quite  apparently  located  lower 
than  is  consistent  with  either  Hannesson's  or  Mme.  Schreiner's  techniques.    A  series  of 
Icelanders  measured  by  Ribbing  includes  a  face  height  mean  of  122  mm.;  cf.  Ribbing, 
L.,  LUA,  N.  F.  Afd.  2,  vol.  8,  #6,  1912,  pp.  1-8. 

49  Hooton,  E.  A.,  AJPA,  loc.  cit. 

60  Schreiner,  A.,  Die  Nord-Norweger.          il  Recalculated  from  Bryn  and  Schreiner. 


326  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

of  his  series,  as  compared  to  64.8  per  cent  for  Norway  and  59.8  per  cent  for 
Sogn  og  Fjordane. 

Thus  although  the  Icelanders  are  still  prevailingly  light  haired,  they  are 
darker  than  any  purely  Norwegian  population  in  Norway.  In  Norway 
black  hair  is  everywhere,  except  among  the  Lapps,  in  a  very  small  minor- 
ity; in  Iceland  it  rises  to  the  figure  of  9  per  cent,  while  red  hair  accounts 
for  3  per  cent  more.  The  presence  of  these  two  colors  in  such  quantities  is 
an  excellent  indication  of  the  persistance  of  a  strong  Irish  strain. 

This  indication  is  strengthened  by  a  study  of  Icelandic  eye  color.  The 
ratio  of  light-  and  very  light-mixed  eyes  (Martin  #13-16)  rises  to  76  per 
cent,  as  high  as  the  Tr^ndelagen  ratios.  But  in  Tr0ndelagen  the  majority 
are  light-mixed  eyes  (Martin  #13-14)  while  in  Iceland,  as  in  Ireland,52 
over  half  of  all  eyes  are  pure  blue. 

On  the  whole,  the  Icelanders  represent  a  racial  population  which  is 
most  closely  related  to  the  mediaeval  inhabitants  of  the  western  Norwegian 
coast,  from  Hordaland  to  Tr^ndelagen;  they  fit  typologically  into  a  mid- 
point between  the  two  extremes  of  the  Tr0nder  category.  They  show 
certain  developments  of  their  own,  particularly  in  their  excessive  face 
length,  and  in  what  seems  to  be  an  Arctic  modification  of  the  palate  and 
jaws.  In  some  respects  they  show  perceptible  Irish  affinities;  as  in  the  re- 
tention of  an  excessive  head  size,  and  in  the  disharmony  between  very  light 
eyes  and  hair  of  but  intermediate  blondness.  In  this  series,  even  more  than 
in  the  living  Norwegian  material,  the  resemblance  to  Upper  Palaeolithic 
cranial  and  facial  types  is  manifest.53 

(6)   SWEDEN64 

Sweden,  which  occupies  the  more  southerly,  less  mountainous,  and 
larger  side  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  is  in  area  the  fifth  largest  coun- 
try in  Europe.  Most  of  its  land  is  of  high  economic  utility,  since  the  low, 
well-watered  slope  of  southern  and  central  Sweden,  dotted  with  lakes,  is 
well  suited  for  agriculture,  while  in  the  north,  large  forests  and  plentiful 
mineral  deposits  furnish  materials  for  industry.  Since  1775  Sweden's 
population  has  grown  from  two  to  six  millions,  not  including  the  million 
and  a  half  who  have  emigrated  to  the  United  States.  Much  of  this  increase 
has  been  fostered  by  the  growth  of  industrial  life,  especially  in  the  mining 
areas  and  in  the  cities.  Central  Sweden,  in  a  belt  reaching  southwestward 

62  See  Chapter  X,  section  2. 

63  Seltzer,  G.  C.,  op.  cit.  Seltzer  finds  a  Cr6-Magnon-lifee  type  in  a  mediaeval  cranial 
series  from  Haffiarderey,  collected  for  the  Peabody  Museum  by  Vilhjalmur  Stefansson. 
His  opinion  as  to  this  resemblance  is  substantiated  by  both  metrical  and  morphological 
comparisons. 

64  The  principal  sources  for  this  section  are : 

Lundborg,  H.,  and  Linders,  F.  J.,  The  Racial  Characters  of  the  Swedish  Nation. 
Retzius,  G.,  and  Fiirst,  G.  M.,  Anthropologia  Suecica. 


THE  NORTH  327 


from  Stockholm,  and  the  peninsula  of  Sk&ne,  are  the  regions  of  thickest 
settlement.  Most  of  the  Swedes  who  have  gone  to  the  United  States 
originated  in  Gotaland,  the  southwestern  part  of  the  kingdom. 

In  prehistoric  times,  Sweden,  although  less  populous  than  Denmark,  was 
far  more  important  than  Norway.  From  Ancylus  times  until  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Iron  Age,  the  southwestern  portion  opposite  the  Danish  Islands 
was  a  center  of  cultural  activity,  while  the  central  and  northern  parts  of 
the  country  were  conservative  and  rustic  cultural  outposts.  The  brachy- 
cephalic  Mesolithic  population  so  typical  of  the  Danish  islands  was  less 
firmly  rooted  in  Sweden,  and  the  successive  invasions  of  Megalithic  and 
Corded  people  passed  over  into  Sweden  relatively  unaltered,  and  produced 
a  greater  proportionate  effect  upon  the  racial  composition  of  this  country 
than  upon  that  of  Denmark.  The  Corded  people,  especially,  moved  north- 
ward into  the  central  portions  of  the  kingdom,  and  probably  entered  Tr0n- 
delagen,  where  their  racial  type  is  still  important,  by  the  Swedish  route. 

The  Iron  Age  invaders,  the  linguistic  ancestors  of  the  modern  Scandi- 
navians, again  chose  Sweden  as  their  especial  sphere  of  colonization,  and 
settled  here  in  greater  numbers  than  in  Denmark  or  in  Norway.  Sweden 
became  a  great  breeding  ground  for  Nordic  peoples,  chief  worshippers  of 
Odin  and  of  Frey,  and  after  less  than  a  thousand  years,  the  country  became 
so  crowded  with  them  that  overpopulation,  coupled  with  the  onset  of  an 
adverse  climate,  forced  a  huge  mass  exodus  southward. 

This  movement  was,  in  effect,  the  great  series  of  Germanic  migrations, 
the  Volkerwanderung,  which  spread  from  Schleswig-Holstein  and  the 
Low  Countries,  on  the  west,  and  from  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula  on  the 
east.  The  Goths,  the  Burgundians,  and  the  Vandals,  except  for  the  Franks 
and  Saxons,  the  most  numerous  and  most  important  tribes  of  Germans,  all 
had  their  origins  in  Sweden.  As  a  womb  of  peoples  Sweden  was  more 
important  than  Norway,  and  at  an  earlier  date.  Sweden  was,  in  fact,  to  the 
continental  world  what  Norway  was  to  Britain,  Iceland,  and  Normandy. 

Although,  since  the  Iron  Age,  Sweden's  historical  role  has  been  that  of 
a  feeder  of  peoples,  she  has  at  various  times,  and  to  a  lesser  extent,  acted  in 
the  opposite  capacity.  During  the  Volkerwanderung  the  remnants  of  the 
Herulians  and  various  bands  of  disappointed  Goths  returned  to  the  Nordic 
homelands,  tired  of  wandering,  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  they  brought 
with  them  new  racial  elements  picked  up  in  Hungary  and  in  the  lands 
north  of  the  Black  Sea.  Later  on,  during  the  Viking  period  of  the  ninth 
to  eleventh  centuries,  Swedes,  as  well  as  Danes  and  Norwegians,  raided 
many  countries  and  brought  back  with  them  thralls  from  the  British  Isles, 
France,  and  the  lands  across  the  Baltic.  According  to  Nordenstreng  65 

56  Nordenstreng,  G.,  Origin,  Growth,  and  Racial  Components  of  the  Swedish  Nation^  in 
Lundborg  and  Linders,  pp.  41-49.  Special  ref.  to  p.  44. 


328  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

these  prisoners  were  settled  most  commonly  in  the  present  county  of  Upp- 
land,  immediately  north  of  the  city  of  Stockholm. 

The  development  of  cities  in  Sweden  drew  to  that  country  large  numbers 
of  traders  and  merchants,  from  Viking  times  onward,  and  these  commer- 
cial people  were  largely  of  Germanic  origin.  Frisian  and  Saxon  chapmen 
were  the  first,  and  these  were  followed  by  others,  in  later  times,  from  vari- 
ous parts  of  Germany,  including  the  southern  principalities.  During  the 
period  of  Sweden's  great  military  expansion  (1611-1718  A.D.),  when  the 
kingdom  extended  over  large  parts  of  Germany,  many  Germans  were 
made  noblemen,  and  went  to  live  in  Sweden.  Thus  the  German  blood  in 
Sweden  is  a  factor  to  be  reckoned  with,  and  has  influenced,  chiefly, 
the  city  population  and  the  nobility.  The  latter  class  has  also  received 
strong  infusions  from  Scotland,  for  Scotsmen,  who  served  under  Gustavus 
Adolphus  in  large  numbers,  were  in  many  instances  rewarded  for  their 
bravery  by  elevation  to  the  Swedish  peerage.  Furthermore,  Walloons, 
who  represented  a  much  darker  and  rounder- headed  racial  element  than 
these  other  immigrants,  were  brought  to  Sweden  during  the  seventeenth 
century  to  work  in  the  iron  foundries.  Some  thirty  or  forty  thousand  of 
their  descendants  can  still  be  identified. 

More  important  than  any  of  these  absorptions,  in  all  likelihood,  has 
been  the  influence  of  the  Finns  upon  the  Swedish  people.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  Kvaens  wandered  into  the  northern  counties,  but  not  in  great  num- 
bers. The  same  Kvaenish  migration  which  affected  the  northern  provinces 
of  Norway  from  1700  A.D.  onward,  also  reenforced  this  element  in  northern 
Sweden.  During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  other  Finns 
settled  in  Varmland  and  Dalarne,  counties  bordering  on  the  Norwegian 
provinces  of  Ostfold  and  Hedmark,  and  the  Finns  of  Grue  56  in  Norway 
came  as  part  of  this  same  migration.  Other  Finns  remained  in  scattered 
settlements  between  the  Varmland  and  Dalarne  nucleus  and  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  while  still  others  penetrated  as  far  south  as  Stockholm. 

Although  this  migration  ceased  about  1700,  over  13,000  Finns  had  come 
to  Sweden  and  to  a  small  district  in  Norway.  Although  these  Finns  were 
not  numerous,  the  population  of  Sweden  at  that  time  was  no  more  than 
one  and  a  half  millions,  and  the  Finns  were  particularly  prolific.  Today 
only  .two  villages  in  Varmland  retain  Finnish  speech  from  the  time  of  this 
migration.  In  Norrbotten,  in  the  valleys  of  Torne  and  Muonio,  more 
recent  colonies  of  Finns,  from  southwestern  Finland,  still  speak  their  own 
language,  and  form  a  distinct  alien  bloc.  In  all  there  are,  at  present, 
about  30,000  Finnish  speakers  in  Sweden,  in  addition  to  whom  it  is  esti- 
mated that  well  over  100,000  Swedes  are  at  least  partially  of  Finnish 
descent. 
66  See  p.  313. 


THE  NORTH  329 


In  comparison  with  most  European  countries,  Sweden  has,  in  post-Iron 
Age  times,  been  subjected  to  remarkably  few  foreign  influences  which 
would  affect  her  racial  composition.  Despite  the  absorptions  and  immigra- 
tions noted  above,  Sweden  remains  one  of  the  most  homogeneous  nations 
in  Europe  both  in  race  and  in  pedigree.  This  homogeneity  is  largely  the 
result  of  geography,  for  in  contrast  to  the  rugged  Norwegian  landscape, 
with  its  mountains  and  fjords  and  distinct  centers  of  racial  concentration, 
the  flat  surface  of  Sweden,  with  its  modern  industrial  development  and 
fluidity  of  population,  has  brought  about  a  striking  racial  unity.  In 
Sweden  social  and  occupational  differences  in  physical  type  are  almost  as 
great  as  regional  ones.  In  no  racial  character  are  Swedish  sub-groups, 
whether  geographical  or  social,  strongly  differentiated. 

The  same  basic  Hallstatt  Nordic  type  which  found  such  a  favorable 
breeding  ground  in  Sweden  during  the  Iron  Age  is  still  the  predominant 
race  in  that  kingdom.  It  has  absorbed  into  its  ethnic  body  both  older  and 
newer  peoples,  and  has  spread  the  resultant  blend  with  remarkable  even- 
ness over  the  surface  of  the  nation.  On  the  whole,  Sweden  is  the  most 
Nordic  nation  in  Europe  in  the  Iron  Age  sense,  and  it  is  much  more  Nordic 
than  Norway.  At  the  same  time,  owing  to  geographical  factors  again,  the 
valleys  of  southeastern  Norway  contain  as  unaltered  an  Iron  Age  Nordic 
population  as  any  in  Sweden.  The  metrical  characters  of  the  recruit 
material  for  the  entire  Swedish  nation  are  very  similar,  in  fact,  to  those  of 
the  southeastern  Norwegians.67  The  stature  mean  of  the  Swedes  is 
172.2  cm.,  and  their  characteristic  bodily  proportions  are  equally  close  to 
the  Norwegian  standard.  Regional  variation  in  stature  stretches  only 
from  169.9  cm.  in  the  northeastern  manufacturing  districts  to  172.5  cm. 
in  the  central  provinces  contiguous  with  Tr0ndelag.  In  the  far  north, 
where  Finnish  influence  is  common,  and  in  the  south,  where  the  older, 
more  brachycephalic  populations  of  the  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Ages  were 
seated,  the  length  of  the  trunk  is  relatively  greater,  and  of  the  legs  smaller, 
than  in  the  central  parts  of  the  kingdom,  but  these  regional  differences  are 
less  pronounced  than  those  between  social  and  occupational  groups  in  the 
nation  as  a  whole.  As  in  Norway,  the  population  drawn  to  the  cities  is 
notably  shorter-armed  than  that  which  remains  upon  the  land. 

The  mean  head  length  of  Swedish  recruits  is  193.8  mm.,  and  the 
breadth  152.3  mm.,  yielding  a  cephalic  index  of  77.7.  The  longest  heads, 
with  regional  means  running  up  to  195  mm.,  are  found  in  the  west,  over 
against  Norway,  and  the  shortest  in  the  north.  The  lowest  cephalic  index 
mean  is  76.7,  and  the  highest,  concentrated  in  the  north,  are  all  below  80. 
The  three  principal  breadth  diameters  of  the  face,  minimum  frontal, 
bizygomatic,  and  bigonial,  have  national  means  of  104.6  mm.,  136.0  mm., 

67  Lundborg  and  Linders,  op.  cit. 


330  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  103.4  mm.,  respectively,  all  of  which  are  typically  Nordic  and  com- 
parable to  those  of  the  eastern  valley  Norwegians.  Slight  regional  differ- 
ences place  the  narrowest  foreheads  and  faces  in  the  western  counties,  and 
the  broadest  in  the  north  and  south.  The  total  face  height  of  126,6  mm. 
is  again  a  typically  Nordic  mean,  comparable  to  that  obtained  by  Bryn 
in  his  later  work  on  the  Eastern  Valley  people.58  While  the  narrowest  faces 
are  found  in  western  Sweden,  as  is  to  be  expected,  the  longest  are  typical 
of  farmers  in  the  north,  where  the  Corded  element  may  be  slightly  more 
prevalent.  The  Swedes  are  typically  leptorrhine,69  and  the  commonest 
nasal  profile  form  is  straight.  Concave  noses,  which  reach  the  rather  high 
figure  of  28  per  cent  in  the  kingdom,  are  commonest  in  the  north  and 
least  frequent  in  the  south. 

According  to  the  Anthropologia  Suecica,  52  per  cent  of  Swedes  had 
ash-blond  hair,  and  23  per  cent  golden.  Thus  the  proportions  of  these 
two  classes  of  blondism  are  reversed  in  comparison  to  Norway.  The  two 
countries  are  about  equal  in  amount  of  dark  hair  shades,  but,  by  and  large, 
Norway  would  seem  to  be  lighter  haired  than  Sweden,60  if  we  may  rely 
upon  a  comparison  based  on  a  correlation  of  two  scales.  In  any  case,  the 
most  numerous  category  is  a  medium  to  light  brown,  with  extreme  blonds 
in  the  minority.  Regional  differences,  though  slight,  are  suggestive. 
Gotaland,  the  Goth  country,  as  southern  and  southwestern  Sweden  was 
anciently  designated,  is  lighter  than  Svealand,  or  central  Sweden;  Norr- 
land,  the  north  country,  is  in  turn  the  darkest.  The  most  red  hair  is  found 
in  the  west  and  south,  and  the  least  in  the  east,  toward  Finland. 

Retzius  and  Fiirst  found  67  per  cent  of  light  eyes,  29  per  cent  of  mixed, 

68  Bryn,  H.,  AAnz,  vol.  9,  1932,  pp.  141-164.  It  is  higher  than  the  Norwegian  recruit 
material  means,  which  were  apparently  taken  with  a  different  technique. 

69  The  only  nasal  constants  in  the  L.  and  L.  material  are  for  Skaraborgs  Ian,  where  a 
N.  I.  of  62.7  is  found.    The  nasal  dimensions  of  61.37  mm.  for  height  and  30.18  for 
breadth  (p.  102)  are  presumably  misprints. 

60  This  statement  is  in  direct  contradiction  to  the  opinion  of  most  anthropologists, 
especially  of  W.  Scheldt,  as  expressed  in  his  Die  rassischen  Verhdltnuse  in  Nordeuropa, 
(ZFMA,  vol.  28,  1930,  pp.  1-198)  and  is  by  no  means  certain    It  is  based  on  the  fol- 
lowing correlation  of  the  L.  and  L.  material  with  that  from  the  Somatologie  der  Norweger: 
FISCHER  Nos.  DESIGNATION  SWEDEN  NORWAY 

12-25  flaxen  6.9%  27.9% 

7-11,26  light  brown  62.5  50.0 

5-6  brown  (medium)  25.1  17.2 

4  brownish  black  2.0  3.7 

27-28  black  .2  .1 

1-3  red  3.3  1.3 

The  Swedish  recruits  were  observed  for  hair  color  by  means  of  a  local  chart,  which  was 
later  correlated  with  the  Fischer  standard.  (L.  £  L.,  p.  10.)  The  c6mparison  between 
the  Swedish  and  Norwegian  results  was  made  by  recombining  the  total  Norwegian 
series  according  to  the  Swedish  divisions.  The  difference  in  amounts  of  red  is  un- 
doubtedly due  to  a  difference  of  standards,  as  Conitzer  has  previously  stated.  (Co- 
nitzer,  H.,  ZFMA,  vol.  19,  1931,  pp.  83-147.) 


THE  NORTH  331 


and  4  per  cent  of  dark.  In  the  first  category  were  presumably  included 
light  eyes  with  a  slight  spotting,  as  in  the  Martin  numbers  13  and  14. 
The  Lundborg  and  Linders  study,  made  with  a  different  observational 
scheme,61  raised  the  first  category  to  87  per  cent,  and  the  third  to  5  per 
cent.  In  any  case,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  eye  colors  of  the  Swedish 
people  are  predominantly  light  mixed  and  light,  as  in  Norway;  and  that 
the  lightest  eyes  in  the  kingdom  are  found  in  western  Sweden,  and  the 
darkest  in  the  north. 

Correlations  within  the  Lundborg  and  Linders  series  of  47,000  men  show 
certain  slight  linkages,  which  could  be  dismissed  as  insignificant  if  found 
on  smaller  samples.  The  cephalic  index  decreases  slightly,  and  the  facial 
index  rises,  with  an  increase  in  stature;  similarly,  the  tallest  statures  have  a 
tendency  to  go  with  brown  hair  and  light  eyes.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to 
suppose  that  this  combination  may  be  a  faint  reflection  of  the  absorption 
of  a  Corded  racial  element  into  the  population  of  Sweden.  In  the  same 
way  an  association  of  flaxen  hair,  moderate  stature,  mesocephalic  head 
form,  and  convexity  of  nasal  profile,  makes  it  unlikely  that  all  high  cephalic 
indices  in  Sweden  are  due  to  East  Baltic  influence,  and  suggests  rather  a 
survival  of  mesocephalic  and  brachycephalic  elements  in  southern  Sweden, 
comparable  to  those  in  western  Norway.  Truly  short  stature,  linked  with 
dark  pigmentation  and  round  head  form,  furnishes  an  infrequent  com- 
bination, but  one  which  may  imply  a  Lappish  strain  in  the  far  north,  sub- 
merged Alpine  elements,  or  both. 

The  Swedish  material,  and  especially  the  correlations,  confirms  the 
opinion  formed  in  Norway,  that  the  Nordic  race  as  such  is  not  and  was 
never  wholly  blond.  The  characteristic  eye  color  is  blue  or  gray,  and  the 
presence  or  absence  of  a  small  amount  of  superficial  iris  pigment  seems 
racially  irrelevant.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  likely  that  all  hair  color  shades 
from  a  light  medium  brown  to  the  lightest,  whether  on  the  ashen  or  golden 
side,  should  be  considered  as  "pure"  lights,  since,  as  the  Swedish  material 
shows,  persons  having  these  shades  on  the  head  have,  as  a  rule,  the  same 
colored  pubic  hair.  In  Sweden,  as  in  Norway,  what  linkages  there  are 
which  point  to  the  survival  or  resegregation  of  a  Corded  type  indicate 
that  this  type  was  characterized  by  exceptionally  light  eyes,  but  a  pre- 
dominantly brown  shade  of  hair. 

Abundant  anthropometric  data  from  Sweden  make  it  clear  that  the 
basic,  and  by  far  the  most  numerous  element  in  the  population  is,  as  in 
eastern  Norway,  an  Iron  Age  Nordic  one,  transferred  from  its  central  and 
eastern  European  home;  earlier  elements  have  survived  less  here  than  in 

6i  "  #1  -s  light  iris  (blue,  gray,  pale  yellow,  or  green),  also  light  iris  with  insignificant 
brown  spots,  points,  or  patches;  2  —  mixed  iris  and  light  iris  with  brown  aureole; 
3  =  light  brown  or  dark  iris."  L.  &  L.,  p.  10. 


332  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Norway.  There  is,  however,  a  strong  concentration  of  unreduced  Briinn 
and  Borreby  types,  as  illustrated  in  plates  4  and  5,  in  the  fishing  and  sea- 
faring population  of  the  southwestern  coast,  across  from  Denmark;  the 
presence  of  these  types,  although  not  clearly  indicated  by  existing  surveys, 
cannot,  nevertheless,  be  denied. 

At  the  same  time,  Corded  elements  within  the  Nordic  racial  body  are 
most  evident  in  the  north,  and  especially  near  the  Norwegian  provinces 
of  Tr0ndelagen.  Lappish  influences  are  also  to  be  felt  in  the  far  north, 
while  modern  Finnish  invasions  and  infiltrations  have  introduced  the 
East  Baltic  type  into  central  Sweden  in  some  numbers.  The  nature  of  this 
type  need  not  be  discussed  here,  but  will  be  studied  in  later  sections  of 
the  present  chapter. 

(7)   DENMARK62 

Denmark,  the  smallest  and  most  southerly  of  the  three  Scandinavian 
kingdoms,  is  also  the  most  densely  populated,  being  inhabited  by  two  and 
one  half  millions  of  people.  It  consists  of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  the 
isthmus  of  Schleswig,  acquired  since  the  World  War,  and  the  Danish 
archipelago.  These  islands,  the  largest  of  which  are  Zealand,  Funen, 
Laaland,  Falster,  Moen,  Langeland,  and  Sams0,  although  smaller  in  total 
area  than  the  mainland,  contain  the  bulk  of  the  population.  The  island 
of  Bornholm,  situated  to  the  southeast  of  Skane,  is  likewise  Danish  terri- 
tory, as  are  the  islands  of  Lesso  and  Anholt,  which  lie  in  the  midst  of  the 
Cattegat.  On  the  southwestern  coast  of  Denmark  the  Frisian  Islands  begin 
their  chain,  which  is  only  broken  by  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  in  its  stretch 
from  Denmark  to  Holland.  Some  of  these  islands  are  Danish,  some  are 
German,  and  others  are  Dutch  in  nationality.  Far  separated  from  Den- 
mark, but  under  its  sovereignty,  lie  the  Faroe  Islands,  between  the  Shet- 
lands  and  Iceland,  and  Iceland  itself  is  an  autonomous  state  under  the 
Danish  crown,  while  Greenland,  a  restricted  crown  colony,  is  the  home  of 
a  few  thousand  Danes. 

Throughout  the  prehistoric  period  Denmark  was  the  cultural  center  of 

62  The  principal  sources  for  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  living  in  Denmark  are : 
Bardenfleth,  K.  S.,  MODA,  vol.  3,  1929,  pp.  3-49. 
Burrau,  C.,  MODA,  vol.  1,  1907-11,  pp.  243-260,  277-284. 
Hannesson,  G.,  op.  cit. 

Hansen,  Andreas  M.,  NMN,  vol.  53,  pp.  202-266. 

Hansen,  S0ren,  MODA,  vol.  1,  1907-11,  pp.  69-81,  204-220,  222-240,  287-307; 
vol.  2,  1920-28,  pp.  363-389. 

Hansen,  Sjzfren,  and  Topinard,  P.,  RDAP,  vol.  3,  1888,  pp.  39-41. 
Heiberg,  P.,  MODA,  vol.  2,  1920-28,  pp.  296-300,  353-360. 
Mackenprang,  E.,  MODA,  vol.  1,  1907-11,  pp.  11-68. 
Ribbing,  L.,  MODA,  vol.  1,  1907-11,  pp.  193-202. 
Steensby,  H.  P.,  MODA,  vol.  1,  1907-11,  pp.  85-148. 
Westergaard,  H.,  MODA,  vol.  1,  1907-11,  pp.  353-391. 


THE  NORTH  333 


Scandinavia,  and  likewise  the  center  of  greatest  population.  The  profusion 
of  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Age  monuments  and  graves  shows  that  before  the 
Iron  Age  invasions  both  the  mainland  and  the  islands  were  densely  in- 
habited; in  view  of  this  crowding,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  newcomers 
found  greater  room  for  expansion  in  Sweden  and  eastern  Norway.  From 
Ertebjzflle  times  onward  the  Danish  Islands,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  the  main- 
land, was  the  focal  point  in  northern  Europe  for  the  settlement  of  the 
brachycephalic  Borreby  people.  With  them  had  mingled  Megalithic  sea- 
farers in  large  numbers,  while  the  Corded  people  had  concentrated  their 
activities  on  the  mainland.  It  is  not  surprising;  therefore,  that  a  population 
so  firmly  attached  to  its  milieu  as  that  of  pre-Iron  Age  Denmark  should 
have  survived  the  vicissitudes  of  centuries  and  eventually  have  reemerged 
in  considerable  strength.  That  this  is  exactly  what  has  happened  is  the 
sense  of  the  present  section. 

During  the  Iron  Age  Denmark  continued  in  its  cultural  leadership  of 
Scandinavia,  owing  largely  to  its  greater  proximity  to  the  source  of  civilized 
influences  farther  south,  for  Denmark  was  greatly  affected  by  the  reper- 
cussions of  Roman  civilization.  In  the  Volkerwanderung  period,  Den- 
mark, furthermore,  contributed  heavily  to  the  stream  of  migration  south- 
ward; the  Cimbri,  the  first  Germanic  people  to  come  under  the  eyes  of 
Rome,  were  natives  of  Jutland;  the  Jutes  and  the  Angles  who  settled 
England  with  the  Saxons  from  Schleswig-Holstein  again  came  from 
Denmark.  The  later  inroads  of  Danes  into  Britain  strengthened  the  earlier 
contingents.  Hence,  Denmark  played  an  even  greater  part  in  the  settle- 
ment of  the  British  Isles  than  did  Norway. 

In  contrast  to  Norway  and  Sweden,  existing  documents  which  cover  the 
physical  anthropology  of  the  living  Danes  are  scattered  and  incomplete. 
It  is  not  possible  to  study  the  distribution  of  characters  from  village  to  vil- 
lage and  county  to  county,  nor  to  examine  the  special  racial  attributes  of 
individuals.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  make  a  few  general  observations, 
and  to  supplement  these  with  deductions  based  on  common  knowledge. 
In  the  first  place,  the  Danes  are  not  as  tall  as  the  Swedes  and  Norwegians, 
although  their  king  is  the  tallest  monarch  in  Europe.  The  mean  stature  of 
twenty-one  year  old  recruits  in  1925  was  169.4  cm.,  which  varied  between 
172.3  cm.,  on  the  island  of  Anholt  in  the  middle  of  the  Cattegat,  and 
167.1  cm.  for  Fan0,  the  northernmost  of  the  Frisian  Isles.  In  general, 
Jutland  and  Schleswig  are  comparatively  tall,  with  mean  statures  of 
170  cm.,  while  the  island  population  is  a  centimeter  or  two  shorter,  es- 
pecially on  Sams0,  southern  and  eastern  Zealand,  Laaland,  Falster,  and 
Moen.  Copenhagen  and  the  adjoining  counties  of  northern  Zealand  are, 
by  contrast,  quite  tall. 

Aside  from  stature,  there  is  no  metric  character  in  which  all  of  Denmark 


334  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

has  been  regionally  studied.  In  other  measurements  and  indices  one  is 
obliged  to  refer  to  material  which  covers  the  country  as  a  unit,  or  certain 
sections  of  it  only.  Data  referring  to  bodily  build  indicate  that  the  Danes 
are  longer  armed,  wider  spanned,  longer  trunked,  and,  in  general,  more 
heavily  built  than  the  common  run  of  other  Scandinavians,  and  resemble 
in  these  respects  the  western  Norwegians  more  than  any  other  group. 
Several  series  show  that  the  mean  head  lengths  of  Danes  in  various  parts 
of  the  kingdom  are  uniformly  194  mm.,  as  long  as  the  Swedish  national 
mean,  and  comparable  to  that  of  the  mesocephalic  population  of  western 
Norway;  variations  in  cephalic  index  are  dependent  rather  upon  variations 
in  head  breadth,  which  ranges  from  154.7  mm.  on  the  island  of  Bornholm 
to  158.8  mm.  in  the  northern  part  of  Sams0.  That  the  higher  cephalic 
indices  in  Denmark  result  from  greater  breadths  instead  of  from  lesser 
lengths,  is  a  sure  indication  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  Borreby  form  of 
brachycephaly. 

The  mean  cephalic  index  of  Denmark,  however,  is  but  80. 6 ;63  and  this 
sub-brachycephalic  mean  condition  is  not  subject  to  much  regional  varia- 
tion. Although  Denmark  is  the  least  long  headed  of  the  three  Scandinavian 
kingdoms,  nowhere  in  it  may  be  found  a  regional  population  as  round 
headed  as  that  of  Jaeren.  Denmark,  like  Sweden,  is  flat  and  lacks  natural 
barriers;  one  must  expect  a  great  national  uniformity.  The  highest  means 
yet  recorded  are  81.8  for  northern  Sams0,  81.4  for  western  Jutland,  and 
for  the  isle  of  Anholt.  No  regional  mean  is  under  80. 

Facial  measurements  on  Danes  are  extremely  rare;  what  there  are  show 
breadth  diameters  high  for  Scandinavia.  Hannesson,  in  a  small  series  of 
Danish  sailors,  finds  a  minimum  frontal  of  106.5  mm.,  a  bizygomatic  of 
139.5  mm.,  and  a  bigonial  of  107  mm.  In  northern  Sams0,  an  unusually 
brachycephalic  area,  the  bizygomatic  rises  to  142.5  mm.  Thus  the  Danish 
facial  breadths  resemble  those  found  in  coastal  Norway,  especially  the 
rounder- headed  districts,  and  in  Iceland. 

Data  on  the  hair  and  eye  color  of  Danes  is  as  extensive  as  that  on 
stature,  and  covers  the  entire  kingdom.  Although  no  scales  were  used, 
the  categories  employed  seem  clearly  defined  and  there  can  be  little  doubt 
as  to  the  character  of  Danish  pigmentation.  Hansen  found  that  "fair" 
hair  decreased  from  52  per  cent  at  the  age  of  6  years  to  33  per  cent  at  14, 
and  fell  to  16.6  per  cent  at  the  recruit  age  of  20  years.  This  "fair"  category 
must,  therefore,  include  pronounced  degrees  of  blondism  only,  and  ex- 
clude the  light  brown  hues  often  designated  as  blond  elsewhere.  On  the 
island  of  Sams0  Bardenfleth  found  only  7.5  per  cent  of  hair  which  he  was 
willing  to  call  light,  and  40  per  cent  of  medium,  43  per  cent  of  dark,  and 
9  per  cent  of  black.  Sams0  is  one  of  the  darkest-haired  regions  of  Denmark. 
68  Hansen  has  80.6,  Burrau  80.69. 


THE  NORTH  335 


Judging  from  the  distribution  of  the  school  children  material,  the  southern 
part  of  the  Danish  mainland,  toward  Schleswig-Holstein,  is  the  blondest 
section  of  the  country;  two  regions  are  darkest:  Thirsted,  the  northwestern 
county  of  Jutland,  and  the  islands. 

What  appears  to  be  the  most  accurate  division  of  eye  colors  is  that  of 
Bardenfleth,  who  finds  38  per  cent  of  light,  59  per  cent  of  mixed,  and  3  per 
cent  of  dark  eyes  on  Sams0.  This  is  comparable  to  the  eye  color  situation 
elsewhere  in  Scandinavia.  Sams0  is  one  of  the  darker-eyed  sections  of 
Denmark,  and  regional  eye  color  variations,  though  not  great,  follow  those 
of  hair  color. 

In  its  available  form,  the  Danish  material  is  not  so  arranged  that  many 
correlations  and  regressions  can  be  made  from  it.  In  Sams0,  light-haired 
individuals  are  a  half  centimeter  taller  than  dark-haired  ones,  and  slightly 
higher  in  cephalic  index.  This  regression  runs  counter  to  the  slight  geo- 
graphical association  between  darker  hair,  shorter  stature,  and  rounder 
heads,  from  which  racial  inferences  have  been  deduced.  The  associations 
noted  in  Sams0,  however,  agree  with  the  similar  correlations  found  in 
southern  Sweden,  which  would  point  to  the  presence  on  both  sides  of  the 
Cattegat  of  a  special  tall,  blond  brachycephal,  particularly  common  among 
Swedish  immigrants  to  the  United  States  where  the  vulgar  term  "square- 
head55 is  used  to  designate  it.  Popular,  subjective  labels  in  the  designation 
of  races,  used  among  persons  ignorant  of  the  existence  of  physical  anthro- 
pology, are  often  truer  than  the  hesitant  results  of  erudite  wanderings  in 
the  labyrinth  of  numbers. 

A  knowledge  of  the  racial  history  of  Denmark,  and  a  familiarity  with  the 
appearance  of  modern  Danes,  makes  the  interpretation  of  existing  data, 
however  fragmentary,  possible.  On  the  whole,  the  Danes  form,  as  Burrau 
feels,  a  composite  type  which  is  inextricably  blended,  but  which  shows  in 
individual  variations  leanings  toward  different  ancestral  forms,  as  well  as 
toward  new  combinations.  The  blond  /'square-head5'  noted  above  is  an 
important  type,  heavy-boned  and  sturdy,  basically  Borreby  in  inspiration. 

The  minority  of  brunet  pigmentation,  in  Denmark  not  associated  with 
brachycephaly,  reminds  one  that  the  Danish  Islands  held  the  greatest 
concentration  of  Megalithic  people  in  the  whole  north,  and  that  these 
Megalithic  people  blended  with  the  Borreby  aborigines  before  the  arrival 
of  either  Corded  folk  or  Iron  Age  Nordics.  On  the  whole,  Denmark,  like 
Sweden  and  Norway,  may  be  called  a  Nordic  country,  but  Nordic  only  in 
the  modern  Scandinavian  sense. 

Before  leaving  the  description  of  the  living  Danish  people,  two  special 
problems  remain,  the  racial  character  of  the  island  of  Bornholm,  to  the 
east  of  Denmark  proper  in  the  Baltic,  and  that  of  the  Faroes.  Ribbing,  in 
a  study  of  the  Bornholm  people,  finds  them  taller,  fairer,  and  somewhat 


336  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

longer  headed  than  most  of  the  Danes,  and  considers  that  they  are  most 
closely  related  to  the  southern  Swedes  inhabiting  the  island  of  Gotland. 

The  Faroes,  isolated  in  the  northern  seas  between  the  Shetlands  and 
Iceland,  preserve  a  picturesque  and  mediaeval  Danish  population  of 
fishermen.64  These  islands  were  first  inhabited  by  the  Scotch,  who  may  or 
may  not  have  left  before  the  coming  of  the  Vikings,  which  took  place 
shortly  before  the  settlement  of  Iceland.  The  Faroe  males  are  as  tall  as 
Danes  (169-170  cm.),  and  about  the  same  in  head  form.  (C.  I. — 79. 6.)65 
The  faces  are  distinguished  by  a  considerable  breadth  of  the  mandible,66 
found  also  in  Iceland  and  among  the  northernmost  Norwegians.  Until  more 
extensive  information  appears  than  that  at  present  available,  we  may  con- 
sider the  Faroe  Islanders  typical  descendants  of  Viking  Age  Danes  and 
coastal  Norwegians. 

In  all  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  changes  have  been  observed  in 
stature  during  the  last  century.  The  normal  amount  of  increase  in  young 
men  draughted  for  recruiting  has  been  somewhere  between  6  and  8  cm. 
It  would  appear  that  one  hundred  years  ago  Danes  of  military  age  were 
only  164  cm.  tall,  on  the  average,  while  Swedes  and  Norwegians  varied 
regionally  between  166  and  168  cm.  If  one  recalls  the  statures  of  the 
inhabitants  of  these  countries  before  and  during  the  pre-Christian  Iron 
Age,  it  will  at  once  appear  that  this  increase  has  been  actually  a  process 
of  returning,  under  new  stimuli,  to  an  older  condition.  The  depletion  of 
these  countries  during  the  Volkerwanderung  and  the  adverse  climatic 
conditions  of  the  Middle  Ages  must  have  had  in  the  first  instance  a  selective, 
in  the  second  a  depressing,  effect  upon  national  stature. 

In  all  three  countries  comparisons  between  city  and  country  populations 
show  that  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  type  to  be  drawn  to 
the  cities,  and  to  be,  in  general,  the  most  restless  element  in  the  population; 
undoubtedly  because  it  was  the  last  to  arrive  and  because  it  formed  in 
many  regions  the  upper  social  stratum.  For  these  reasons  again  it  is  not 

64  Chief  works  on  the  Faroes  are : 

Annandale,  N.,  TRSE,  vol.  25,  1906,  pp.  2-24.  Arbo,  C.  O.  E.,  DGT,  vol.  12, 
1893-94,  pp.  7-14. 

Hansen,  S0ren,  JRAI,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp.  485-492;  DGT,  vol.  21,  1912,  pp.  251- 
256;  vol.  25,  1920,  pp.  53-54. 

66  Considerable  confusion  is  extant  concerning  the  head  form  and  stature  of  the 
Faroe  Islanders.  Arbo  (1893)  measured  a  series  of  20  men  from  the  northernmost  and 
20  others  from  the  southernmost  island.  He  found  that  the  stature  and  C.  I.  of  the  first 
group  were  169.5  cm.  and  75.2;  of  the  second,  165.2  cm.  and  83.2.  His  series  of  60  men 
from  Thorshavn  fell  into  an  intermediate  position,  approximating  the  means  above 
given.  These  latter  are  taken  from  Hansen's  series  of  493  males  from  Suder0,  and  from 
Arbo's  Thorshavn  series.  The  startling  regional  differences  of  Arbo's  work  may  be 
attributed  partly  to  the  small  size  of  his  samples,  partly  to  the  chance  selection  of  iso- 
lated family  groups. 

M  Annandale's  mean  bigonial  diameter  on  20  men  is  111.8  mm. 


THE  NORTH  337 


inconceivable  that  the  Volkerwanderung  drained  off  this  element  in  dis- 
proportionate numbers,  and  that  the  reemergence  of  older  forms  has  been 
a  result  of  this  process,  especially  in  Denmark,  in  western  Norway,  and  in 
southern  Sweden,  where  the  older  forms  were  originally  most  numerous. 
The  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  and  especially  eastern  Norway  and 
Sweden  as  a  whole,  remain  the  greatest  single  reservoir  of  the  Iron  Age 
Nordic  race,  but  it  is  conceivable  that  that  race  was  numerically  more 
important  in  Scandinavia  at  the  time  of  Christ  than  it  is  today. 

(8)   THE  FINNO-UGRIANS,   INTRODUCTION 

The  next  step  in  our  survey  of  the  living  peoples  of  northern  Europe 
leads  us  from  Scandinavia,  the  present  Nordic  homeland,  across  the  Baltic 
Sea  to  the  countries  in  which  the  East  Baltic  race  is  most  characteristic; 
the  four  republics  of  Finland,  Esthonia,  Latvia,  and  Lithuania.  We  pro- 
pose to  study  first  the  two  northernmost,  in  which  languages  of  the  Finno- 
Ugrian  family  are  spoken.  But  this  will  be  done  in  a  roundabout  fashion, 
since  before  the  racial  history  of  the  Baltic  Finns  may  be  fully  understood, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  deal  with  the  entire  ethnic  and  linguistic  group  of 
which  they  form  a  part.  For  this  reason  it  will  also  be  necessary  to  inter- 
rupt the  geographical  order  tentatively  followed,  and  to  start  with  the 
Finnish  homelands  in  eastern  Russia.  In  an  earlier  chapter  (Chapter  VII, 
section  1),  a  survey  was  made  of  the  skeletal  remains  of  early  Finno- 
Ugrian-speaking  peoples  of  this  region;  some  mention  was  also  made  con- 
cerning their  early  ethnic  movements.  It  is  the  purpose  of  the  present 
section  to  explain  in  a  little  more  detail  the  linguistic  and  historic  relation- 
ships of  modern  Finno-Ugrian-speaking  peoples.67 

For  the  sake  of  clarity,  we  will  repeat  that  Finno-Ugrian,  along  with 
Samoyedic,  forms  the  Uralic  linguistic  stock  or  sub-stock  which  may  or 
may  not  be  united  with  Turkic,  Tungusic,  and  Mongolian  in  a  Ural- 
Altaic  supcrstock.  It  is  now  believed  that  early  Finno-Ugrian  was  one  of 
the  two  elements  which  blended  to  form  basic  Indo-European.68  Although 
today  their  use  is  not  as  extensive  as  that  of  Indo-European,  modern 
Finno-Ugrian  languages  are  by  no  means  archaic,  and  show  no  tendency 
toward  disappearance.  They  are,  in  fact,  spoken  by  a  large  number  of 
peoples,  living  under  extremely  variable  environmental  and  cultural  con- 
ditions, and  scattered  over  a  wide  expanse  of  territory.  In  three  nations, 

67  Useful  sources  are : 

Atlas  of  Finland,  1925,  esp.  Wichman,  Y.,  pp.  19-22. 
Jochelson,  W.,  The  Peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia,  esp.  pp.  16—21. 
Sirelius,  U.  T.,  The  Genealogy  of  the  Finns. 

Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  Etnickeskil  Sostav  Nasalenifa  Sev.^ap.  Oblasti  i  KareVskot  ASSR; 
ibid.,  TKIP,  vol.  15,  #2,  1928,  pp.  1-26. 

68  See  Chapter  VI,  sections  1  and  8,  Chapter  VII,  sections  1  and  3. 


338 


THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 


Finland,  Esthonia,  and  Hungary,  divisions  of  Finno-Ugrian  are  the 
official  languages,  spoken  by  millions  of  people.  In  western  Siberia,  as 
well  as  in  these  countries,  Finno-Ugrian  speech  occupies  a  large  space  on 
the  map,  but  in  this  wilderness  of  forest  and  swamp  it  is  actually  spoken 
by  very  few  persons.  Elsewhere,  throughout  eastern  central  Russia  and 


MAP  10 
THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  URALIG  AND  ALTAIC  SPEECH  ON  EUROPEAN  SOIL 

This  docs  not  include  Osmanli  Turkish  as  spoken  in  the  former  Turkish  Empire. 
All  Turkish  speech  is  represented  by  crescents,  Mongols  by  cross-hatching,  and  Sam- 
oyedic  by  small  circles.  Finno-Ugrian  is  represented  by  various  types  of  lines  and 
stipples,  except  for  Lappish,  which  is  indicated  by  crosses,  and  Livonian,  which  is 
solid.  The  northern  instances  of  Carelian  are  Kvaenish. 


thence  in  a  narrow  band  across  to  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  it  is 
found  in  little  islands  standing  out  in  the  midst  of  Slavic  territory. 

Linguistic  affiliations  within  the  stock  may  best  be  illustrated  by  Ka- 
java's  chart,  reproduced  in  slightly  altered  form  below.69  In  this  chart  the 
term  Ingrians  is  used  to  include  the  various  groups  of  Finnic  speakers  native 
to  the  Leningrad  region;  namely,  the  Vodes,  the  Lyds  or  Ijores,  and  the 

«»Kajava,  Y.,  EA,  #8,  #9,  1922,  pp.  353-358. 


THE  NORTH  339 


two  tribes  called  Evremeiset  and  Savakot,  who  live  among  Russians  in  the 
city  of  Leningrad  itself.70 

The  early  home  of  the  united  Finno-Ugrians  is  supposed  by  linguists  to 
have  been  in  the  region  which  extends  from  the  headwaters  of  the  Dnieper 
and  the  western  Dvina  to  the  western  slope  of  the  Ural  Mountains.  The 
country  around  the  Oka,  the  bend  of  the  Volga,  and  the  Kama  are  thought 
to  have  been  occupied  by  Finno-Ugrians  by  the  time  that  some  of  their 
southeastern  tribes  mingled  with  Caucasic-speaking  peoples  to  produce 
I  ndo-European . 

In  their  early  home,  during  the  first  millennium  B.C.,71  the  Finns  were  in 
contact,  on  their  southern  flank,  with  the  Scythians,  who  lived  west  of  the 


Finns      Carelians      Vepses     Ingrians    Esths      Livs      Muromaf     Meriansf    Cheremisses 


/^^«*—            r              —     "' 

1C  FINNS       VOLGA  FINNS        Votiaks 

Zyriand           Permiaka 

Voduls            Ostu 

1    i    '      r1 

FINNS                       PEfeMiANS 

OB-UGWANS 

Magyars 

FINNS  -  PERM  ANS  UGRJANS 

RNNO-U6R1AN  SUB-STOCK 

Fio.  31.  LINGUISTIC  RELATIONSHIPS  OF  FINNO-UGRIAN  SPEAKING  PEOPLES. 
After  Kajava,  Y.,  EA,  #8,  #9,  1922,  pp.  353-358. 

Don,  and  with  the  Sarmatians,  who  occupied  the  plains  to  the  east  of  it. 
Baltic  peoples  seem  to  have  touched  them  on  the  west,  for  Baltic  words 
are  in  use  among  Mordvins,  who  have  never  been  near  the  sea.  In  the  time 
of  the  earliest  Greek  accounts,  Finns  seem  to  have  occupied  all  of  the 
country  which  stretched  from  the  Polessje  district  of  White  Russia  to  the 
central  and  lower  reaches  of  the  Volga.  Herodotus  located  a  people  called 
Budinoi  in  the  eastern  part  of  this  region,  presumably  in  the  Volga  coun- 
try; west  of  them  he  placed  the  Androphagoi,  then  the  Melancheles 
(Black  Mantles),  and  in  the  very  west,  the  Neuroi.  The  name  Androphagoi 
or  Cannibals,  has  the  same  meaning  as  the  Iranian  word  Mord-Chvar, 
whence  are  derived  Mordva  and  our  own  term,  Mordvin.  The  black 
mantle  to  which  Herodotus  referred  is  still  a  part  of  the  national  costume 
of  the  Volga  Finns. 

During  the  centuries  immediately  preceding  the  Christian  era,  the 
ancestors  of  the  Baltic  Finns  migrated  westward  from  their  original  home 

70  The  Ijores  number  roughly  11,000,  the  Vodes  about  700.    Exact  figures  for  the 
Evremeiset  and  Savakot  have  not  been  obtained. 

71  The  chief  source  for  the  following  historical  resume"  is  Bunak,  V.,  ZFMA,  vol.  30, 
1932,  pp.  441-503. 


340  THE   RACES   OF  EUROPE 

to  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Baltic,  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  where  they 
occupied  the  country  north  of  the  Dtina  and  the  northern  half,  at  least,  of 
Kurland,  thus  taking  over  most  of  what  is  now  Latvia,  as  well  as  Esthonia. 
After  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  some  of  them  crossed  the  Gulf  of 
Finland  and  settled  near  Abo  and  in  the  Kokemaki  and  Kyro  valleys  of  the 
present  Finland.  This  country  was  already  inhabited  by  an  Iron  Age 
population,  of  Scandinavian  cultural  affinity,  which  the  Finns  completely 
absorbed.  The  invaders  gradually  spread  eastward  until,  about  700  A.D., 
they  reached  the  present  Carelia.  Thence  they  went  to  southern  Savo, 
which  seems  to  have  been  permanently  occupied  by  1000  A.D.  From  there 
on  the  occupation  of  Finland  spread  gradually  northward  until  eventually 
the  Finns  spilled  over  into  Sweden,  as  related  in  an  earlier  section.  The 
Finnish  penetration  of  parts  of  Sweden  was  only  one-half  of  a  reciprocal 
action,  however,  for  even  earlier,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  Swedes, 
coming  by  sea,  made  crusades  against  the  Finns,  and  many  Swedes  re- 
mained on  the  eastern  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  northern  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  It  was  at  this  period  that  the  migration  began 
which  gave  Finland  her  present  Swedish  coastal  population.  Meanwhile 
the  ancestors  of  the  Baltic-speaking  Letts  had  moved  northward  into 
Kurland  and  Livonia,  partly  forcing  the  more  southerly  Baltic  Finns  out 
of  what  is  now  Latvia,  and  partly  absorbing  them. 

Between  Leningrad  and  the  Finnish  homeland  may  be  seen  the  rem- 
nants of  the  early  migrant  groups,  who,  when  the  Slavs  first  appeared, 
between  the  sixth  and  eighth  centuries  A.D.,  formed  a  continuous  belt 
of  Finnish-speaking  peoples.  Nearest  the  Gulf  are  the  Vodcs  and  Ijores, 
and  the  Leningrad  tribes;  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Onega  and  the 
headwaters  of  the  Oyat  River  live  the  Vepses,  who  formerly  possessed 
a  large  territory  and  were  a  powerful  people  well  into  Slavic  times. 
To  the  south  and  east  of  the  Vepses  lived  the  Merians,  now  linguis- 
tically extinct,  who  covered  the  territory  between  the  Oka  and  the 
upper  Volga.  Farther  south  and  east  lived  the  now  equally  extinct 
Muroma,  and  then  various  tribes  of  Cheremisses,  and  finally  the 
Mordvins.  The  connecting  links  between  the  Vepses  and  the  Chere- 
misses have  disappeared,  and  the  groups  that  have  survived  have 
suffered  great  losses  of  territory. 

The  position  of  the  Carelians  in  this  picture  is  not  quite  clear;  it  is 
known,  however,  that  they  had  settled  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea  as  early 
as  900  A.D.,  and  were  later  largely  dislodged  by  Russians.  They  are  lin- 
guistically a  branch  of  the  Baltic  Finns  most  closely  related  to  the  Estho- 
nians,  but  it  is  not  known  whether  they  ever  were  actually  in  Esthonia,  or  if 
so,  whether  they  moved  northward  across  the  Gulf  of  Finland  with  the 
Finns,  or  around  its  eastern  end.  In  any  case,  the  Carelians  now  living  in 


THE  NORTH  341 


Ingria  and  the  Volga  country  seem  to  represent  a  secondary  infiltration 
from  the  present  Carelia  rather  than  an  early  survival. 

Although  the  departure  of  the  ancestors  of  the  Baltic  Finns  from  their 
Volga  homelands  took  place  so  early  that  the  movements  of  the  central 
Asiatic  nomads  did  not  affect  them  directly,  these  incursions  were  re- 
sponsible for  other  Finno-Ugrian  migrations.  In  the  first  century  A.D., 
the  Huns  entered  the  Volga  country  and  remained  along  its  lower  and 
middle  course  until  after  having  routed  the  Ostrogoths,  when  they  went 
on  to  the  present  Hungary.  In  the  fifth  century,  after  their  misadventure 
in  France,  the  Huns  returned  to  the  Don  Basin  and  joined  their  relatives 
the  Bolgars,  who  had  come  from  the  region  of  the  Ural  and  Kuban  Rivers 
in  southeastern  Russia,  and  had  settled  between  Finns  and  Ugrians  on 
the  lower  Volga  and  Kama.  There  they  founded  a  powerful  empire, 
which  was  to  last  from  the  eighth  to  the  fourteenth  centuries.  Some  of 
these  Bolgars  migrated  to  the  lower  Danube  country  and  defeated  the 
southern  Slavs,  settling  in  what  is  now  Bulgaria.  These  Bulgarians  later 
lost  their  Uralic  speech,  and  adopted  a  Slavic  language. 

The  Bolgars  of  the  Volga  ruled  or  at  least  influenced  a  number  of  Finno- 
Ugrian  peoples;  the  Mordvins,  Cheremisses,  Votiaks,  Syryenians,  and 
Magyars.  The  modern  Chuvash  of  eastern  Russia  are  the  linguistic  de- 
scendants of  the  Bolgars,  but  are  thought  to  be  largely  Finnish  in  blood. 
It  was  at  the  time  of  the  Bolgar  empire  or  later  that  the  Syryenians  moved 
northward,  as  did  the  Votiaks,  who  remained  somewhat  nearer  the  center 
of  dispersion.  Only  the  Cheremisses  and  Mordvins  still  remain  in  the 
original  Finno-Ugrian  home  territory. 

Under  Turkish  leaders  a  large  body  of  Ugri  left  this  region  and  migrated 
to  the  southern  steppes,  whence  in  the  ninth  century  they  moved  to 
Hungary,  and  mixed  with  the  remnants  of  the  Huns  and  Avars  who  dwelt 
there.  These  Ugri  became  the  Magyars,  the  modern  Hungarians,  whose 
language  is  still  basically  Ugrian,  modified  by  much  Turkish  influence. 

The  closest  linguistic  relatives  of  the  Magyars  are  the  Voguls  and 
Ostiaks,  members  of  primitive  hunting  and  fishing  tribes  of  the  Obi  country 
in  Siberia.  By  the  end  of  the  first  millennium  A.D.,  they  had  moved  to  the 
northeastern  section  of  European  Russia,  where  they  are  said  to  have 
lived  with  the  Samoyeds.  The  northward  movement  of  Russian  colonists 
forced  them  over  into  Siberia,  and  by  1364  they  were  already  entirely 
located  on  the  Asiatic  side.  Today  they  are  still  primitive  hunters  and 
fishermen,  and  shamanists  in  religion.  It  is  believed,  however,  on  philo- 
logical grounds,  as  well  as  on  historical,  that  before  their  migration  north- 
ward and  eastward  they  were  farmers  and  herdsmen. 

The  Finno-Ugrians  today  include  peoples  in  every  stage  of  culture 
from  hunting  and  fishing  to  that  of  modern  civilized  states.  They  are 


342  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

held  together  by  a  bond  of  language  and  by  a  certain  modicum  of  old 
cultural  traits,  particularly  those  concerned  with  music  and  poetry,  with 
which  high  and  low  cultural  levels  fail  to  interfere,  Although  aggressively 
persistent  on  the  peripheries  of  their  radius  of  migration,  they  have  be- 
come recessive  in  the  center  of  it,  where  the  great  surges  of  invasion  and 
of  empire  from  central  Asia,  and  the  subsequent  steady  and  irresistible 
expansion  of  the  eastern  Slavs,  have  reduced  their  cultural  survivors  to  a 
minimum,  while  their  physical  survivors,  since  they  form  an  important 
element  in  the  composition  of  modern  Russia,  are  much  more  numerous. 
In  view  of  their  history  the  Finno-Ugrians  are  a  much  more  important 
factor  in  the  building  of  eastern  Europe  than  their  present  numbers 
would,  on  the  surface,  indicate. 

(9)   RACIAL  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  EASTERN  FINNS 

Before  studying  in  detail  the  physical  characters  of  the  Finno-Ugrian- 
speaking  peoples  apart  from  the  Baltic  group  and  from  the  Hungarians, 
it  will  simplify  matters  considerably  to  state  one  fact  which  the  existing 
anthropometric  documents  make  evident:  these  peoples  are  all  very  much  alike. 
The  Mordvins,  the  Cheremisses,  the  Perrnians,  the  various  Ingrian  groups 
of  the  Leningrad  region,  and  the  Carelians  as  well,  vary  among  themselves 
to  only  a  very  minor  degree.  In  this  respect  they  differ  not  only  from  the 
Baltic  Finns  and  Magyars,  but  also  to  a  lesser  extent  from  the  Ugrian- 
speaking  peoples  of  Siberia.  In  order  to  define  the  basic  racial  type  of 
the  present-day  central  Finnic  peoples,  it  will  be  easiest  to  describe  that 
one  group  which  has  been  subjected  to  the  most  thorough  and  most  de- 
finitive modern  racial  study,  the  Carelians,72  and  afterwards  to  see  how 
the  description  so  obtained  applies  individually  to  the  other  Finnic  peoples. 

There  are  nearly  half  a  million  Carelians  in  Europe;  approximately 
half  of  these  live  in  eastern  Finland,  and  the  rest  are  divided  between  the 
Carelian  Republic  of  the  USSR,  which  is  adjoining,  and  small  ethnic 
islands  in  the  upper  Volga  country.78  Zolotarev's  adult  male  sample 
includes  728  from  the  Carelian  Republic,  and  277  from  the  Volga  country, 
In  both  divisions,  what  he  considers  dark  hair  is  found  among  9  per  cent 
of  the  whole,  and  the  same  is  true  for  dark  eyes.  The  Volga  group  has 
27  per  cent  of  hair  designated  as  quite  blond,  while  the  remaining  ma- 
jority falls  into  the  light  brown  and  brown  category.  The  Carelians  of 
the  Republic  have,  in  contrast,  40  per  cent  of  the  lightest  class.  The 
opposite  disproportion  is  true  of  eye  color;  42  per  cent  of  the  Volga 
Carelians  are  called  light  eyed  and  49  per  cent  mixed;  in  the  Republic 
the  figures  are  35  per  cent  and  55  per  cent  respectively.  To  begin  with, 

72  Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  Kareli,  SSSR. 

»  Atlas  of  Finland,  1925.  Zolotarev,  TKJP,  1928. 


THE  NORTH  343 


therefore,  the  Carelians  are  typically  light  or  mixed  in  pigmentation,  and 
fully  or  nearly  as  blond  as  most  Scandinavians.  There  is  little  difference 
in  degree  of  hair  and  eye  pigment  between  these  Finns  and  Iron  Age 
Nordics.  The  Carelians  are  prevailingly  ash-blond  rather  than  golden, 
and  only  4  men  out  of  a  thousand  show  any  rufosity. 

The  mean  stature  of  the  total  Carelian  group  is  165.7  cm.,  with  the 
Volga  males  slightly  taller  than  those  farther  north  and  west.  This  is  a 
moderate  or  medium  height,  neither  notably  tall  nor  short;  it  is  short  by 
Nordic  standards,  and  about  average  when  compared  with  that  of  most 
Russians.  The  bodily  proportions  as  indicated  by  Zolotarev's  data  as  well 
as  by  those  of  other  investigators  do  not  show  the  lateral,  heavily  built  type 
predicted  by  the  study  of  Finnish  influence  in  Scandinavia;  on  the  contrary, 
the  relative  sitting  height  index  of  53  is  little  higher  than  that  expected 
among  Nordics.  The  shoulder  and  hip  diameters  are  similarly  of  an  in- 
termediate European  form.  The  Carelians  are  not  distinguished  by  any  no- 
table peculiarity  in  body  build,  and  are  more  nearly  slender  than  massive. 

The  head  dimensions,  while  variable,  are  smaller  than  those  we  have 
found  among  Scandinavian  peoples.  The  mean  length  for  the  total  group 
is  187.8  mm.,  for  the  Volga  sample  186.0  mm.;  ten  whole  millimeters 
shorter,  for  example,  than  the  Icelandic  head  length.  At  the  same  time 
the  breadth,  152.1  mm.  for  the  total  group  and  only  151.7  mm.  for  the 
Volga  Carelians,  is  less  than  that  of  many  dolichocephalic  Scandinavians. 
The  cephalic  index,  which  varies  between  the  extremes  of  69  and  90,  has 
a  mean  of  81.1  for  the  total,  80.9  for  the  Republic  sample,  and  81.6  for 
the  Volga  group.  The  standard  deviation  of  3.3  index  points  for  the  total 
shows  that  the  Carelians  form  a  reasonably  homogeneous  group  in  this  re- 
spect. The  head  form  of  these  basic  Finns  is  therefore  sub-brachycephalic, 
or  falls  into  an  extremely  high  mesocephalic  category.  In  size,  as  well 
as  in  proportions,  the  Carelian  head  stands  close  to  the  old  Neolithic 
Danubian  racial  standard.  The  vault  elevation  of  127  mm.  is  high,  but 
not  extremely  high;  it  is  equal  to  that  of  Iron  Age  Nordics  in  Scandinavia, 
and  comparable  to  that  found  on  the  skull  among  Danubians. 

The  forehead  breadth  of  105.8  mm.  is  again  equal  to  that  of  Nordics, 
while  the  bizygomatic  of  139.4  mm.  is  slightly  wider;  the  total  face  height 
of  120.8  mm.  is  between  short  and  medium.  The  facial  index  of  86.8 
falls  into  a  moderately  broad-faced  category.  The  nose  is  absolutely  quite 
short  (50.9  mm.)  and  of  only  moderate  breadth  (35.5  mm.)»  The  resultant 
nasal  index,  70.2  in  the  total  group  and  69.5  in  the  Volga  sample,  lies 
on  the  borderline  between  leptorrhiny  and  mesorrhiny.  One  of  the  most 
distinctive  measurements  in  this  Carelian  group  is  the  interorbital  diam- 
eter, with  a  mean  of  34.1  mm.,  which  shows  the  expected  wide-eyed  Fin- 
nish form. 


344  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

On  the  whole,  the  Carelian  sample  shows  nothing  in  common  metrically 
with  the  large-headed  mesocephalic  and  brachycephalic  populations  of 
western  Norway  and  Denmark;  it  may  be  compared,  however,  most 
profitably  with  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  type  of  eastern  Scandinavia;  in  com- 
parison with  the  latter,  the  Carelians  are  short  in  stature,  short  in  ab- 
solute head  length,  short  in  face  height  and  nose  height,  and  slightly 
broad  in  face  breadth.  The  metrical  position  of  the  Carelians  among 
living  European  races  is  comparable  to  that  of  the  Danubian  type  in  the 
skeletal  series.  Both  in  pigmentation  and  in  basic  metrical  character  it 
shows  a  certain  fundamental  relationship  to  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  form. 

The  observations  tabulated  by  Zolotarev  confirm  this  general  impres- 
sion. The  facial  outline  is  called  rectangular  in  55  per  cent  of  the  series, 
and  ovoid  in  33  per  cent;  the  nasal  profile  is  straight  in  half  the  sample, 
concave  in  40  per  cent,  and  convex  in  the  remaining  tenth.  The  tip  of  the 
nose  points  upward  twice  as  frequently  as  downward;  the  lateral  profile 
of  the  forehead  is  as  a  rule  steep;  in  only  one  out  of  ten  instances  are  the 
two  profile  lines  parallel,  as  in  the  characteristic  Nordic  form.  Mongoloid 
features,  including  an  internal  eyefold  and  extreme  malar  projection, 
are  not  typical,  but  are  more  frequent  in  the  series  from  the  Garelian 
Republic  than  in  that  from  the  Volga  country.  Only  six  men  out 
of  1008  have  the  true  Mongolian  eyefold  and  these  are  all  in  the  Repub- 
lic series. 

From  these  observations  as  from  the  measurements,  we  derive  a  com- 
posite picture  of  a  moderately  variable  racial  type  which  is  more  blond 
than  brunet,  but  prevailingly  light  mixed  in  pigment  character;  square 
or  oval  faced,  with  a  straight  to  concave  snub-tipped  nose,  a  steep,  often 
protruberant  forehead,  and  only  moderately  projecting  malars.  A  slight 
facial  flatness  gives  a  superficial  mongoloid  impression,  but  evolved  mon- 
goloid  features  are  usually  lacking.  Throughout  there  is  an  incipient 
Nordic  suggestion,  and  in  roughly  ten  per  cent  of  the  whole,  the  Nordic 
head  form  and  facial  features,  with  a  longer,  elliptical  face  and  parallel 
forehead  and  nasal  profiles,  appear.  There  is  undoubtedly  a  submerged 
Nordic  element  here,  as  well  as  a  lesser  mongoloid  one. 

In  view  of  the  general  position  of  the  central  Finnic  type,  as  exemplified 
by  these  Carelians,  it  has  seemed  most  in  accordance  with  the  facts  to 
leave  the  designation  East  Baltic  for  the  larger-bodied,  larger-headed, 
and  quite  different  population  of  the  eastern  Baltic  states,  whether  Finnic 
or  Baltic-speaking,  and  not  to  attach  it  to  this  clearly  differentiated  racial 
group  which  has  its  geographical  center  elsewhere.  In  view  of  the  close 
similarity  between  this  central  Finnic  type  and  the  Danubian  racial  en- 
tity suggested -by  the  early  skeletal  material,  and  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
the  earliest  identifiable  Finnic  skeletal  remains  were  mostly  of  this  type, 


THE  NORTH  345 


it  has  seemed  appropriate,  as  stated  in  the  concluding  section  of  Chap- 
ter VIII,  to  name  this  racial  type  Neo-Danubian. 

In  the  early  Finnish  skeletal  remains  there  was  evidence  of  considerable 
admixture  with  wide-eyed,  broad-faced,  meso-  and  brachycephals  from 
the  northern  forest,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  with  what  seemed  to  be  Corded 
people  or  evolved  Nordics;  these  same  admixtures  are  equally  apparent 
in  the  present  amalgam,  which  however  remains,  for  the  most  part,  of 
the  same  basic  racial  type  to  which  the  earliest  agriculturalists  to  enter 
central  Europe  overland  from  the  east  belonged.  It  is  a  mistake  to  asso- 
ciate the  origins  of  the  Finnic  people  and  Finnic  speech  with  a  forest 
culture,  on  the  basis  of  modern  associations;  the  Finns  were  from  the  start 
agriculturalists,  and  have  remained  such  when  circumstances  have  per- 
mitted. 

Let  us  now  study  the  other  Finnic  groups  inhabiting  Russian  territory. 
Data  on  the  physical  characters  of  Ingrians  are  extremely  scarce;  the 
Ijores,74  with  a  mean  of  165.6  cm.,  equal  the  Carelians  in  stature,  while 
the  two  Leningrad  tribes,  the  Evremeiset  and  Savakot,75  are  taller 
(167.1  cm.).  The  Ijores  have  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  82.6,  the  Vodes  76 
of  83.2.  Thus  the  deviation  of  the  Ingrians,  as  shown  by  this  evidence 
from  the  Carelian  standard,  is  in  the  direction  of  brachycephaly.  The 
Vepses,  who  live  in  a  more  northerly  habitat,  are  close  to  the  Carelian 
means  in  these  two  criteria,  with  164.0  cm.  for  stature,  and  81.9  for  the 
cephalic  index.77  Observations  on  a  small  series  of  Vepses,78  however, 
show  a  majority  of  brown  hair  shades,  of  gray  eyes,  of  broad  noses,  and 
of  oblique  eyes,  with  a  weak  beard  development  in  many  cases,  indicating 
a  higher  Mongoloid  content  in  this  group  exposed  to  Lappish  and  Sam- 
oyed  influences,  than  in  most  other  Finnic  samples. 

Of  the  original  Volga  Finns,  but  two  tribes,  the  Mordvins  and  the 
Cheremisses,  retain  their  ethnic  identities,  while  still  living  in  the  center 
of  the  original  Finnish  territory.  The  Mordvins  are  scattered  in  single 
villages  and  groups  of  villages  throughout  the  middle  Volga  provinces; 
these  settlements,  although  not  continuous,  contain  collectively  a  large 
population,  officially  enumerated  by  Zolotarev  at  1, 167,537. 79  Some 
35,000  more  live  apart  from  their  own  people  in  the  Bashkir  and  Tatar 
republics,  while  over  50,000  more  have  been  settled  in  Siberia  and  in  the 
central  Asiatic  khanates.  Since  the  Mordvins  are  excellent  farmers  and 

74  Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  TRIP,  1928,  after  Prelov,  E.  I.,  Alexandrova,  A.  I.,  and  UP, 
E.  F. 

76  Ibid. 

78  Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  Kareli,  SSSR,  after  Alexandrova. 

77  Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  Kareli,  SSSR,  after  Rozov. 

78  Mainov,  V.  N.,  1877,  from  a  r6sum£  in  AFA,  vol.  11,  1879,  p.  329. 
w  Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  TKIP,  #15,  1928. 


346  THE   RACES  OF  EUROPE 

hardy  colonists,  they  were  sent  eastward  in  large  numbers  by  the  czars 
to  settle  newly  opened  agricultural  lands. 

The  Cheremisses,  who  call  themselves  Mari,  number  about  half  a  mil- 
lion, and  live  to  the  north  of  the  Mordvins  in  the  neighborhood  of  Kazan. 
Owing  to  its  compactness,  their  territory  has  been  given  the  status  of  an 
autonomous  district.  They  are  usually  divided  into  two  groups,  the  Forest 
Cheremisses  and  the  Mountain  Cheremisses;  the  former  live  in  the  low- 
lands on  the  western  bank  of  the  Volga,  while  the  latter  inhabit  a  more 
isolated  territory  to  the  east,  where  they  preserve  many  pagan  customs. 
Besides  following  the  usual  Finnish  pursuits  of  farming  and  bee  culture, 
the  Cheremisses,  like  the  Siberian  Ugri,  are  also  hunters  and  stream 
fishers. 

The  Mordvins  and  Cheremisses  resemble  each  other  closely  in  an 
anthropometric  sense,  and  both  in  turn  deviate  but  little  from  the  stand- 
ard established  by  our  study  of  the  Carelians.80  The  Mordvin  stature  mean 
is  166.4  cm.,  that  of  the  Cheremisses  163.7  cm.  In  bodily  proportions  the 
Carelian  similarity  seems  complete;  in  head  dimensions  the  only  difference 
is  that  the  Mordvin  vault  (134  mm.)  and  that  of  the  Cheremisses  (130  mm.) 
may  be  slightly  higher,  although  these  differences  may  in  part  be  due  to 
technical  factors.  The  faces  of  the  Mordvins  and  Cheremisses  are  again 
slightly  larger  than  those  of  the  Carelians,  with  nasion-nienton  heights  of 
124  and  123  mm.,  and  bizygomatic  diameters  of  141  and  140  mm.  The 
Mordvin  nasal  index  mean,  65.4,  is  leptorrhine,  while  that  of  the  Cher- 
emisses, 71.4,  is  mesorrhine. 

In  pigmentation  and  in  soft  part  morphology,  these  Volga  Finns  re- 
semble the  Carelians  less  closely.  Bunak,  Sergeev,  and  Mainov  find  re- 
spectively 33  per  cent,  52  per  cent,  and  60  per  cent  of  light  eyes  among 
the  Mordvins;  while  there  is  no  specific  information  regarding  the  hair 
color  of  these  people,  Bunak's  statement  that  50  per  cent  of  his  series 
belongs  to  a  brunet  pigment  type  would  indicate  that  brown  was  the 
commonest  color.  Among  the  Cheremisses,  Sommier  finds  28  per  cent 
of  light  eyes  as  against  39  per  cent  of  dark  ones;  21  per  cent  of  "light 
blond"  hair,  and  35  per  cent  which  is  dark  brown  and  black.  Thus  the 
Cheremisses  appear  to  be  darker  than  their  more  southerly  neighbors,  and 
both  darker  than  the  Carelians.  A  special  series  of  eastern  or  mountain 
Cheremisses,  measured  by  Nikolsky,  shows  clear  differences  from  the  major 

80  The  chief  sources  for  Mordvins  and  Cheremisses  are : 

Bunak,  V.,  RAJ,  vol.  13,  1924,  pp.  178-207. 

Sergeev,  V.  I.,  PCZA,  1930,  pp.  318-319. 

Older  works  include : 

Maliev,  N.,  r6sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  12, 1880,  p.  392. 

Nikolsky,  B.,  r6sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  26, 1899,  pp.  187-190. 

Sommier,  S.,  APA,  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  215-257. 


THE  NORTH  347 


group — with  a  mean  stature  of  167.4  cm.,  a  cephalic  index  of  78.6,  and 
60  per  cent  of  blue  and  gray  eyes,  and  only  32  per  cent  of  black  and  dark 
brown  hair. 

Observations  of  statistical  value  which  describe  these  people  are  scarce. 
However,  there  seems  to  be  a  moderately  high  incidence  of  concavity  of 
the  nasal  profile,  18  per  cent  among  Mordvins  and  39  per  cent  among 
Gheremisses;  of  a  median  eyefold,  which  is  a  sign,  as  a  rule,  of  a  low  bony 
orbit — 34  per  cent  among  Mordvins  and  46  per  cent  among  Cheremisses; 
and  64  per  cent  of  weak  beard  growth  among  Mordvins,  and  77  per  cent 
among  Cheremisses.  In  general,  the  Cheremisses  seem  more  mongoloid 
than  the  Mordvins,  but  on  the  other  hand  the  isolated  Forest  Cheremisses 
preserve  the  least  mongoloid  type  of  all,  and  that  closest  to  a  Carelian 
and  to  a  Nordic  form.  The  implication  is  that  while  both  Mordvins  and 
Cheremisses  preserve  their  original  Finnic  type  with  considerable  fidelity, 
the  infiltration  of  Mongol  and  Tatar  peoples  into  their  country  since  the 
time  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Carelians  and  other  western  tribes  departed 
has  had  some  recognizable  effect  upon  them. 

Parallel,  in  linguistic  taxonomy,  to  the  combined  Baltic  and  Volga 
Finnic  group  is  that  of  the  Permians.  These  are  divided  into  three  living 
peoples,  the  Votiaks,  Syryenians  (or  Zyrians),  and  Permiaks.  All  of 
these  peoples  live  north  of  the  Mordvins  and  Cheremisses,  from  whose 
general  area  they  are  said  to  have  migrated.  The  most  southerly  are  the 
Votiaks,  who,  numbering  approximately  half  a  million,  live  on  the  banks 
of  the  Kama  River,  a  branch  of  the  Volga,  in  the  southeastern  part  of 
the  former  Viatka  government.  This  region  has  been  made  into  the 
Votiak  Autonomous  S.  S.  District  by  the  Soviet  authorities.  Some  25,000 
other  Votiaks  live  in  the  Bashkir  Republic,  20,000  in  the  Samarsk  govern- 
ment, 1700  in  Siberia,  and  others  still  in  the  Tatar  Republic.  In  general, 
the  modern  destiny  of  the  Votiaks  has  been  to  a  certain  extent  associated 
with  that  of  Turkish-speaking  peoples.  In  their  own  language  they  call 
themselves  Udmurt,  and  this  language  contains  many  loan  words  from 
Chuvash  and  Tatar  speech.  They  have,  however,  failed  to  become  Moslem; 
their  religion,  at  the  time  of  the  Russian  revolution,  was  officially  Orthodox 
Christianity,  which  served  as  a  cloak  for  the  retention  of  much  of  the 
original  Finnish  heathendom. 

Metrically  the  Votiaks  resemble  the  Cheremisses  very  closely.81  A 
cephalic  index  mean  of  82  is  slightly  higher,  and  reflects  a  slightly  smaller 
head  length.  The  mean  stature  is  162  to  163  cm.  The  pigment  characters 

81  Chief  sources  on  the  Votiaks  are : 

Chomiakov,  M.  N.,  TKU,  vol.  43,  #3,  pp.  1-294.  R£sum6  in  ZBFA,  vol.  17,  1912. 

Maliev,  N.,  TKU,  vol.  4,  #2,  1874,  pp.  1-17.  R6sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  9,  1876,  p.  227. 

Khonuakov,  1911,  after  Zolotarev,  TKIP,  1928. 

Teploukhov,  S.  A.,  after  Zolotarev,  TKIP,  1928. 


348  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

of  the  iris  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Mordvins  and  Cheremisses,  since 
between  30  per  cent  and  35  per  cent  of  eyes  are  called  brown,  and  the 
rest  divided  between  blue,  gray,  and  mixed  colors.  In  head  hair  color 
however,  a  difference  may  be  seen,  for  Maliev's  series  shows  that  but 
2  per  cent  are  black,  32  per  cent  dark  brown,  29  per  cent  brown,  15  per 
cent  light  brown,  and  7  per  cent  flaxen.  Of  the  rest,  11  per  cent  are  listed 
as  reddish-brown.  Chomiakov  confirms  this  high  incidence  of  rufosity, 
with  6  per  cent  of  red  hair  color.  Among  Maliev's  subjects  only  1 5  per  cent 
had  black -or  brown  beards;  of  the  others  47  per  cent  were  listed  as  red. 
These  Votiaks,  then,  are  not  as  blond  as  the  Garelians,  but  blondism  is 
frequent  and  characteristic;  rufosity,  notably  absent  from  both  the  Car- 
elian  group  and  from  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  race,  and  not  important  among 
the  two  tribes  of  Volga  Finns,  becomes  a  major  factor  among  Permians. 

The  Votiaks  are  usually  deficient  in  body  hair,  and  the  beard  is  fre- 
quently sparse,  although  in  individual  cases  very  heavy  beards  and  very 
abundant  body  hair  are  found.  The  Ainu-like  pilosity  of  many  Russian 
peasants  is  commoner  among  Slavs  than  among  Finnic  speakers,  but  is 
exceptional  in  both  groups.  Neither,  by  and  large,  are  as  hairy  as  most 
western  European  brachycephals.  The  hair  form  is  predominantly 
straight,  only  exceptionally  wavy  or  curly.  Forty  per  cent  of  Votiaks  are 
listed  as  long-  or  oval-faced;  the  remainder  as  round-,  broad-,  or  flattish- 
faced.  The  nose  is  straight  in  60  per  cent  of  individuals,  convex  in  but 
12  per  cent.  Maliev  states  that  37  per  cent  are  "solid"  in  bodily  build, 
only  6  per  cent  linear  or  thin.  All  in  all  the  Votiaks  are  typical  Finns, 
slightly  shorter  and  rounder  headed  than  Carelians  or  Mordvins,  oddly 
rufous,  and  not  noticeably  more  mongoloid  than  their  southerly  neighbors. 

North  of  the  Votiaks  live  two  allied  tribes,  the  Syryenians  and  Permiaks, 
both  of  whom  call  themselves  Komi.  These  two  peoples  are  generally 
lumped  into  a  single  category,  especially  since  they  speak  mutually  in- 
telligible languages  and  occupy  contiguous  territories.  The  Syryenians 
occupy  the  wide  expanse  stretching  from  58°  N.  Latitude  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  and  from  the  Ural  Mountains  on  the  east  to  the  Pinega  River,  a 
tributary  of  the  Dvina,  on  the  west.  There  are  also  a  few  Syryenians  who 
live  on  the  Siberian  side  of  the  Urals.  The  chief  town  of  the  Syryenians  is 
Ishma,  on  the  Pechora  River.  The  Permians  live  more  on  the  eastern  side 
of  the  upper  Kama  River.  Population  statistics  regarding  these  peoples  are 
very  variable.  Zolotarev  gives  186,000  as  the  total  for  Syryenians  living 
in  Russia,  and  9566  for  Siberia.  Jochelson  estimates  the  Syryenians  at 
260,000,  and  the  Atlas  of  Finland  at  364,000.  Zolotarev  finds  130,000 
Permiaks  in  the  Komipermiaktsk  and  Berhuekamsk  districts  of  Uralsk 
province. 

Below  65°  N.  Latitude  the  Syryenians  and  Permiaks  farm,  and  are  noted 


THE  NORTH  349 


for  their  skill  and  perseverance  in  obtaining  crops  at  such  high  latitudes. 
Beyond  the  line  at  which  agriculture  becomes  impossible,  the  Syryenians 
breed  reindeer  and  live  a  less  settled  existence.  They  are  noted  for  their 
ability  at  trading  and  their  general  financial  sharpness.  In  religion  they 
are  said  to  adhere  strictly  to  Orthodox  tenets  and  to  have  forsworn  the 
pagan  practices  which  linger  on  among  the  Votiaks. 

In  stature,  in  body  build,  and  in  head  dimensions  and  proportions 
both  the  Permiaks  and  Syryenians  seem  to  be  identical  with  their  rela- 
tives the  Votiaks; 82  a  difference  between  these  peoples  and  the  Volga 
Finns,  however,  may  exist  in  nose  form,  for  the  nasal  index  mean  of  the 
Permiaks  is  64. 9, 82  of  the  Syryenians  65. 7. 82  Only  1 1  per  cent  of  Syryenians, 
and  14  per  cent  of  Permiaks,  are  said  to  have  dark  eyes;  thus  these  north- 
ern Permians  are  perhaps  both  lighter  eyed  and  more  leptorrhine  than 
most  of  the  Volga  Finnic  group.  One  sub-group  of  Syryenians,  living  in 
the  Ust-Sylosk  district,  seems  to  have  mixed  with  Samoyeds  or  other  non- 
Finnic  peoples,  for  the  cephalic  index  is  83.3,  as  contrasted  with  the  usual 
mean  of  81  for  other  Syryenians,  and  the  ratio  of  dark  eyes  is  twice  that 
for  the  others. 

In  hair  color,  for  the  Syryenians  as  a  whole,  we  find  at  last  a  series  of 
observations  based  on  the  Fischer  chart,  and  taken  on  a  series  of  400 
individuals.83  The  authors  divide  the  scale  into  three  categories;  dark 
(Fischer  #4-8),  golden  (#9-15),  and  ashen  (#16-26).  The  percentages 
are  53.1  per  cent,  9.6  per  cent,  and  37.4  per  cent.  It  is  to  be  noticed  that 
no  individuals  were  listed  as  black,  or  as  red.  A  medium  or  dark  brown 
is  the  most  numerous  shade,  with  ash-blond  next  commonest.  One  is  led, 
in  view  of  this,  to  suspect  that  the  high  degree  of  rufosity  reported  among 
Votiaks  may  be  partly  of  technical  origin. 

Summarizing  the  data  on  these  Permian  speakers,  we  may  state  that 
they  seem  to  resemble  the  Carelian  norm  more  completely  in  head  and 
face  form,  and  in  pigmentation,  than  do  the  Cheremisses  or  Mordvins. 
It  seems  likely  that  those  Finns  and  Permians  who  dispersed  from  their 
homes  during  the  early  centuries  of  the  present  era  in  a  northward  as  well 
as  in  a  westward  direction  carried  with  them  the  older  Finnish  features, 
while  those  who  remained  in  their  Volga  home  were  to  a  greater  extent 
affected  by  Tatar  and  other  influences.  On  the  whole,  however,  the 

82  Sources  on  these  peoples  are : 

Alexandrova,  A.,  Nurk,  L.,  and  U1J,  E.,  PCZA,  1930,  pp.  287-288. 

Ivanovsky,  A.  L.,  AFA,  vol.  48,  1925,  pp.  1-12. 

Maliev,  N.,  TKU,  vol.  16,  #4,  1887. 

Naiimov  (after  Zolotarev,  TKJP,  1928). 

Sevastianov  (after  Zolotarev,  TKIP,  1928). 

Vishnevsky,  B.,  Anthropologicheskifa  Dannifa  o  Naselenil  Permskaga 

88  Alexandrova,  Nurk,  and  UP,  op.  cit. 


350  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

generalization  that  the  entire  body  of  Finnic  and  Permian  speakers, 
apart  from  the  Baltic  groups  which  remain  to  be  studied,  are  closely  unified 
in  race  has  been  shown  to  be  accurate. 

Before  concluding  this  survey  of  eastern  Finno-Ugrian  peoples,  one 
further  group  requires  examination,  that  of  the  Ostiaks  and  Voguls,  the 
Ob-Ugrians,  the  primitive  hunters  and  fishers  of  western  Siberia,  who 
are  the  closest  linguistic  relatives  of  the  Magyars.  The  Ostiaks  have  been 
reduced  to  less  than  20,000  individuals,  while  the  Voguls  number  be- 
tween 5000  and  7000.  Some  of  the  Ostiaks  have  been  thoroughly  Russian- 
ized, while  others  have  mixed  with  Samoyeds,  and  have  taken  over 
reindeer  breeding.  At  the  time  of  the  Russian  expansion  eastward  into 
Siberia,  the  Ostiaks  were  the  first  to  feel  the  pressure,  and  hence  the 
southern  part  of  their  territory  was  taken  from  them,  and  they  were  re- 
duced to  more  primitive  circumstances  than  before. 

One  must  expect  the  modern  Ostiaks  and  Voguls  to  show  the  effects 
of  centuries  of  reduced  conditions  of  living,  and  this  is,  indeed,  manifested 
in  their  reduction  in  stature;  various  means  place  them  at  levels  between 
154  and  160  cm.,  but  the  largest  series  of  both  groups  fall  in  the  158-159 
cm.  category.  The  bodily  form  of  both  is  in  most  cases  slight  and  lean.84 
Sommier,  with  a  series  of  106  male  Ostiaks,  finds  50  per  cent  to  have 
brown  eyes,  and  the  rest  mixed  and  light;  the  Voguls  are  apparently 
somewhat  lighter  eyed.86  About  25  per  cent  of  Ostiaks  have  light  brown 
or  blond  hair,  and  the  Voguls  are  again  slightly  fairer.86  In  both  groups 
and  in  all  series,  black  hair  is  very  much  in  the  minority.  Ten  per 
cent  of  it  among  Ostiaks  may  well  indicate  Samoyed  admixture.  On 
the  whole,  these  Siberian  forest  Ugrians  are  the  darkest  of  the  Finno- 
Ugrian-speaking  peoples,  aside  from  the  Lapps,  whom  we  have  already 
studied. 

The  head  form  of  the  two  Siberian  tribes  is  the  same  as  that  of 
the  Volga  Finns  and  Permians,  the  dimensions  somewhat  smaller.  The 
faces  seem  to  be  shorter,  and  the  noses  are  definitely  mesorrhine.  Pho- 
tographic evidence  makes  it  certain  that  both  the  Voguls  and  Ostiaks 
have  absorbed  a  perceptible  amount  of  mongoloid  blood,  which  man- 
ifests itself  especially  in  facial  features.  They  are  still,  however,  bas- 

84  Chief  sources  on  Ostiaks  and  Voguls  are : 

Maliev,  N.  M.,  RAJ,  vol.  5,  1901,  pp.  73-81. 

Rudenko,  S.  L,  BMSA,  vol.  6,  ser.  5,  1914,  pp.  123-143. 

Sommier,  S.,  APA,  vol.  17, 1887,  pp.  71-222.  t, 

86  Rudenko  finds  87  per  cent  of  brown  eyes  among  53  Ostiaks,  76  per  cent  among 
75  Voguls 

86  Rudenko,  again,  has  96  per  cent  brown  hair  for  Ostiaks,  81  per  cent  for  Voguls.  I 
have  taken  Sommier's  figures  in  preference  to  Rudenko's  because  Sommier's  series  are 
larger  and  his  hair  and  eye  color  classifications  more  detailed,  permitting  judgment 
and  recombination. 


THE  NORTH  351 


ically  similar  in  most  characters  to  their  relatives  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Urals.87 

(10)  THE  BALTIC  FINNS:   LIVS  AND   ESTHS 

For  the  sake  of  continuity,  let  us  return  to  the  beginning  of  section  eight, 
in  which  we  expressed  the  intention  of  studying  the  racial  composition 
of  the  Baltic  Finns.  We  have  seen,  in  the  meanwhile,  that  the  basic  Finnic 
racial  type,  to  which  belong  the  Volga  Finns  and  their  relatives  from 
Carelia  to  the  Obi  River,  is  a  modern  counterpart  of  the  prehistoric 
Danubian  race,  with  leanings  in  both  a  Nordic  and  a  Ladogan  direction. 
This  type  has  been,  therefore,  named  Neo-Danubian.  It  was  this  Neo- 
Danubian  racial  type  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Baltic  Finns  must  have 
brought  with  them  from  the  Volga  country  in  their  westward  migrations 
during  the  centuries  immediately  preceding  and  after  the  time  of  Christ. 
The  deviations  of  the  modern  Baltic  Finns  from  this  type  will  reflect  the 
influence  of  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  Baltic  shorelands  upon  the  in- 
vaders, and  to  a  lesser  extent,  the  influence  of  later  peoples  who  have  been 
amalgamated  into  the  Finnic  ethnic  body. 

The  earliest  Baltic  lands  occupied  by  the  invaders  were  Esthonia  and 
much  of  modern  Latvia,  including  especially  Kurland  and  Livonia. 
These  countries  had,  however,  supported  a  population  of  some  density 
for  centuries  before  the  Finnish  arrival.  The  old  Kammkeramik  people 
of  the  tardy  northern  Neolithic  are  represented  by  the  skulls  from  Salis 
Roje;  large  crania  of  at  least  two  varieties,  an  incipient  mongoloid,  and 
a  wide-faced  mesocephal  of  Palaeolithic  appearance.  Food-producing 
people  of  a  later  date,  who  settled  in  numbers  along  the  southern  shore  of 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  are  represented  by  numerous  skeletal  remains,  which 
show  them  to  have  been  a  composite  population  characterized  by  ex- 
tremely tall  stature,  robust  bones  and  large  bodies,  large  heads,  with 
dimensions  suggesting  a  blend  of  Corded  and  Upper  Palaeolithic  elements, 
comparable  to  that  in  western  Norway.  The  early  inhabitants  of  Esthonia 

87  There  has  been  much  misunderstanding  about  the  head  form  of  the  Voguls,  who 
are  usually  called  dolichocephalic  in  secondary  works.  This  misunderstanding  is  prin- 
cipally due  to  a  misprint  in  Maliev's  article  (Maliev,  1901)  in  which  the  Vogul  head 
length  mean  is  given  as  183  mm.,  and  the  breadth  148  mm.,  while  the  cephalic  index 

is  printed  as  77.    Actually, =*  80.9.    Rudenko,  in  his  series  of  75  Voguls, 

183 

gives  a  cephalic  index  mean  of  78.3,  with  length  and  breadth  means  of  192.2  and 
149.9  mm.  This  figure,  however,  cannot  represent  the  Voguls  as  a  whole,  since  72  Vo- 
gul crania  in  the  Anthropological  Museum  of  Moscow  University  have  a  mean  cranial 
index  of  78.3,  which  would  be  two  points  higher  on  the  living.  In  the  same  way  early 
and  unreliable  samples  of  Syryenians  yielded  cephalic  index  means  as  high  as  87,  which 
were  widely  copied  and  which,  in  company  with  the  false  Vogul  mean,  did  much  to 
mask  the  essential  unity  of  the  Finno-Ugrians  in  head  form. 


352  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

were  especially  high  headed,  and  long  and  broad  faced.  It  is  the  com- 
bination of  the  Kammkeramik  forest  types  with  this  extravagantly  pro- 
portioned human  form,  and  with  the  immigrant  Finns  from  the  Volga 
country,  that  has  produced  the  modern  Baltic  Finnish  racial  entity. 

The  most  southerly  of  the  surviving  Baltic  Finns  are  the  Livs,  who  in- 
habit twelve  villages  situated  along  a  strip  of  coast  which  extends  on 
either  side  of  the  promontory  of  Domesnes,  at  the  southern  entrance  of 
the  Gulf  of  Riga,  in  the  province  of  Kurland,  Latvia.88  The  Livs  are  the 
last  of  the  Finns  in  what  is  now  Latvia  to  retain  their  native  speech,  for 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  the  Livonian  language  died  out  in 
1862.  In  1852  there  were  2354  Livs;  in  1881,  2374;  by  1920,  however, 
the  number  had  been  reduced  to  831,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  Livs 
are  destined  to  lose  their  language  as  well  as  their  ethnic  identity. 

In  view  of  this  impending  absorption,  it  is  fortunate  that  the  Livs  have 
been  subjected  to  careful  anthropometric  study.89  Two  series  of  100  adult 
males  each,  measured  in  1878  and  1922,  both  yield  a  mean  stature  of 
174  cm.;  hence  the  Livs  are  very  tall,  and  have  derived  none  of  their 
height  through  the  modern  increase  mechanism  which  has  elevated  other 
peoples  in  northwestern  Europe.  They  are  large  boned,  long  limbed, 
and  at  the  same  time  heavy  and  powerfully  built;  their  shoulders  are  broad, 
but  their  relative  sitting  height  of  51.3  shows  an  excess  of  leg  rather  than 
body  length.  Their  heads  and  faces  are  both  large,  comparable  in  size 
to  those  of  western  Norwegians.  Length  and  breadth  diameters  of  the 
head,  with  means  of  193.3  mm.  and  155.1  mm.,  produce  a  cephalic  index 
with  a  mean  of  80.2,  which,  although  the  range  runs  from  70  to  90,  is 
not  especially  variable.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  head  form  of  the 
eastern  Finns  has  been  preserved,  while  the  head  size  has  been  greatly 
increased. 

In  the  facial  dimensions,  however,  a  menton-nasion  height  of  122.5  mm. 
equals  that  of  Carelians  and  other  Finns  of  smaller  total  size,  while  the 
bizygomatic  mean,  145.8  mm.,  greatly  exceeds  the  Finnish  standard. 
The  resultant  facial  index,  84.1,  is  therefore  low,  and  the  Livs  are  definitely 
euryprosopic.  Other  facial  widths  are  also  extremely  great;  the  minimum 
frontal  mean  is  110  mm.,  that  of  the  bigonial  113  mm.  Hence  a  broad 
brow,  and  an  extremely  broad  jaw  are  essential  Liv  features,  as  is  a  wide 
distance  between  the  eyes.  Although  no  nasal  measurements  have  been 
taken,  observations  show  that  the  nasal  profile  is  usually  straight,  with  an 
upturned  snub  tip  in  many  instances.  The  orbits  are  horizontal,  the  lips 

88  The  villages  are  (in  Livonian)  Musta-Num,  Waida,  Kuolka,  on  the  Gulf  of  Riga; 
and  Sonag,  Pitrog,  Kuostrog,  Irai,  Sikrog,  Ud  Kiilla,  Ira,  Piza  Kiilla,  and  Luks  Kiilla 
on  the  Baltic.   The  Letts  call  them  by  somewhat  different  names. 

89  Vildes,  J.,  LUR,  vol.  11,  1924,  pp.  93-181. 
Waldhauer,  F.,  %ur  Anthropologie  der  Liven. 


THE  NORTH  353 


usually  thin,  the  lines  which  stretch  from  the  nose  to  the  corners  of  the 
mouth  strongly  marked.  The  hair  form,  although  straight  in  three- 
fourths  of  the  sample,  is  not  infrequently  deeply  waved  or  curly.  Further- 
more, the  body  hair  and  beard  are  characteristically  heavy. 

The  head  hair,  most  frequently  ash-blond  or  light  to  medium  brown, 
is  shown  by  a  correlation  based  on  the  Fischer  chart  to  be  lighter  than 
that  for  the  kingdom  of  Norway,  which  is,  on  the  same  basis,  the  lightest 
in  Scandinavia.90  At  the  same  time  the  eyes  are  specifically  gray  9I  in 
74  per  cent  of  the  group,  while  blue  eyes  are  exceptional,  and  brown  irises 
limited  to  8  per  cent  of  the  whole. 

The  foregoing  description  of  the  Livs  shows  that  their  metrical  resem- 
blance to  the  mother-type  of  the  Finns  is  not  close,  and  that  they  must 
have  derived  much  of  their  racial  heritage  from  the  earlier  inhabitants 
of  the  eastern  Baltic  lowlands.  At  the  same  time  they  preserve,  whether 
by  convergence  or  by  heredity,  the  head  form  of  the  eastern  Finns, 
and  some  of  the  most  characteristic  Finnish  facial  features.  Their  chief 
difference  from  the  Finnic  prototype  is  an  excess  of  body  and  head  size, 
an  excess  of  facial  breadths,  of  blondism,  and  of  hairiness.  They  repre- 
sent an  extreme  form  of  what  is  designated  in  the  present  work  as  the 
east  Baltic  race,  a  racial  entity  in  which  the  previously  described  Neo- 
Danubian  race,  whether  acting  through  a  Finnic  or  an  Indo-European 
linguistic  and  cultural  medium,  is  a  contributing  factor. 

The  Esthonians,  who  number  over  a  million  in  their  own  country  and 
some  1  50,000  in  Russia,  resemble  the  Livs  in  most  respects.92  Tall  stature 
of  172  cm.  or  over  is  typical  of  the  Esths  who  live  on  the  island  of  Osel 
and  along  the  northern  and  western  coast;  inland,  means  of  170  cm.  are 
usual,  while  in  the  southeastern  parishes  this  is  reduced  to  1  68  cm.  There 
is  some  evidence  that  the  tall  stature  of  the  Esths  is  in  part  due  to  a  modern 
increase,  since  in  1878  regional  recruit  means  draughted  into  the  Russian 

90  A  comparison  between  Vildes's  series  of  100  adult  male  Livs  with  the  younger  Nor- 
wegian recruit  total  from  Bryn  and  Schreiner,  with  a  series  of  Finnish  hair  samples 
studied  by  the  author,  and  with  a  Lettish  series  which  will  be  studied  later,  follows. 
The  grouping  is  that  of  Vildes. 


FISCHER  DESIGNATION  Livs 

NUMBERS  (VILDES)  (100) 


T  „,-«, 
LETTS 


16-22  Lt.  blond  3                   1.46%  2.23%  1.33% 

12-15,23-24  Blond  17  11.6  8.99  4.00 

9-11,25-26  "Brunet"  45  37.1  40.22  49.33 

5-8  "Dk.  brunet"  29  44.9  48.60  40.00 

4,  27,  28  "Black"  4                   3.7  -  4.00 

1-3  Red  2                  1.34              --  1.33 

91  Apparently  pure  gray,  since  Vildes  places  "gray  with  brown  rim"  and  "gray  with 
brown  speckles"  under  separate  categories.    Waldhauer's  earlier  work  agrees  closely 
with  that  of  Vildes  in  eye  color  designations  and  ratios. 

92  Grube,  O.,  Anthropologische  Untersuchungcn  an  Esten. 
Michelsson,  G.,  ZFMA,  vol.  27,  1928-30,  pp.  439-463. 


354  THE  RACES  OF   EUROPE 

army  varied  from  166  to  169  cm.  In  bodily  proportions  the  Esths  are 
seen  to  be  frequently  heavily  built,  with  long  bodies  and  the  extremely 
high  relative  span  of  107  or  108.  It  was  this  excessive  development  of  the 
arms  and  shoulders,  along  with  a  wide  mandible,  that  the  Norwegians 
found  most  characteristic  of  the  Finns  who  had  affected  the  population 
of  their  southeastern  provinces. 

In  head  size  and  head  form  the  Esths  resemble  the  Livs  closely,  but  are 
slightly  longer  headed,  with  a  national  cephalic  index  mean  of  79.3.  At 
the  same  time  their  faces  are  somewhat  longer  (124.7),  while  the  excessive 
jaw  breadth  remains  the  same.  What  difference  there  is  between  the 
Esths  and  the  Livs  anthropometrically  points  to  a  greater  Nordic  content 
for  the  former,  which  is  not  surprising,  since  there  have  been  a  consider- 
able mixture  between  Esths  and  Swedes,  and  a  considerable  absorption, 
in  Esthonia,  of  early  North  Germans.  The  pigment  character  of  the  Esths 
is  prevailingly  blond,  comparable  to  that  of  both  Livs  and  Swedes;  56 
per  cent  of  the  hair  is  called  "fair,"  43  per  cent  brown,  and  less  than  one 
per  cent  each  are  red  and  black.  The  eyes  are  blue  in  25  per  cent  of  cases, 
and  gray  in  51  per  cent,  while  the  brown  class  is  said  to  include  13  per 
cent  of  the  whole. 

Two  series  of  crania  about  300  years  old,  from  Esthonia  and  Livonia, 
show  that  the  modern  head  form  of  the  Livs  and  Esths  dates  back  at  least 
to  that  time.93  At  the  same  time  these  skulls  show  that  the  immediate 
ancestors  of  these  Baltic  Finns  were  broad-faced,  not  infrequently  wide- 
nosed,  and  often  low-orbitted.  They  serve  further  to  define  the  East 
Baltic  racial  type  in  this  region. 

Out  in  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  between  the  Liv  villages  and  the  larger  island 
of  Osel,  is  a  small  island  called  Runo,  inhabited  by  an  old  population  of 
Swedish  fishermen.  These  Swedes,  the  subject  of  a  special  investigation,94 
closely  resemble  the  Livs  in  most  respects.  The  stature  and  head  dimen- 
sions are  the  same,  and  the  faces  are  equally  broad.  Nasal  dimensions  of 
56  mm.  and  37  mm.  yield  a  nasal  index  of  66,  which  is  leptorrhine  as  a 
mean,  but  one-fourth  of  the  group  is  mesorrhine.  The  hair  and  eye  colors 
are  predominantly  blond,  and  as  great  a  blondism  is  found  here  as  among 
the  Livs.  Ash-blond  hair  is  found  in  over  60  per  cent  of  the  group.  This 
series  is  not,  however,  as  homogeneous  as  that  of  the  Livs,  but  shows  two 
distinct  modes  in  a  number  of  characters;  one  represents  a  sub-group  with 
a  stature  of  176  cm.,  a  cephalic  index  of  78.5,  a  high  vault,  and  a  nasal 
index  of  63,  while  the  other  sub-group  is  characterized  by  a  stature  of 

MKnorrc,  G.  von,  ZFMA,  vol.  28,  1930,  pp.  256-312. 
Priman,  J.,  LUR,  vol.  12,  1925,  pp.  429-480. 
Virchow,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  10,  1878,  pp.  141-154. 
Witt,  H.,  Die  Schadelform  der  Esten. 
"Hildfa,  K.,  Fcnma,  vol.  47,  #3,  1927. 


THE  NORTH 


355 


169  cm.,  a  cephalic  index  of  80.5,  a  lower  vault,  and  a  nasal  index  of  67. 
Both  sub-groups  are  equally  blond,  and  equally  ashen  in  hair  color.  These 
sub-groups  may  represent  in  the  first  case  a  Nordic  of  strong  Corded  in- 
spiration, in  the  second  case  a  more  typically  Finnic  element.  This  divi- 
sion serves  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  in  the  East  Baltic  countries  as  else- 
where the  predominant  type  of  the  population  is  not  stable,  but  individuals 
showing  older  combinations  are  common. 

(11)   THE  BALTIC  FINNS:   FINLAND 

As  we  have  seen  in  our  review  of  Finno-Ugrian  tribal  history,  Finland 
itself  was  the  last  region  to  be  invaded  and  fully  colonized  by  Finns.  At 
the  same  time  it  has  always 
maintained  close  relationships 
with  Sweden,  before  as  well  as 
after 
from 


COUNTY 

DIVISIONS 

IN  FINLAND 


EI3  Swedish 
Speech  over  50% 


the    Finnish    migration 

Esthonia.  Skeletal  re- 
mains from  Ostrobothnia,  dat- 
ing from  the  Early  Iron  Age, 
resemble  closely  the  Iron  Age 
Nordic  crania  from  Sweden,95 
while  other  skulls,  from  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies onward,  include  a  ma- 
jority of  brachycephalic  ex- 
amples, and  thus  witness  the 
arrival  of  the  Finns  from  their 
ancestral  homelands  in  the 
Middle  Volga  country,  whence 
they  had  been  impelled  by 
Slavic  and  Turko-Mongol  pres- 
sure. 

Modern  Finland  is  divided 
into  nine  counties  (landskap) 
which  are  based  on  old  tribal  affiliations,  and  also  into  administra- 
tive divisions  (Ian)  of  more  recent  designation.  The  counties,  in  both 
Swedish  and  Finnish,  bear  the  names  of,  and  contain  the  proportions 
of  Finnish  and  of  Swedish  speakers  shown  in  the  table  on  the  following 
page. 


MAP  11 


86  Retzius,  G.,  Finska  Kramer. 

Westerlund,  F.  W.,  Fennia,  vol.  18,  #2,  1900,  pp.  1-31,  90-96;  vol.  32, 
pp.  1-43. 


4,  1912, 


356  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 


ENGLISH  OR  SWEDISH 

FINNISH 

PER  GENT  SWEDES 

PER  CENT  FINNS 

Aland  Islands 

Ahvenanmaa 

99.12% 

.88% 

Finland  Proper 

(Swedish  communes) 

87.6 

12.4 

(Finnish  communes) 

Lansisuomi 

3.4 

96.6 

Satakunta 

Satakunta 

.9 

99.1 

Nyland 

(Swedish  communes) 

69.4 

30.6 

(Finnish  communes) 

Uusimaa 

24.4 

75.6 

Tavastland 

Hame 

.9 

99.1 

Southern  Ostrobothnia 

(Swedish  communes) 

95.0 

5.0 

(Finnish  communes) 

Etela  Pohjanmaa 

1.2 

98.8 

Savolax 

Savo 

.66 

99.34 

Carelia 

Karjala 

.70 

99.30 

Northern  Ostrobothnia 

Pohjois  Pohjanmaa 

.9 

99.1 

The  Swedish  population  of  Finland  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to 
the  Aland  Islands,  to  Finland  Proper,  Nyland,  and  Southern  Ostrobothnia, 
being  concentrated  in  two  non-contiguous  coastal  areas.  The  old  Gothic 
settlement  was  largely  located  in  Finland  Proper  and  Satakunta,  between 
the  two  Swedish  areas  of  the  present  day. 

These  county  divisions,  which  have  their  basis  in  tribal  origins,  are 
marked  by  dialectic  differences.  The  Suomalaiset,  or  southwestern  Finns, 
inhabit  Finland  Proper  and  Satakunta,  and  speak  a  dialect  which,  al- 
though closest  to  the  Esthonian  of  any  in  Finland,  has  been  influenced 
by  the  language  of  the  Germanic  people  who  preceded  them  and  whom 
they  absorbed.  The  Hamalaiset  or  Tavastians  are  said  to  represent,  in 
least  mixed  form,  the  original  Finnish  invaders  from  Esthonia.  The  Savo- 
laiset,  or  people  of  Savolax,  are  linguistically  a  mixture  between  Tavas- 
tians and  Carelians;  the  latter  are  naturally  identified  with  their  tribal 
companions  who  live  over  the  border  in  the  Carelian  S.  S.  Republic,  and 
whom  we  have  already  studied.  The  Kainulaiset,  or  Kvaens,  who  live 
in  northern  Ostrobothnia  and  Finnish  Lappland  as  well  as  in  northern 
Norway  and  Sweden,  although  mixed  to  some  extent  with  Lapps,  are  lin- 
guistically close  to  the  Carelians.  Historically,  the  Kvaens  are,  although 
partly  of  mixed  Finnish  origin,  to  be  considered  as  an  early,  northern 
Carelian  offshoot.  The  southern  Ostrobothnians  speak  a  dialect  which 
is  transitional  between  Tavastian  and  Kvaenish,  the  latter  being  their 
earlier  speech. 

These  tribal  differences  are  clearly  reflected  in  stature;  the  Finns  of 
Esthonian  origin  and  those  in  districts  where  Gothic  and  Swedish  blood 
has  been  absorbed,  are  tall,  with  local  means  as  high  as  172  cm.,  while 
in  the  Carelian  and  Kvaenish  provinces  the  mean  stature  runs  as  low  as 


THE  NORTH  357 


165  cm.  There  is  no  difference  in  this  respect  between  the  Swedish 
speakers  and  Finnish  speakers  in  the  southern  and  western  counties.96 
The  early  recruit  material  enlisted  between  1767  and  1906  shows  the  uni- 
form stature  mean  of  169.6  cm.,  with  less  local  variation  than  is  found  to- 
day, and  no  evidence  of  increase.  The  range  of  these  early  soldiers  is 
from  137  cm.  to  207  cm.,  and  the  latter  figure  reflects  the  fact  that  Finland 
has  furnished  some  of  the  world's  most  famous  cases  of  giantism.  Like 
the  Livs,  the  Finns  have,  apparently,  always  been  tall,  and  have  not  been 
as  much  affected  by  the  modern  increase  as  have  their  neighbors  across 
the  Baltic.  The  bodily  proportions  of  the  Finns  show  no  unusual  features; 
a  relative  span  of  104.5  97  is  higher  than  that  of  most  Scandinavians,  while 
a  relative  sitting  height  of  53  98  is  moderate. 

The  cephalic  index  means  of  the  Finns  vary  from  79.3  in  Finland 
proper,  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  southern  enclave  of  Swedish 
speakers,  to  82.2  in  Finnish  Carelia,  and  82.6  in  northern  Ostrobothnia. 
The  distribution  of  this  index  takes  the  form  of  a  gradual  rise  from  the 
southwestern  corner  of  Finland  outward,  to  the  east  and  north,  until  one 
reaches  Carelian  and  Kvaenish  country.  These  differences  in  the  cephalic 
index  are  almost  entirely  differences  in  mean  head  length,  ranging  from 
193.3  mm.  in  Finland  Proper,  to  188.1  mm.  in  Carelia  and  187.6  mm.  in 
northern  Ostrobothnia.  The  breadth  remains  constant  at  a  mean  of  153 
to  154  mm.99  Thus  the  Garelians  of  Finland,  and  their  northern  relatives 
the  Kvaens,  preserve,  to  a  large  extent,  the  old  Finnish  head  size  and 
form,  while  the  Finns  Proper  keep,  in  varying  degree,  the  dimensions 
and  proportions  acquired  by  mixture  with  the  descendants  of  earlier  Baltic 
peoples,  and  with  Goths  and  Swedes,  both  in  Esthonia  and  in  their  new 
home.  The  Finnish  head  height  mean,  as  determined  by  Luther,  is 
127  mm.,  which  agrees  both  with  the  early  Finnish  condition  and  that 
to  be  expected  from  mixture  with  Scandinavians. 

The  faces  of  the  Finns  are  large,  with  a  constant  bizygomatic  diam- 

96  There  is  an  abundance  of  data  on  Finnish  stature,  covering  roughly  150,000  indi- 
viduals, from  1768  A.D.  to  the  present.    Principal  sources: 

Hilden,  K.,  AFA,  vol.  47,  1923,  pp.  36-40. 

Kajava,  Y.,  AAnz,  vol.  2, 1925,  pp.  228-253;  AASF,  ser.  A,  vol.  25,  #5, 1925;  Fcnnia, 
vol.  48  (Atlas  of  Finland),  1929,  pp.  141-143. 

Karvonen,  J.  J.,  AASF,  ser.  A,  vol.  25,  #6,  1926. 

Nickul,  K.,  AASF,  ser.  A,  vol.  25,  #4,  1925. 

Westerlund,  F.  W.,  Fennia,  vol.  18,  #2,  1900,  pp.  1-31,  90-96;  vol.  32,  #4,  1912, 
pp.  1-43. 

Wilskman,  I.,  Tilastollisia  tietoja  Suomen  kansan  ruumuliscsta  kehityksesta,  III,  Miesten 
hasvutilastoa. 

97  From  unpublished  material  collected  by  Mr.  Martin  Luther  for  the  Peabody  Mu- 
seum, and  seriated  by  the  author  with  the  collector's  permission. 

98  Westerlund,  F.  W.,  Fennia,  1912. 

99  Westerlund,  F.  W.,  Fennia,  vol.  20,  1903,  pp.  1-67.   Also  Luther's  material. 


358  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

eter100  mean  of  141  mm.,  whereas  the  menton-nasion  heights  vary  pro- 
vincially  in  harmony  with  the  distribution  of  stature  and  of  head  length. 
The  mean  for  the  total  is  126.5  mm.,  and  the  longest  faces  are  found  in 
southwestern  Finland,  while  the  shortest  occur  in  the  north.101  The  nasal 
index  mean  for  Finland  is  66,  which  is  moderately  leptorrhine  and  prob- 
ably typical  of  the  East  Baltic  group  as  a  whole.102  The  bigonial  di- 
ameter of  the  Finns  is  very  broad,103  quite  equal  to  the  standards  of  the 
Livs,  and  gives  the  Finnish  face  the  square  appearance  for  which  it  is 
noted. 

The  pigmentation  of  the  Finns  is  as  abundantly  documented  as  are 
their  stature  and  head  form.  Skin  color,  however,  has  been  tabulated  in 
only  one  study104  of  154  males,  of  whom  121  were  found  to  be  "white," 
presumably  in  the  extreme  Scandinavian  sense,  while  the  others  were 
listed  as  "yellowish"  or  "brunet."  General  observation  of  Finns,  how- 
ever, and  descriptions  by  various  authors,  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
skin  color  of  these  people  is  as  a  rule  unusually  fair,  but  that  in  many  cases 
it  lacks  surface  vascularity. 

If  one  may  judge  by  a  series  of  1 76  hair  samples  from  various  parts  of 
Finland, l05  then  the  Finns,  like  the  Livs,  are  blonder  than  the  Norwegian 
total,  but  less  blond  than  Bryn's  selected  Eastern  Valley  farmers.  The 
ash-blond  series  (Fischer  #20-26)  accounts  for  26  per  cent  of  the  whole, 
while  brown  (Fischer  #6-8)  totals  47  per  cent,  and  dark  brown  and  black 
amount  to  less  than  2  per  cent.  Reds  are  negligible,  and  black  and 
really  dark  hair  less  frequent  than  in  Scandinavia.  Westerlund's  recruit 
material  106  on  a  series  of  6000  agrees  with  that  of  Luther,  and  yields 
less  than  one  per  cent  of  red.  The  Finns  and  Swedes  of  the  western 
and  southern  provinces  are  almost  identical  in  hair  color  proportions, 
although  the  Finns  have  a  little  more  ash-blond,  and  the  Swedes  a 
little  more  brown.  The  distribution  of  hair  color  shows  the  greatest 
degree  of  blondism  among  the  Finns  living  in  Nyland,  Finland  Proper, 
and  Satakunta — these  have  over  60  per  cent  of  ash-blond  and  golden 
shades,  more  than  the  Swedish  speakers;  while  in  Carelia  and  the  two 
Ostrobothnias  the  lesser  blondism  already  determined  for  Carelians  is 
found. 

The  eye  color  of  the  Finns  is,  as  one  would  expect,  prevailingly  light, 

w°  Kolmogorov,  A.  J.,  AFA,  vol.  34,  1907,  pp.  228-231.  Also,  Luther's  data. 

Rctzius,  A.,  CRCA,  8me  sess.,  Budapest,  1876,  vol.  2,  pp.  740-771. 

101  Luther.  Retzius,  whose  means  are  14  mm.  lower,  obviously  located  nasion  too  low. 

lflz  Westerlund,  F.  W.,  Fennia,  1912. 

108  Retzius,  op.  cit.   Mean  =  114  mm. 

104  Eliseev,  A.  V.,  r6sum£  in  AFA,  vol.  26, 1900,  pp.  803-807;  from  a  Russian  source. 

106  Collected  by  Luther,  matched  to  the  Fischer  scale  by  the  author. 

m  Westerlund,  F.  W.,  Fennia,  vol.  21,  1904,  pp.  1-58. 


THE  NORTH  359 


with  blue  commoner  than  gray,  Westerlund  finds  but  7  per  cent  of  brown 
eyes,  and  15  per  cent  of  mixed,  while  Luther's  mixed  group  comprises 
15  per  cent.  Since  the  eye  color  of  the  Finns  and  of  the  Swedes  in  the 
coastal  regions  is  equally  distributed,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
Finland,  in  this  respect,  is  about  equal  to  Scandinavia.  Blue  eyes,  with  a 
regional  maximum  of  53  per  cent,  are  commonest  in  southern  Ostroboth- 
nia;  while  gray  eyes,  attaining  37  per  cent,  are  concentrated  in  Finland 
Proper.  In  four-fold  correlation  tables  blue  eyes  go  especially  with  brown, 
and  gray  eyes  with  ash-blond  hair.  The  regional  distribution  of  eye  color, 
while  following  faithfully  that  of  stature,  head  form,  and  hair  color,  is 
not  as  strongly  marked  as  is  the  case  with  the  metrical  characters;  the 
maximum  of  Westerlund's  blue  -f  gray  classes  combined  is  83  per  cent 
in  Finland  Proper,  the  minimum  71.8  per  cent  in  northern  Ostrobothnia; 
dark  eyes  vary  only  from  5.7  per  cent  to  9.1  per  cent,  in  the  same 
counties. 

Morphological  observations  on  modern  Finns  are  rare.  Those  which 
are  available  indicate  that  the  foreheads  are  usually  high,  broad,  and  only 
slightly  sloping,  and  that,  in  general,  the  total  facial  profile  resembles  that 
of  the  eastern  Finns  rather  than  of  Scandinavian  Nordics.  The  nose  is 
most  often  straight  or  slightly  concave,  and  the  nasion  region  smoothly 
curved  over  glabella,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  locate  nasion.  Browridges  are 
usually  only  slightly  developed.  The  nasal  wings  are  usually  of  moderate 
spread,  and  as  often  flaring  as  compressed.  Heavy  mandibles,  with  power- 
ful chins,  are  as  typical  of  these  as  of  other  Finns.  Within  any  random 
Finnish  gathering,  it  is  possible  to  pick  out  Nordic  individuals  of  ordinary 
Iron  Age  type,  as  well  as  broad-faced,  snub-nosed  individuals  who  are 
exaggeratedly  East  Baltic.  There  is  a  considerable  individual  range,  al- 
though the  regional  trends  are  well  marked  and  constant. 

On  the  whole  the  Finns  are  physically  just  what  one  would  expect  from 
their  history;  an  amalgamation  between  an  intrusive  eastern  Finnish 
population,  Scandinavian  Nordics,  and'  earlier  elements  local  to  the  east- 
ern Baltic  shores.  The  Finnish  invaders  seem,  here  as  in  Esthonia  and 
among  the  Livs,  to  have  preserved  in  many  instances  their  characteristic 
cranial  and  facial  morphology,  while  at  the  same  time  undergoing  a  great 
increase  in  size,  and  some  increase  in  blondism,  through  the  absorption  of 
the  other  racial  factors.  The  various  component  elements  have  not,  in 
Finland,  been  completely  absorbed  and  fused;  correlations  between  stat- 
ure, head  form,  face  form,  and  pigmentation  show  that  a  tall,  mesocepha- 
lie,  brown-haired,  and  blue-eyed  strain,  which  probably  represents  a  Nor- 
dic element  in  a  sense,  but  to  a  greater  extent  the  old  Corded  race,  may  be 
contrasted  with  a  shorter,  rounder-headed  type,  with  ash-blond  hair  and 
gray  eyes,  which  is  the  original  Finnic. 


360  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

(12)  THE  BALTIC-SPEAKING  PEOPLES 

Our  study  of  the  northern  racial  zone  of  Europe  has  proceeded  nearly 
to  its  conclusion;  except  for  the  northern  Slavic  regions  there  remain  only 
the  countries  at  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  Latvia  and  Lith- 
uania. These  countries  are  occupied  by  the  Letts  and  Lithuanians,  the 
only  surviving  speakers  of  the  Baltic  branch  of  Indo-European  languages. 
Baltic  is  a  member  of  the  Satem  division,  closest  to  Slavic,  and  is  at  the 
same  time  the  most  archaic  surviving  form  of  Indo-European  speech.  It 
was  formerly  once  spoken  by  a  number  of  other  peoples,  including  the 
Prussians,  who  gave  it  up  in  favor  of  German  at  the  time  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  and  perhaps  also  the  White  Russians,  who  may  have  adopted 
Slavic. 

Like  the  rest  of  the  Indo-European-speaking  world,  the  original  Baits 
were  presumably  Nordics,  representing  a  blend  of  some  sort  between 
Neolithic  Danubians  and  Corded  peoples;  unlike  the  other  Indo-European 
groups,  however,  they  have  left  no  sure  skeletal  remains  from  their  early 
history  with  which  we  may  check  this  assumption.  Their  original  home  is 
believed  to  have  lain  between  the  territories  of  Finns,  Slavs,  and  early 
Germanic  tribes;  it  probably  lay  north  of  the  old  Slavic  territory  in  south- 
western Russia,  on  the  upper  reaches  of  the  Dnieper. 107 

It  is  not  known  when  the  ancestors  of  the  Baltic  peoples  left  this  primeval 
home  and  moved  northwestward  to  their  present  habitat,  but  the  bulk  of 
the  migration  probably  did  not  antedate  the  beginning  of  the  Iron  Age. 
During  the  late  Neolithic  of  the  northern  countries,  the  River  Diina, 
which  now  bisects  Latvia,  formed  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Kamm- 
keramik  culture,  with  which  the  Salis  Roje  and  Lake  Ladoga  cranial 
types  are  associated;  south  of  this  river,  descendants  of  the  Corded  people 
were  apparently  in  possession  of  the  land  until  the  arrival  of  Germans  and 
of  the  Baltic  ancestors. 

The  ancestors  of  the  Letts  were  the  first  to  move  northward;  they  were 
not  followed  by  the  Lithuanians  until  the  dawn  of  historic  times,  and  his- 
tory began  in  that  region  about  1200  A.D.  About  that  time  the  top  of  the 
Kurland  peninsula  was  occupied,  more  extensively  than  at  present,  by 
the  Livs,  who  also  held  the  coastal  portion  of  Livonia,  along  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga.  South  of  the  Livs,  in  Kurland,  were  the  Kurs 
themselves,  a  tribe  of  undetermined  linguistic  affiliation,  but  which,  what- 
ever its  former  idiom,  was  soon  converted  to  Lettish  speech.  South  of  Riga 
lived  the  Baltic-speaking  Zemgaji  tribesmen;  east  of  them,  along  the 
Diina,  were  the  Seji;  while  the  Letgaji,  or  Letts  Proper,  occupied  the 
whole  eastern  half  of  modern  Latvia.  In  historic  times,  the  last  named 
107  Hesch,  M.,  Letteny  Litauer,  Weissmssen. 


THE  NORTH  361 


moved  westward  and  absorbed  the  remnants  of  the  other  tribes,  giving 
their  speech  and  nationality  to  the  present  Lettish  people. 

The  Germans,  from  the  beginning,  have  played  an  important  part  in 
the  history  of  the  Baltic  states,  both  as  immigrants  and  as  purveyors  of 
Christianity  and  of  mediaeval  European  civilization.  In  1201  A.D.  the 
city  of  Riga  was  founded  by  Germans  from  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  and 
this  was  the  commencement  of  a  long  period  of  concentrated  German  in- 
fluence which  made  itself  felt  racially  as  well  as  culturally.  The  central 
points  of  German  culture  in  the  Baltic  lands  were  the  cities  of  Riga,  Dor- 
pat,  and  Reval,  which  belonged  to  the  Hanseatic  league. 

In  the  thirteenth  century  the  German  religious  orders  began  their  work 
of  conversion  and  conquest  in  this  neighborhood ;  first  the  Sword-brothers, 
and  then  the  Teutonic  Knights.  The  latter  were  especially  concerned 
with  battling  the  Lithuanians,  who  had,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  forced 
themselves  into  the  territory  between  outposts  of  the  order  in  Livonia 
and  Prussia.  One  of  the  results  of  the  activities  of  the  Teutonic  Knights 
was  the  defeat  of  the  Zemgaji;  these  tribesmen  left  their  homes  in  numbers 
and  joined  forces  with  the  Lithuanians,  while  the  Letts  themselves  moved 
westward  to  replace  them. 

Despite  the  activity  of  the  orders,  the  Lithuanians  became,  during  the 
thirteenth  century,  a  very  powerful  people,  and  founded  an  empire  which 
reached  from  the  Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  which  included  much  terri- 
tory occupied  by  Russians.  In  1401  a  Lithuanian  prince  married  the 
Polish  crown  princess,  uniting  these  two  kingdoms,  who  together  warred 
effectively  against  the  Teutonic  orders.  A  century  later  the  Russians  in- 
vaded Livonia,  with  90,000  Tatar  and  Russian  troops,  and  from  this  time 
on  the  Lithuanian  political  power  was  weakened.  The  independence  of 
the  Baltic  peoples  was  destroyed  in  1561,  when  Esthonia  went  to  Sweden, 
and  Latvia  and  Lithuania  were  handed  back  and  forth  between  Russia, 
Poland,  and  Sweden;  at  the  time  of  the  final  partitionment  of  Poland  they 
went  to  Russia.  In  the  sixteenth  century  the  reformation  spread  over  Lat- 
via and  Esthonia,  and  as  a  result  of  this  the  Letts  are  now  Protestants, 
while  the  Lithuanians,  who  were  the  last  Baits  to  be  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  who  fell  under  Polish  influence,  are  Catholics. 

The  ethnic  significance  of  the  history  of  this  region  is  that  much  Ger- 
man blood  must  have  been  assimilated  as  a  result  of  the  building  of  the 
German  cities,  especially  in  Livonia,  and  Swedish  and  Russian  influence 
during  the  historical  period  must  have  had  some  effect  as  well.  Seven  per 
cent  of  the  modern  population  of  Latvia  and  Esthonia  is  still  German,  and 
the  nobility  is  almost  entirely  German  in  origin. 

Opportunities  for  the  absorption  of  mongoloid  blood  came  at  several 
times,  especially  in  1410,  when  the  Lithuanian  prince  Witold  sought  help 


362  THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 

from  the  Tatar  Khan  Tochtamysch,  and  was  given  40,000  men  who  subse- 
quently settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Niemen  River  near  Vilna.  In  1432 
more  Tatar  allies  came  from  the  Volga,  and  3000  of  them  remained  in  the 
service  of  the  great  Lithuanian  princes. 

The  great  Russian  census  of  1887  found  6540  persons  of  admitted  Tatar 
ancestry  in  Lithuania,  Poland,  Volhynia,  and  Podolia.  Many  more  must 
have  been  absorbed,  while  others,  soon  after  their  arrival,  may  have  wan- 
dered eastward  to  their  former  homes.  At  any  rate,  in  studying  the  racial 
composition  of  the  Baltic  peoples,  the  Finnic  tribes  who  have  been  ab- 
sorbed by  the  Letts  (and  in  particular  the  Livs),  the  Germans,  and  the 
Tatars  must  not  be  forgotten. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  adequate  modern  anthropometric  data  on 
the  Letts,108  which  indicates,  on  the  whole,  that  despite  regional  and  in- 
dividual variations  this  people  may,  as  accurately  as  the  Finnish  speakers 
upon  whose  territory  they  border,  be  considered  representatives  of  the 
East  Baltic  race.  The  mean  stature  of  Latvian  males  is  nearly  172  cm.,  as 
tall  as  modern  Nordics;  this  stature  reaches  the  height  of  174.7  cm.  in  the 
district  of  Liepaja,  in  southwestern  Kurland,  along  the  Baltic  shore.  In 
general  it  decreases  slightly  from  west  to  east,  but  never  goes  below  170  cm. 
in  the  country  districts.  The  city  population,  which  contains  a  large  for- 
eign element,  especially  German,  is  two  centimeters  shorter  than  that  for 
the  nation.  Bodily  proportions  show  the  Letts  to  be  long  legged,  wide 
shouldered,  and  long  armed;  a  mean  relative  span  of  107  places  them  in 
the  same  class  with  the  Finnish  peoples. 

The  cranial  dimensions  and  proportions  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of 
the  Baltic  Finns;  the  mean  head  length  of  190  mm.  and  breadth  of  1 53  mm. 
yields  a  sub-brachycephalic  cephalic  index  of  81,  while  the  vault  height  is 
of  normal  East  Baltic  dimensions.  A  selected  sample  of  supposedly  pure 
Letts,  from  the  district  of  Cesvaine  in  eastern  Latvia,  has  the  same  head 
form  as  the  others,  but  larger  length  and  breadth  dimensions  (193  mm. 
by  157  mm.).  Unlike  the  Finns,  however,  the  Letts  seem  once  to  have 
been  longer-headed;  early  skeletal  material  which  may  definitely  be  as- 
cribed to  their  ancestors,  and  which  dates  from  800  to  1200  A.D.,  is  dolicho- 
cephalic, with  a  mean  cranial  index  of  74.1  for  a  series  of  eleven  male 
crania,109  and  of  74.4  for  the  same,  with  twelve  female  skulls  added.  These 
skulls  are  of  moderate  vault  height,  quite  short  and  moderately  broad 
faced,  with  mesorrhine  to  chamaerrhine  noses,  and  low  orbits.  On  the 

108  Backman,  G.,  FUL,  N.  F.,  vol.  29,  1923-24,  pp.  99-126,  127-163;  LUR,  vol.  12, 
1925,  pp.  367-379. 

Hesch,  M.,  Lettcn,  Litauer,  Weissrussen. 

Jerums,  N.,  and  Vitols,  T.  M.,  LUR,  vol.  18,  1928,  pp.  279-375. 

Waeber,  O.,  Beitrage  zur  Anthropologie  der  Letten. 

i<»  Knorre,  G.  von,  ZFMA,  vol.  28,  1930,  pp.  256-312. 


THE  NORTH  363 


whole  they  represent  a  variety  of  Nordic  in  which  a  short-faced,  low- 
orbitted  element  is  especially  prominent.  The  change  in  head  form  of  the 
Letts, uo  less  radical  than  that  found  in  many  parts  of  central  and  eastern 
Europe,  may  almost  certainly  be  ascribed  here  to  a  general  absorption  of 
round-headed  racial  elements,  of  which  several  have  been  historically 
traced. 

In  facial  dimensions,  the  living  Letts  are  again  East  Baltic,  with  broad 
foreheads  (110  mm.),  moderately  broad  bizygomatic  diameters  (137- 
140  mm.),  and  broad  jaws  (ca.  110  mm.).  The  face  heights,  at  the  same 
time,  are  only  moderately  great  (122  mm.),  and  the  facial  index  is  meso- 
prosopic.  An  upper  facial  index  of  50  falls  into  the  broad  category,  and 
emphasizes  the  depth  of  the  Lettish  mandible.  The  nose,  moderately 
leptorrhine,  with  mean  indices  varying  from  63  to  67,  is  similar  in  size  and 
proportions  to  the  Baltic  Finnish  standard.  In  a  combined  sample  of  Letts, 
Lithuanians,  and  White  Russians,  Hesch  has  shown  that  taller  stature  is 
associated  with  relatively  long  heads,  narrow  faces,  and  narrow  noses,  and 
vice  versa.  This  evidence  indicates  that  a  Nordic  or  Corded  element,  or 
both,  can  probably  still  be  isolated. 

Pigmentation  data  on  the  Letts  is  abundant,  and  shows  clearly  that  the 
Letts,  as  a  group,  are  as  blond  as  Swedes  and  Norwegians.  The  skin  color, 
observed  on  the  von  Luschan  chart,  is  uniformly  fair,  but  rarely  very  vas- 
cular. The  hair  color  is  ash-blond  in  half  the  entire  series,  while  the  other 
half  is  more  brown  than  golden  blond.  There  seems  to  be  very  little  black 
hair,  and  red  totals  less, than  one  per  cent.  The  distribution  of  hair  color 
shows  regional  variations,  of  reversed  concentric  order,  for  the  ash-blond 
hues  are  concentrated  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  country,  in  the  purest 
Lettish  territory,  while  the  western  and  coastal  regions,  occupied  in  earlier 
times  by  the  Finnic  tribes  and  by  the  enigmatic  Kurs,  is  characterized  by 
brown  shades,  especially  on  the  golden  side  of  the  scale.  The  eye  color  of 
the  Letts  as  a  whole  is  predominantly  light,  with  pure  blues  and  grays 
totalling  one-third,  and  predominantly  light  shades  reaching  between 
57  per  cent  and  59  per  cent;  pure  brown  eyes  are  very  rare,  but  dark- 
mixed  eyes  are  not  uncommon.  On  the  whole,  the  hair  color  tends  to  be 
proportionately  lighter  than  eye  color. 

The  hair  form  of  the  Letts  is  straight  in  over  90  per  cent  of  cases.  Hair 
form  was  observed  with  hair  color  in  the  large  recruit  survey,  and  regional 
differences  noted.  Such  differences,  however,  are  slight  when  compared 

110  An  inbred  group  of  free  farmers,  holding  special  rights  granted  their  ancestors  in 
the  thirteenth  century  and  confirmed  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  has  been  studied  by  Jer- 
ums  and  Priman.  These  people,  who  call  themselves  the  "Kurish  Kings,"  had  been 
reduced,  by  1925,  to  a  total  of  11  men  and  12  women.  They  are  very  blond,  and  the 
men  have  a  mean  C.  I.  of  77.4,  the  women  of  75.2..  Backman  believes  that  they  represent 
the  Lettish  racial  type  of  700  years  ago,  preserved  by  inbreeding. 


364  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

with  those  of  hair  color.  The  western  regions,  especially  the  country  of  the 
Livs  and  Kurs,  have  more  straight  hair  than  the  east,  but  in  no  district 
does  wavy  hair  attain  more  than  10  per  cent.  The  Letts  are  surely 
straighter  haired  than  are  the  peoples  of  Scandinavia,  with  the  necessary 
exception  of  the  Lapps. 

The  foreheads  of  the  Letts  slope  very  slightly  or  none  at  all  in  the  vast 
majority  of  cases — retreating  forehead  profiles  such  as  characterize  the 
classical  Nordic  type  are  seldom  encountered.  The  foreheads  are  in  most 
cases  likewise  rather  high  and  broad,  and  only  moderately  curved.  The 
cranial  vault  is  of  a  rounded  form,  and  lacks  the  sharp  transitions  between 
the  bones  of  the  skull  which  have  been  seen  in  the  Nordic.  The  occiput  is 
in  most  instances  well  curved,  and  both  flat  and  excessively  protruberant 
forms  are  rare.  The  very  few  flatttened  occiputs  found  by  Hesch  are  at- 
tributed by  him  to  a  minority  Armenoid  element  brought  in  by  the  Ta- 
tars, but  it  might  equally  well  be  ascribed  to  other  sources. 

The  root  of  the  nose  is  moderately  high  to  quite  high,  and  is  of  medium 
breadth.  The  bridge  is  of  moderate  breadth,  and  is  usually  straight  in  pro- 
file, although  concave  forms  outnumber  the  convex.  The  tip  of  the  nose 
is  well  rounded,  and  usually  horizontal  in  inclination.  Both  elevated  and 
depressed  forms  are  infrequent.  The  wings  are  thin,  highly  placed,  and  of 
medium  lateral  extension,  although  compressed  forms  are  quite  frequent. 
The  general  impression  of  the  nose  is  one  of  moderate  height  and  breadth, 
and  of  medium,  normally  inclined  tip  and  wings.  It  is  not  notable  for  its 
height  or  narrowness,  and  at  the  same  time  is  only  jrarely  broad  or  everted. 
It  is  a  normal,  intermediate  European  type  of  nose,  not  very  different 
from  the  Nordic.  The  lips  are  medium  to  thin,  and  usually  have  little  or 
no  eversion,  possibly  because  the  bite  is  frequently  edge-to-edge.  The 
teeth  are  said  to  be  remarkably  large  and  of  excellent  quality,  with  a  mini- 
mum of  caries  and  malformations. 

In  the  soft  parts  of  the  eye  region,  the  upper  eyefold  hangs  down  to  or 
over  the  outer  corner  of  the  eye,  in  a  characteristic  external  fold,  in  the 
majority  of  fully  adult  instances.  The  opening  of  the  eye  slit  is  medium  to 
wide,  and  usually  straight  of  axis,  although  in  one-third  of  instances  an 
upward  obliquity  of  the  outer  eye  corners  was  observed.  The  malars  are 
rather  prominent  among  the  Letts,  although  not  as  frequently  as  among 
most  Finns.  The  lower  angles  of  the  jaw,  too,  are  frequently  salient,  and 
the  face,  although  oval  or  elliptical  in  over  two-thirds  of  instances,  is  in 
other  cases  rectangular  in  form. 

Body  hair  is  absent  in  more  than  half  of  adult  male  Letts,  and  arm  and 
leg  hair  quite  scanty.  The  mustache  is  described  as  being  sub-medium  in 
thickness  in  over  half  of  the  cases,  and  the  hair  on  the  cheeks  and  chin  is 
even  less  abundant.  Although  the  head  hair  is  usually  straight,  the  mus- 


THE  NORTH  365 


tache  and  beard  are  characteristically  wavy,  the  body  hair  wavier,  and 
the  pubic  hair,  as  with  practically  all  Europeans,  curly. 

Although  Nordic  types  may  frequently  be  picked  out  of  the  Lettish 
population,  the  general  impression  is  that  alongside  the  Nordic  is  found  a 
much  more  numerous  element,  equally  blond,  which  is  essentially  East 
Baltic,  and  which  is  much  the  same  as  that  found  among  the  Finnic- 
speaking  peoples  farther  north.  The  one  region  of  Latvia  in  which  unusual 
or  atypical  racial  conditions  are  found  is  the  southwestern  coastal  section 
of  Kurland,  the  home  of  the  linguistically  unidentified  Kurs,  who  seem  to 
have  been  especially  characterized  by  extremely  tall  stature  and  brown 
hair.  This  racial  element  is  probably  that  which  entered  into  the  compo- 
sition of  the  Livs  to  differentiate  them  from  other  Finns;  and  its  general 
description  would  suggest  that  here  we  are  concerned  with  a  maximum 
survival  of  the  descendants  of  the  Corded  people  who  found  in  this  north- 
ern retreat  a  relatively  inviolable  asylum. 

Whereas  the  Letts  have  long  been  in  close  contact  with  Finnish  peoples, 
and  have  absorbed  whole  Finnish  tribes,  the  Lithuanians  have  been  in 
contact  rather  with  Slavic  peoples,  especially  Poles  and  Russians.  Ger- 
man influence  has  been  important  in  each,  while  in  Lithuania  there  is  a 
not  inconsiderable  Jewish  population.  In  Lithuania,  however,  we  begin  to 
arrive  in  that  complex  part  of  Europe  in  which  a  village  of  one  ethnic  and 
linguistic  type  is  alternated  with  that  of  another;  in  which  many  kinds  of 
people  live  side  by  side,  but  between  whom  wholesale  mixture  is  infre- 
quent. Among  the  Lithuanians  themselves  there  are  two  linguistic  divi- 
sions; the  Jmouds  or  Samogitians,  who  number  nearly  half  a  million  and 
live  in  the  western  part  of  the  Kaunas  district,  near  the  East  Prussian 
border,  and  the  Lithuanians  proper,  who  number  more  than  three 
millions. 

Except  for  Hesch's  study  of  war  prisoners,  the  anthropometric  sources 
on  the  Lithuanians  are  old,  and  less  complete  than  those  on  the  Letts.111 
They  show,  however,  that  the  Lithuanians  averaged  two  centimeters  less 
in  stature  than  the  Letts,  both  in  the  Russian  census  of  1874-83,  and  dur- 
ing the  World  War.  If  they  have  increased  in  pace  with  the  Letts,  their 
present  stature  mean  should  be  168  or  169  cm.  If  not,  it  should  fall  be- 
tween 166  and  167  cm.  Despite  a  shorter  stature,  the  Lithuanians  have 

111  Baronas,  I.  O.,  RAJ,  vol.  3,  1902,  pp.  63-87;  AFA,  vol.  30,  1904,  pp.  220-222. 

Brennsohn,  I.,  £ur  Anthropologie  der  Litauer. 

Hesch,  M.,  Letten,  Litauer,  und  Weissrussen. 

Jantschuk,  N.  A.,  IILE,  vol.  12,  #6,  1890,  pp.  200-211.  R£sum6s  in  AFA,  vol.  26, 
1900,  pp.  839-840;  Anth,  vol.  3,  1892,  pp.  475-476. 

Olechnowicz,  W.,  ZWAK,  vol.  18,  1895,  pp.  47-76. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  ZWAK,  vol.  17,  1894,  pp.  51-172;  MAAE,  vol.  9,  1907, 
pp.  11-86;  vol.  12,  1912,  pp.  3-112. 


366  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

slightly  broader  shoulders  and  hips  than  the  Letts,  and  these  differences 
are  magnified  in  the  indices  of  bodily  proportions.  The  span  is  both  abso- 
lutely and  relatively  shorter,  with  an  index  of  105.6.  The  trunk  length  of 
the  Lithuanians  is  greater,  and  the  lower  arm  segment  shorter.  Thus  in 
body  build  the  Lithuanians  frequently  approach  a  thick-set  constitutional 
type,  while  the  Letts  are  more  characteristically  linear. 

In  head  and  face  measurements,  the  Lithuanians  differ  from  the  Letts 
only  in  sagittal  and  vertical  dimensions;  the  Lithuanian  head  is  shorter, 
with  a  mean  length  of  188  mm.,  while  the  cephalic  index  has  a  mean  of 
over  82;  the  facial  breadths  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Letts,  while  both 
total  and  upper  face  heights  are  a  millimeter  less;  both  facial  and  upper 
facial  indices  show  a  greater  tendency  to  euryprosopy.  The  nose,  at  the 
same  time,  is  a  little  shorter;  the  interorbital  diameter  slightly  wider.  In 
the  interorbital,  Hesch  finds  modes  in  his  total  series  at  31  mm.  and 
34  mm.;  the  former  seems  to  be  Nordic,  the  latter  East  Baltic  or  Neo- 
Danubian. 

In  pigmentation  the  Lithuanians  are  less  frequently  blond  than  the 
Letts.  This  is  true  in  skin  color  as  in  hair  and  eye  shades,  for  over  70  per 
cent  of  Lithuanians  have  skin  darker  than  von  Luschan  #10,  while  only 
46  per  cent  of  Letts  were  listed  in  this  category.  Dark  brown  hair  (Fischer 
#4-5)  is  found  in  40  per  cent  of  Hesch's  Lithuanian  series,  as  against  21  per 
cent  for  his  Letts.  Of  the  remaining  shades,  ash-blond  is  the  most  frequent, 
and  the  darkest  grade  of  ash-blond  (Fischer  #26),  is  the  most  frequent  of 
all  single  numbers.  Larger  series  observed  without  scales  agree  essentially 
with  Hesch's  material,  but  give  the  Lithuanians  about  7  per  cent  of  black 
or  nearly  black  hair.  The  vast  majority  of  Lithuanians  have  mixed  eyes; 
only  10  per  cent  have  pure  light  irises  (Martin  #15-16),  as  compared  to 
25  per  cent  for  Letts;  at  the  same  time  pure  brown  eyes  number  but  3  per 
cent.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  one  cannot  say  of  the  Lithuanians,  as  of 
the  Finns,  Esths,  Livs,  and  Letts,  that  they  are  as  blond  as  Scandinavians, 
but  they  are  still  predominantly  light.  There  are  probably  regional  varia- 
tions of  which  our  present  data  give  us  little  positive  indication. 

A  comparative  study  of  hereditary  landed  aristocrats  and  of  small 
land  owners  112  shows,  however,  that  class  differences  in  physical  type  must 
be  even  greater.  The  privileged  class  had,  in  1912,  a  mean  stature  of 
172.8  cm.,  the  small  land  owners  of  164.8  cm.;  there  was  a  slight  difference 
in  pigmentation,  with  the  gentry  running  to  brown  hair  and  blue  eyes,  and 
their  economic  inferiors  to  lighter  hair  and  mixed  or  brown  eyes.  The 
head  size  of  the  upper  class  was  much  larger,  but  the  head  form,  face  form 
and  nose  form  were  the  same  in  each. 

In  hair  form  the  Lithuanians,  like  the  Letts,  are  almost  all  in  the  straight 

112  Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  1912. 


THE  NORTH  367 


category.  Three  per  cent  of  Lithuanians  have  curly  hair,  as  against  7 
for  the  Jmouds,  indicating  that  the  farther  east  one  goes,  the  straighter 
the  hair  becomes.  Among  Lithuanians  proper  and  Jmouds,  and  among 
Letts  as  well,  curly  hair  is  almost  always  blond  or  light  brown. 

In  observations  of  general  head  and  forehead  form  the  Lithuanians  re- 
semble the  Letts,  except  that  rounder  heads  with  broader  foreheads  are 
more  frequent.  The  nasal  root  is  less  frequently  high,  but  little  different 
in  breadth;  the  bridge  is  somewhat  broader,  and  runs  to  more  convex 
and  concave  extremes  in  profile.  The  tip  points  upward  in  35  per  cent  of 
cases,  and  is  definitely  snubbed  in  22  per  cent.  In  the  high  frequency  of 
this  broad,  up-tilted  form  the  Lithuanians  exceed  the  Letts  by  two  to  one. 
On  the  whole  the  frequencies  are  greater  at  the  extremes  in  the  Lithuanian 
sample  than  in  that  of  the  Letts,  and  indicate  a  greater  diversity  of  nose 
form. 

The  lips  of  the  Lithuanians  are  somewhat  thicker  membranously,  and 
more  frequently  everted  than  those  of  the  Letts,  although  still  they  must 
be  considered  as  medium.  Great  differences  are  found  in  the  soft  parts  of 
the  eye,  for  while  an  external  fold  occurs  in  55  per  cent  of  Letts,  only 
1 7  per  cent  of  Lithuanians  have  it.  Some  degree  of  upward  obliquity  of 
the  eye  slit  is  found  in  40  per  cent  of  cases,  slightly  higher  than  with  Letts. 
The  chin  form  is  usually  rather  wide  and  rounded.  Although  we  have  no 
comparative  data  on  malars,  the  indication  is  that  they  are  no  less  promi- 
nent, in  any  event,  than  those  of  the  Letts.  Although  the  Lithuanians  are 
clearly  less  Nordic  morphologically  than  are  the  Letts,  they  are  at  the  same 
time  less  typically  East  Baltic  in  the  Finnish  sense  in  the  total  contour  of 
the  face,  for  more  elliptical  and  fewer  rectangular  shapes  are  found  among 
them. 

The  Lithuanians  differ  again  from  the  Letts  in  having  much  less  body 
hair,  on  chest  and  on  arms  and  legs.  Only  25  per  cent  have  a  medium 
mustache  thickness,  as  judged  by  ordinary  European  standards,  while  the 
proportions  on  chin  and  cheek  fall  to  17  per  cent  and  10  per  cent  respec- 
tively. The  unusual  glabrousness  of  the  Baltic-speaking  peoples,  as  best 
exemplified  by  the  Lithuanians,  totally  differentiates  it  from  central  Euro- 
pean brachycephals  of  Alpine  inspiration. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  in  his  time  one  of  the  most  assiduous  students  of  race 
in  eastern  Europe,  measured  a  series  of  so-called  Lithuanian  Tatars,  the 
descendants  of  those  Tatars  who  were  brought  into  Lithuania  for  military 
purposes  during  the  Middle  Ages.113  They  differ  physically  from  the 
Lithuanians  in  many  respects,  and  thus  show  that  their  absorption  has  not 
yet  been  completed.  In  skin  color  more  than  one-fourth  are  brownish, 
and  an  equal  number  yellowish,  while  less  than  half  may  be  classed  as 

113  Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  1907. 


368  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

light  or  white;  less  than  30  per  cent  are  light  or  light  brown  haired, 
and  over  70  per  cent  dark  brown  or  black  in  hair  color.  In  eye  color 
almost  half  are  classified  as  brown,  and  very  few  appear  to  be  pure 
light.  Although  these  Tatars  are  not  purely  brunet,  they  are  much  more 
brunet  than  the  Lithuanians,  and  the  light  elements  among  them  may  not 
wholly  be  accounted  for  as  the  result  of  recent  or  local  mixture. 

In  stature  they  are  appreciably  shorter  than  the  Lithuanians,  with  a 
mean  of  162.8  centimeters.  Their  head  form,  with  a  cephalic  index  of 
81.9,  is  no  different  from  that  of  the  Lithuanians,  although  the  absolute 
dimensions  of  the  head,  183.6  and  151.4  millimeters,  are  smaller.  Al- 
though the  facial  measurements  are  not  comparable,  the  forehead  is  even 
broader  than  that  of  the  Lithuanians,  and  the  nose,  while  identical  in 
breadth,  is  even  shorter,  with  a  nasal  index  of  69.4.  As  nearly  as  one  may 
judge,  these  Tatars  seem  to  have  preserved  in  large  measure  the  characters 
of  their  ancestors. 

The  deviation  of  the  Lithuanians  from  their  Lettish  kinsmen  cannot, 
however,  be  attributed  in  major  degree  to  the  absorption  of  Tatar  blood. 
The  Lithuanians  are  more  southerly  in  habitat  than  the  Letts,  and  are  in 
contact  with  different  neighbors;  they  form  as  a  national  group  a  branch 
of  the  greater  East  Baltic  race,  but  a  somewhat  different  variety  from  that 
of  the  other  peoples  living  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Baltic  Sea.  Their 
divergence  in  a  racial  sense  points  to  the  populations  which  we  will  study 
later  in  eastern  Germany,  Poland,  and  western  Russia. 

(13)    CONCLUSIONS 

The  systematic  study  of  the  living  peoples  of  the  northern  regions  of 
Europe,  by  geographic,  ethnic,  and  linguistic  groups,  has  led  to  the  fol- 
lowing conclusions: 

(1)  This  zone  still  shelters  various  groups  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  sur- 
vivors.  These  include  both  reduced  and  unreduced  varieties.   The  former 
includes  the  Lapps,  whose  home  was  formerly  in  the  region  of  the  Ural 
Mountains,  and  the  Ladogan  type  of  the  eastern  forest,  which  has  blended 
with  Danubian  descendants  to  form  a  type  known  as  Neo-Danubian.   The 
latter  includes  full-sized  descendants  of  the  Briinn-type  men  of  the  Aurig- 
nacian,  blended  into  the  coastal  population  of  Norway  and  into  the 
Icelandic  racial  body;  it  also  includes  brachycephalic  Borreby  descendants 
in  Norway,  Denmark,  and  elsewhere. 

(2)  The  eastern  valley  region  of  Norway,  along  with  the  Swedish  plain, 
forms  an  area  of  maximum  survival  of  the  Iron  Age  'Nordic  race  of  central 
Europe. 

(3)  The  East  Baltic  race  in  the  strict  sense  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  Neo-Danubian;  it  is  concentrated  in  the  eastern  Baltic  countries  only 


THE  NORTH  369 


and  consists  of  a  blend  of  unreduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors  with 
Corded  people  and  with  Neo-Danubians. 

(4)  Completely  evolved  mongoloids  live  on  European  soil,  on  the  rim 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  These  mongoloids  are  the  Samoyeds,  whose  spread 
westward  and  northward  from  central  Asia  has  been  recent.  Neither  the 
Lapps  nor  the  Ladogan  derivatives  are  or  ever  have  been  fully  mongoloid, 
but  they  have  evolved  a  certain  distance  in  a  mongoloid  direction.  There 
is  nothing  specifically  mongoloid  about  the  Briinn  or  Borreby  types,  the 
unreduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors. 

Except  for  the  Lapps,  none  of  the  racial  types  mentioned  is  confined  to 
regions  studied  in  this  chapter.  We  shall  encounter  all  of  the  others  else- 
where. 


Chapter  X 
THE   BRITISH   ISLES 

(1)   RfiSTJMfi   OF   SKELETAL   HISTORY 

In  the  earlier  historical  chapters,  various  sections  have  been  devoted 
to  the  racial  history  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Before  commencing 
the  study  of  the  living  population  of  these  islands,  we  shall  bring  this 
material  together  in  a  brief  but  continuous  resum6,  and  dilate  at  greater 
length  upon  the  skeletal  remains  which  cover  the  period  from  the  Middle 
Ages  through  the  seventeenth  century,  to  the  threshold  of  modern  times. 
Fortunately  the  documents  concerning  British  racial  history  are  abundant, 
and  the  picture  which  can  be  drawn  is  relatively  clear. 

Beginning  with  the  Pleistocene,  we  recall  that  the  earliest  known  sapiens 
men,  Swanscombe  and  Galley  Hill,  were  excavated  from  English  soil, 
as  was  the  still  problematical  Piltdown.  During  the  last  interglacial 
and  the  time  of  the  final  maximum  ice,  available  portions  of  Great 
Britain  were  inhabited  by  men  similar  to  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  popula- 
tion in  France,  while  in  the  post-glacial  Mesolithic  period,  hunting  and 
fishing  peoples  of  central  European  origin  invaded  Scotland,  and  fur- 
nished to  Ireland  its  earliest  human  inhabitants.  This  Mesolithic  popula- 
tion is  represented  by  the  MacArthur's  Gave  skeleton,  which  resembles 
the  Brunn-Pfedmost  group  of  Late  Pleistocene  central  Europe,  and  by 
others  of  doubtful  age  in  both  Scotland  and  Ireland,  which  belong  essen- 
tially to  the  same  racial  type.  These  unreduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  de- 
scendants who  sought  refuge  in  the  British  Isles  after  the  glacial  retreat 
clung  on  through  a  Late  Mesolithic,  and  their  descendants  form,  as  we 
shall  see  presently,  an  element  of  some  importance  in  the  present  racial 
composition  of  certain  British  regions. 

The  Neolithic  economy  was  probably  first  brought  to  Britain  by  the 
bearers  of  the  Windmill  Hill  culture  from  the  Continent,  and  they  in 
turn  were  members  of  the  group  which  had  invaded  western  Europe  from 
North  Africa  by  way  of  Gibraltar.  The  racial  type  to  which  these  Windmill 
Hill  people  presumably  belonged  was  a  small  Mediterranean,  but  there 
is  little  or  no  direct  skeletal  evidence  from  England  to  confirm  this.  By 
far  the  most  important  Neolithic  movement  into  Great  Britain,  and  into 
Ireland  as  well,  came  by  sea  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean  lands,  using 
Spain  as  a  halting  point  on  the  way.  It  was  this  invasion  which  passed 
up  the  Irish  Channel  to  western  and  northern  Scotland,  and  around  to 

370 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  371 

Denmark  and  Sweden.  The  settlers  who  came  by  sea  were  the  Megalithic 
people,  and  belonged  to  a  clearly  differentiated  variety  of  tall,  extremely 
long-headed  Mediterranean,  which  was  presumably  for  the  most  part 
brunet.  This  racial  group  furnished  both  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  which 
consisted,  before  their  arrival,  of  nearly  empty  land,  with  a  numerous  and 
civilized  population  which  has  left  many  descendants  today. 

With  or  shortly  before  the  introduction  of  metal,  the  British  Isles  were 
invaded  from  both  sides  by  fresh  settlers.  From  the  west  came  a  triple 
combination  of  Borreby  brachycephals,  Corded  people,  and  eastern 
Mediterranean  Binaries,  under  the  hybrid  auspices  of  the  Zoned  Beaker 
culture,  which  had  grown  into  an  important  entity  in  southern  and  west- 
ern Germany;  these  people  entered  England  and  Scotland,  but  not  Ire- 
land. From  Spain  or  the  southwestern  French  coast  came  the  Food  Vessel 
people,  who  represented  the  Dinaric  element  only,  and  who  went  first  to 
Ireland  and  thence  over  into  Scotland.  Thus  all  parts  of  the  British  Isles, 
with  the  virtual  exception  of  Wales,  received  an  infusion  of  Dinaric  blood, 
while  the  oversized  Borreby  and  Corded  elements  also  entered  Great 
Britain,  but  avoided  Ireland.  These  Bronze  Age  invaders  pushed  their 
Megalithic  predecessors  back  into  the  hills  and  into  economically  unde- 
sirable country,  whence  many  of  their  descendants  later  reemerged.  The 
Bronze  Age  lasted  long  in  the  British  Isles,  especially  in  Scotland,  and  the 
new  Bronze  Age  racial  amalgam  attained  a  firm  foothold,  especially  in 
eastern  Scotland,  in  Yorkshire,  and  in  such  open  country  regions  as  Wilt- 
shire, Gloucestershire,  and  Derbyshire.  In  the  Late  Bronze  Age  cremation, 
which  had  been  an  alternative  funeral  rite  before,  now  became  so  fashion- 
able that  this  period  is  a  blank  in  our  knowledge  of  British  racial  history. 
What  few  bones  escaped  complete  destruction,  however,  suggest  that 
with  this  new  rite  came  an  Alpine  racial  element  from  the  Swiss  high- 
lands. This  element  could  not,  however,  have  been  numerically  very 
important. 

Whoever  the  Bronze  Age  peoples  were,'  and  whatever  languages  they 
spoke,  we  know  that  the  Iron  Age  invaders  were  uniformly  Keltic;  they 
came  in  various  waves  and  at  various  times,  through  various  ports  of  entry, 
but  the  cranial  type  of  the  invaders  was  inevitably  the  same.  Both  the 
Goidels  of  Ireland,  and  the  Kymric  A  and  B  invaders  of  England,  belonged 
to  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  branch  of  the  Nordic  race;  a  type  characterized 
by  a  medium-sized  mesocephalic  skull,  with  a  low  vault,  a  sloping  fore- 
head, a  cylindrical  lateral  vault  profile,  a  long,  prominent  nose,  and  a 
relatively  small  lower  facial  segment.  Those  who  entered  Ireland  were 
tall;  those  who  settled  England  and  Wales  were  perhaps  shorter.  The 
Belgae,  the  last  of  the  Iron  Age  Kelts  or  near-Kelts,  despite  their  alleged 
Germanic  mixture,  cannot  be  shown  to  have  differed  from  the  others. 


372  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

These  Keltic  invasions  furnished  Ireland  with  her  upper  class,  but  appar- 
ently not  with  the  bulk  of  her  population;  in  England  regional  Iron  Age 
cemeteries  disclose  the  survival  of  Bronze  Age  types,  although  the  Keltic 
Iron  Age  people  furnished  a  larger  ultimate  population  element  than 
any  other  contributing  group  which  came  before  or  after.  These  Kymric- 
speaking  Iron  Age  people  settled  Britain  as  far  north  as  the  Clyde,  but 
failed  to  penetrate  the  center  and  north  of  Scotland,  where  the  Bronze 
Age  people,  who  were  apparently  the  Picts,  continued  undisturbed  until 
after  the  time  of  Christ.  The  Cruithni,  the  Irish  counterparts  of  the 
Picts,  seem  to  have  been  absorbed  by  their  neighbors  earlier. 

In  Ireland  the  conquering  Goidels  were  organized  into  clans,  under 
the  leadership  of  the  high  kings  of  Tara;  other  clans,  formed  of  subservient 
people,  and  presumably  of  aborigines,  were  numerous,  and  gave  the  island 
its  name.  The  mythical  history  of  Ireland  constantly  refers  to  the  arrival 
of  immigrants,  in  different  waves,  from  Spain.  The  Milesians,  the  actual 
Goidels,  are  said  to  have  come  directly  from  Spain,  where  they  had  so- 
journed for  a  short  while,  and  before  that  from  some  distant  homeland.1 
The  crania  from  the  Iron  Age  tombs  are  presumably  those  of  Goidels, 
and  not  of  the  survivors  of  the  previous  inhabitants,  some  of  whom, 
according  to  Irish  legend,  vanished  underground,  to  haunt  the  megalithic 
monuments. 

The  Romans,  in  their  conquest  of  Britain,  probably  introduced  little 
of  ultimate  racial  importance.  The  Roman  officers  themselves  were  almost 
exclusively  of  the  standard  Italic  type,  which  differed  little  from  that  of 
the  Kelts,  except  in  stature;  but  they  introduced  to  London  and  other 
towns  urban  populations  from  various  parts  of  the  empire  in  which  the 
Alpine  race  seems  to  have  been  most  noticeable.2 

The  inruption  of  the  Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes,  which  brought  to 
England  her  present  language  and  national  identity,  introduced  into  the 
eastern  counties  of  both  England  and  Scotland  a  numerous  population  of 
Iron  Age  Nordics  fresh  from  Denmark  and  Germany.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
were  tall,  heavy-boned,  long-faced  mesocephals  showing  suggestions  of 
the  Tronder  racial  type  which  we  have  already  studied  in  Norway. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  Saxons  were  pressing  the  Picts  on  the  eastern 
Scottish  coasts,  the  Irish  Goidels  were,  invading  Scotland  from  the  east, 
and  the  two  groups,  the  Germans  and  Kelts,  squeezed  the  Picts  between 
the  two  jaws  of  a  pair  of  pincers.  The  Picts  lost  their  language,  whatever 
it  may  have  been,  and  their  ethnic  identity,  and  at  the  same  time  Scotland 
assumed  her  traditional  segregation  into  east  and  west,  highlands  and 
lowlands,  Gaelic  and  Saxon  speech. 

1  Hubert,  H.,  The  Rise  of  the  Celts,  pp.  192-197. 

2Morant,  G.  M,  and  Hoadley,  M.  F.,  Biometrika,  vol.  23,  1931,  pp.  191-248. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  373 

The  westward  penetration  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  farther  to  the  south 
isolated  the  shrinking  area  of  Kymric  speech  into  three  disconnected 
centers;  Strathclyde  in  the  north,  Wales  in  the  middle,  and  Cornwall  in 
the  south.  Of  these  three  Strathclyde  was  the  first  to  lose  its  Keltic  speech, 
while  that  of  Cornwall  survived  into  the  last  century,  and  Welsh  still  re- 
mains. Soon  after  the  Saxons  had  established  themselves  in  England  and 
Scotland,  they  were  hampered  by  fresh  invasions  from  Scandinavia,  of 
Danes  and  Norwegians,  who  took  over  the  most  strongly  Saxon  sections 
of  eastern  England  and  Scotland.  The  Northmen  sailed  around  the  north 
of  Scotland,  settled  the  Orkneys,  and  also  left  colonies  in  the  Hebrides 
and  other  western  Scottish  Isles,  and  in  many  parts  of  Ireland.  Dublin 
itself  and  its  neighborhood  were  long  Danish  territory.  Along  the  western 
coast  of  Ireland,  in  many  places  where  Gaelic  speech  has  persisted  longest, 
as  on  the  Aran  Isles,  there  may  be  seen  a  strong  Scandinavian  cast  in 
the  racial  appearance  of  the  population.  The  Norman  invasions  brought 
to  the  British  Isles  a  further  Scandinavian  increment,  somewhat  mixed 
by  its  continental  sojourn,  and  along  with  it  adventurers  from  many  parts 
of  Europe.  These  Normans  were  not  numerous  enough,  however,  to 
affect  any  but  the  uppermost  social  levels  of  the  nation. 

The  post-Norman  racial  history  of  England  may  be  reconstructed  to 
a  certain  extent  by  means  of  six  large  and  abundantly  documented  series, 
three  from  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  and  three  from  the 
seventeenth.  The  first  three  will  be  dealt  with,  not  in  chronological  order 
because  that  is  not  precisely  known,  but  rather  in  geographical  sequence, 
from  northeast  to  southeast  to  west. 

In  Rothwell,  near  Kettering  in  Northamptonshire,  in  the  heart  of  the 
country  most  thickly  settled  by  Saxons  and  later  by  Danes,  a  cryptful  of 
skulls  and  other  bones  were  discovered,  about  two  hundred  years  ago, 
in  an  old  church.  Although  the  exact  age  and  origin  of  these  remains 
is  not  known,  the  most  logical  explanation  is  that  they  represent  the  local 
population  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.3  The  crypt  contains 
between  five  and  six  thousand  skulls,  of  which  100  male  examples  have 
been  measured.  Owing  to  the  dampness  of  their  resting  place,  the  facial 
skeletons  were  mostly  gone,  and  the  few  faces  that  had  survived  were  not 
measured.  The  vaults  fall  quite  close  to  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  type,  al- 
though they  are  not  identical  with  it,  differing  in  possessing  a  greater 
flatness  of  the  cranial  baseband  a  slightly  greater  forehead  breadth.  They 
do  not,  however,  resemble  the  skulls  of  Anglo-Saxons,  and  the  significance 
of  this  series  is  that  in  the  heart  of  Saxon  country  a  population  should  have 
existed,  as  early  or  as  late  as  the  fourteenth  century,  which  had  almost 
entirely  reverted  to  a  pre-Saxon  racial  type.  The  male  stature  mean, 

*  Parsons,  F.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  40,  1910,  pp.  483-504. 


374  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

of  167  cm.,  is  furthermore  shorter  than  that  of  the  Saxons  and  closer  to 
what  we  assume  to  have  been  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  level. 

In  the  vaulted  ambulatory  of  St.  Leonard's  Church  at  Hythe,  Kent, 
is  another  collection  of  skulls  presumably  from  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries,  although  they  may  range  anywhere  in  date  between  1100  and 
1600  A.D.4  These  crania,  of  which  112  male  specimens  have  been  thor- 
oughly studied,  represent  a  fairly  homogeneous  brachyccphalic  group, 
of  small  to  moderate  head  size,  and  of  Alpine  racial  type.  They  can  by 
no  means  be  considered  a  Bronze  Age  survival,  since  they  differ  pro- 
foundly from  any  known  Bronze  Age  form;  they  resemble,  however,  the 
Spitalsfields  crania  from  Roman  London,  which  represents  a  continental 
population,  probably  largely  Italian,  which  had  been  transplanted  to 
London  by  the  Romans. 

Stoessiger  and  Morant  believe  that  by  the  time  of  this  Kentish  series, 
the  Roman  population  of  London,  which  must  have  survived  the  de- 
parture of  the  Roman  authorities  by  several  centuries,  had  been  largely 
eliminated  and  replaced  by  new  blood.  In  Kent,  however,  which  was 
one  of  the  most  thoroughly  Romanized  parts  of  Britain,5  they  postulate  a 
racial  survival  of  the  descendants  of  Roman-planted  auxiliaries,  marines, 
and  tradesmen  into  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  Variations  in 
the  cranial  index  in  different  parts  of  the  ambulatory  suggest  that  the 
original  heaping,  being  chronological,  revealed  a  gradual  change  of  type. 
In  any  case,  the  modern  Kentish  population  is  not  of  this  Hythe  type, 
which  seems  in  the  meanwhile  to  have  disappeared  by  absorption. 

A  third  but  small  collection  of  skulls  of  the  same  period  comes  from 
the  mediaeval  Carmelite  Cemetery  at  Bristol.6  It  is  estimated  that  during 
the  fourteenth  century  20  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bristol  were  immi- 
grants from  southern  France,  but  that  in  the  following  centuries  this  ele- 
ment, since  it  was  not  renewed,  was  absorbed  into  the  general  population. 
At  the  same  time  immigrants  entered  from  Wales,  Gloucestershire,  and 
Somersetshire,  in  connection  with  the  growing  maritime  importance  of 
Bristol,  and  these  latter  replaced  the  French  influence  with  a  Kymric 
tinge. 

In  the  early  Bristol  series,  in  which  French  blood  was  without  doubt 
an  important  factor,  mesocephaly  is  the  rule,  with  a  considerable  range 
of  head  form.  Both  ordinary  Keltic  Iron  Age  type  crania  are  found,  and 
moderately  large  Alpine  brachycephals  with  wide  foreheads,  which  seem 

4  Stoessiger,  B.  N.,  and  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  24,  1932,  pp.  135-202. 
Parsons,  F.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  38,  1908,  pp.  419-450. 

5  West  Hythe,  Portus  Limanus,  was  an  important  seaport  in  Roman  times  and  later, 
but  declined  when  the  harbor  silted  up  about  1 600  A.D. 

«Beddoe,  J.,  JRAI,  vol.  37,  1907,  pp.  215-219. 
See  also  Andree,  R.,  Globus,  vol.  27,  1900,  p.  135. 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES  375 

to  represent  the  French  element.  In  our  three  series  from  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  then,  we  are  struck  by  the  tendency  in  England 
for  local  racial  enclaves  to  persist  and  to  be  formed;  the  Rothwell  series 
represents  an  Iron  Age  survival,  that  from  Hythe  a  colonial  carry-over 
from  Roman  times,  and  the  Bristol  collection  a  local  Keltic  and  conti- 
nental combination. 

Let  us  turn  to  the  seventeenth  century,  during  which  disasters  of  great 
magnitude  took  place  in  London,  the  chief  of  which  was  the  great  plague 
of  1666  A.D.  Wholesale  deaths  which  occurred  during  this  century  over- 
crowded the  cemeteries,  and  resulted  in  the  dumping  of  bodies  into  plague 
pits.  Thus  were  formed  the  two  large  cranial  series  of  Whitechapel 7 
and  Moorfields,8  while  a  third,  the  Farringdon  Street  series,9  was  ob- 
tained by  the  disposal  of  a  cemetery  to  obtain  building  space. 

These  three  series  are  very  similar  to  one  another,  although  they  are 
not  identical;  they,  nevertheless,  represent  a  single,  clearly  differentiated 
and  reasonably  homogeneous  population.  In  all  measurements,  indices, 
and  angles  little  difference  can  be  found  between  the  three  hundred  male 
crania  of  which  these  series  are  composed  and  the  general  series  of  Iron 
Age  Keltic  invaders  of  England.  The  resemblance  is  morphological  as 
well  as  metrical;  for  the  same  low,  cylindrical  vaults,  the  same  exagger- 
atedly sloping  foreheads,  and  the  same  pinched  faces  and  narrow  noses, 
typify  this  city  population  of  seventeenth  century  Londoners.  The  con- 
tinental Roman  townsman,  as  exemplified  by  the  Spitalfields  series,  seems 
to  have  died  out  utterly  in  Defoe's  London.  There  may,  as  Morant  sug- 
gests, have  been  social  selection  at  play  in  the  formation  of  these  series; 
the  upper  classes  may  have  disposed  of  their  dead  elsewhere;  still  the 
seventeenth  century  London  type  must  have  been  predominantly  Iron 
Age  Nordic  of  the  Keltic  variety,  and  this  in  turn  must  have  been  an- 
cestral to  the  modern  Cockney.  The  arrival  in  London  and  other  English 
towns  of  several  thousands  of  French  Huguenots  and  of  Dutchmen  fleeing 
the  cruelty  of  the  Duke  of  Alva,  took  place  for  the  most  part  too  late  in 
the  seventeenth  century  for  inclusion  in  the  plague  pits. 

That  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  cranial  type,  in  mediaeval  and  modern  times, 
is  not  confined  to  London,  is  made  evident  by  a  number  of  series  from 
graveyards  in  other  regions.  A  collection  of  524  male  skulls  from  a  modern 
Glasgow  cemetery,  representing  the  western-central  part  of  Scotland, 
shows  the  predominance  of  this  racial  type  with  considerable  fidelity.10 
This  series  is  drawn  from  the  region  in  which  the  Scots  of  Deira  settled 

7  MacDonnell,  W.  R.,  Biometrika,  vol.  3,  1904,  pp.  191-244. 
8MacDonnell,  W.  R.,  Biometrika,  vol.  5,  1906-07,  pp.  88-104. 
"Hooke,  B.  G.  E.,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1928,  pp.  1-55. 

10  Young,  M.,  TRSE,  vol.  51,  1917,  pp.  347-454;  Biometrika,  vol.  23,  1931,  pp.  10- 
22. 


376  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

when  they  moved  across  from  Ireland  and  began  their  conquest  and  ab- 
sorption of  the  Pictish  kingdom.  The  inference  is  that  the  Goidelic  in- 
vasion of  western  Scotland  was  an  important  mass  movement  of  people. 

Another  series,  including  54  male  Lowland  Scottish  crania,11  was  drawn 
from  the  counties  which  include  the  former  Kymric  kingdom  of  Strath- 
clyde,  as  well  as  part  of  Berenicia.  In  this  series  both  Keltic  Iron  Age 
and  Saxon  type  crania  are  represented,  the  former  with  the  greater  fre- 
quency. It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  cranial  type  of  the  northern  Kymri 
is  not  perceptibly  different  from  that  of  the  Irish-derived  Gaels. 

A  third  series,  consisting  of  22  modern  male  crania  from  the  north- 
eastern shires  of  Scotland,  and  mostly  from  Fifeshire,  differs  radically 
from  the  two  described  above.12  Ten  out  of  the  twenty-two  crania  are 
brachycephalic,  with  the  highest  index  87,  and  the  mean  for  the  groups 
is  80.2.  These  skulls  are  large,  with  a  mean  cranial  length  of  185.4  mm.; 
they  are  both  wide  and  long  faced,  with  a  bizygomatic  mean  of  135  mm., 
and  a  menton-nasion  height  of  123  mm.;  they  fall  morphologically  as 
well  as  metrically  into  a  full-sized  Bronze  Age  category,  and  represent 
the  usual  Bronze  Age  blend  in  which  Borreby  and  Dinaric  elements  are 
most  noticeable.  The  importance  of  this  series  is  that  in  the  part  of  Scot- 
land which  remained  Pictish  longest,  an  aggregation  of  crania  from  as 
late  as  the  nineteenth  century,  selected  at  random,  should  show  the  sur- 
vival of  Bronze  Age  racial  types  in  comparative  purity. 

(2)    IRELAND 

In  the  following  study  of  the  racial  character  of  the  living  population 
of  the  British  Isles,  I  shall  reverse  the  usual  order  of  "Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,"  and  deal  first  with  Eire.  There  are  two  excellent  reasons 
for  this  decision;  in  the  first  place,  Ireland,  being  the  westernmost  of  the 
two  islands,  is  the  more  marginal  in  an  ethnological  as  well  as  geograph- 
ical sense,  it  is  the  less  varied,  and  has  had  the  simpler  racial  history; 
in  the  second  place,  anthropometric  data  concerning  the  Irish  are  abun- 
dant, accurate,  and  detailed,  while  those  which  serve  to  describe  the 
English,  Welsh,  and  Scots  are  far  less  satisfactory.13 

11  Hooke,  B.  G.  E.,  and  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  18,  1926,  pp.  99-104. 
Turner,  Sir  W.,  TRSE,  vol.  40,  part  iii,  1902-03,  pp.  547-614;  JAPL,  vol.  37, 

1903,  pp.  392-408. 

12  Reworked  from  Turner,  TRSE,  vol.  51,  1917,  pp.  171-253. 

13  This  section  is  almost  entirely  based  upon  the  as  yet  unpublished  series  of  some 
10,000  adult  Irish  males,  drawn  from  all  counties,  all  religious  communities,  and  all 
social  and  occupational  levels  in  both  Eire  and  Northern  Ireland.    This  huge  and 
amply  documented  series  was  measured  by  Mr.  C.  Wesley  Dupertuis  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Division  of  Anthropology  of  Harvard  University,  and  with  the  close  cooperation 
of  both  governments  in  Ireland.    The  data  have  been  tabulated  and  seriated  in  the 
Harvard  Anthropometric  Laboratory,  under  the  direction  of  Professor  Earnest  A. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  377 

Historically,  we  have  seen  that  Ireland  was  settled  at  successive  periods 
by  Palaeolithic  survivors  from  northern  Europe  by  way  of  Scotland,  by 
Megalithic  Atlanto-Mediterraneans,  by  Dinaric  peoples  from  the  eastern 
Mediterranean  who  came  by  way  of  Spain,  by  Keltic  Iron  Age  Nordics, 
and  by  various  groups  of  Scandinavians,  of  Normans,  and  of  English. 
Of  these  various  peoples  the  one  which  gave  the  island  its  language  and 
the  characteristic  flavor  of  its  historic  culture  was  the  Keltic.  Christian 
Iron  Age  skeletal  remains,  from  various  parts  of  Ireland,  belong  pre- 
dominantly to  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  type,  and  are  very  similar  to  the 
skeletal  series  from  sixteenth  century  London  reviewed  in  the  last  section.14 

The  living  Irish,  who  form  the  world's  largest  surviving  bloc  of  Keltic 
people  in  the  cultural  sense,  are  also  to  a  certain  extent  and  in  many  in- 
stances representatives  of  this  racial  type;  but  this  is  not  the  chief  one 
represented,  and  the  individual  Irish  frequently  recapitulate  each  of  the 
different  racial  elements  which  have  contributed  to  Irish  ethnic  history. 
By  and  large,  geographical  differences  in  Ireland  are  not  great;  it  is  pos- 
sible to  define  a  mean  or  total  Irish  type,  and  then  to  see  how  this  may  be 
broken  up  into  local  elements. 

The  composite  Irishman,  representing  the  mean  of  ten  thousand  of 
his  countrymen,  is  35  years  old,  172  cm.  tall,  and  weighs  157  pounds. 
He  is  well  built,  muscular,  and  large  boned,  with  shoulders  39  cm.  broad, 
and  a  trunk  length  which  is  53.3  per  cent  of  his  total  height.  His  arms 
are  long,  and  his  span  is  105.3  per  cent  of  his  stature.  So  far,  his  bodily 
dimensions  and  proportions  might  be  matched  among  western  Nor- 
wegians, Icelanders,  many  Swedes,  Livs,  and  Finns  of  Finland.  His  head 
is  large,  for  Ireland  has  consistently  the  largest  head  size  of  any  equal 
land  area  in  Europe.  The  three  principal  vault  dimensions  of  his  head, 
196  mm.  by  154  mm.  by  125  mm.,  give  him  the  mesocephalic  cephalic 

Hooton.  This  material  will  be  summarized  in  the  following  pages  with  the  express  per- 
mission of  the  appropriate  authorities;  its  present  use  is  intended  in  no  way  to  antici- 
pate the  later  publication  of  a  detailed  report  by  Professor  Hooton  and  Mr.  Dupertuis, 
which  report  will  contain  a  careful  racial  analysis  impossible  here.  Opinions  expressed 
in  these  pages  as  to  the  racial  significance  of  this  material  are  rny  own,  and  do  not 
necessarily  anticipate  the  findings  of  the  future  authors  of  the  detailed  monograph. 

Earlier  works  upon  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  living  Irish,  useful  for  compara- 
tive purposes  and  for  detailed  regional  study,  include: 

Beddoe,  J.,  RBAA,  vol.  64,  1894,  p.  775. 

Browne,  C.  R.,  PRIA,  ser.  3,  vol.  3,  1893-96,  pp.  317-370,  587-649;  vol.  4,  1896- 
98,  pp.  74-111 ;  vol.  5, 1898-1900,  pp.  223-268,  269-293;  vol.  6, 1900-02,  pp.  503-534. 

Haddon,  A.  C.,  and  Browne,  C.  R.,  The  Ethnography  of  the  Aran  Islands. 

Series  of  Irish  measured  in  America  are  to  be  found  in: 

Gould,  B.  A.,  Investigations  in  the  Military  and  Anthropological  Statistics  of  American  Soldiers. 

Davenport,  G.  B.,  and  Love,  A.  G.,  Army  Anthropometry. 

Hrdlifcka,  A.,  The  Old  Americans. 

"  Howeils,  W.  W.,  AJPA,  vol.  23,  1937,  pp.  19-29. 

Martin,  C.  P.,  Prehistoric  Man  in  Ireland. 


378  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

index  of  nearly  79,  and  the  moderately  hypsicephalic  length-height  index 
of  64.  His  cranial  vault,  like  his  body,  could  again  be  matched  among 
the  larger-headed  peoples  of  Scandinavia  and  the  Baltic  lands. 

Both  his  forehead  and  his  lower  jaw  are  unusually  broad,  with  minimum 
frontal  and  bigonial  diameters  of  over  109  mm.;  this  great  facial  breadth 
is  furthermore  expressed  by  a  bizygomatic  diameter  of  141  mm.  The 
face  is  long  as  well  as  broad,  with  a  menton-nasion  height  of  127  mm., 
and  an  upper  face  height  of  73  mm.  The  facial  index  of  over  90  is  lepto- 
prosopic,  while  the  upper  facial  index  of  less  than  52  is  mesene.  The  nasal 
dimensions  of  56  mm.  and  36  mm.  indicate  a  large  nose,  with  an  only 
moderately  leptorrhine  nasal  index  of  between  64  and  65. 

Without  further  details,  it  is  possible  to  state  what,  in  a  general  sense, 
the  metrical  dimensions  and  proportions  summarized  above  must  mean. 
In  stature  and  in  sagittal  dimensions  of  the  head  and  face,  the  composite 
Irishman  might  well  be  considered  a  Nordic  in  the  Iron  Age  sense,  of 
the  Hallstatt  variety  as  represented  by  living  inhabitants  of  eastern  Nor- 
way, or  even  of  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  variety  as  represented  by  abundant 
skeletal  series  from  England.  But  in  total  bulk  and  in  lateral  diameters, 
he  exceeds  any  known  Nordic  form,  and  in  fact  cannot  be  considered  an 
unmixed  descendant  of  the  greater  Mediterranean  family  of  races.  He 
is  comparable  in  these  respects  to  the  western  Norwegians,  to  the  Livs, 
and  to  some  of  the  Finns.  In  order  to  explain  his  metrical  character,  it 
is  necessary  to  invoke  the  mass  absorption  by  either  Megalithic  Atlanto- 
Mediterraneans,  or  Iron  Age  Nordics,  or  both,  of  an  earlier  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic strain,  which  entered  Ireland  in  a  Mesolithic  cultural  condition. 
The  living  composite  Irishman  is  not  a  pure  Cr6-Magnon  or  Briinn- 
Pfedmost  man,  but  it  would  be  no  exaggeration  to  say  that,  from  a  met- 
rical standpoint,  at  least  half  of  his  genetic  ancestry  is  to  be  derived  from 
such  a  source.  Since  the  number  of  Mesolithic  cultural  survivors  must 
have  been  quite  small  in  proportion  to  that  of  the  later  invaders  of  Ireland, 
we  are  faced  with  a  not  uncommon  situation,  in  which  an  older  racial 
element  has,  by  differential  breeding  rates,  reemerged. 

Having  established  our  composite  Irishman,  let  us  see  what  the  dif- 
ferences are  from  this  standard  in  reference  to  religious  groups  and  to 
regions.  The  Catholics,  who  form  the  great  majority  of  the  population, 
fall  close  to  the  means  reviewed  above.  The  Presbyterians,  who  are  con- 
centrated in  the  North  and  who  are  in  part  the  descendants  of  immigrants 
from  Scotland,  are  a  centimeter  taller  and  three  pounds  heavier  than 
the  Catholics;  their  heads  are  a  millimeter  longer,  a  millimeter  narrower, 
and  a  millimeter  higher;  their  foreheads  are  a  little  narrower,  their  upper 
face  heights  longer,  while  other  dimensions  remain  practically  the  same. 
The  members  of  the  Anglican  Church  of  Ireland,  on  the  other  hand,  are 


THE  BRITISH  ISlES  379 

virtually  the  same  as  the  Catholics  in  height  and  weight,  and  in  head 
length  and  head  height,  but  are  smaller  in  head  breadth,  the  three 
breadths  of  the  face,  and  in  nose  size.  While  the  Orangemen  slightly 
exceed  the  Catholics  in  some  of  the  features  which  make  the  Irish  type 
distinctive,  the  Church  of  Ireland  Protestants  tend  rather  toward  a  more 
usual  Nordic  metrical  norm. 

The  regional  differences  are  not  great,  with  a  single  exception,  that  of 
the  Aran  Isles.  The  hypermarginal,  culturally  conservative  Gaelic  speakers 
of  these  islands  seem  to  have  formed,  in  isolation  and  by  inbreeding,  a 
distinct  local  racial  entity.  They  are  the  tallest  Irish  group,  with  a  mean 
stature  of  174.5  cm.;  they  are  longer  legged,  leaner,  and  lighter  in  weight 
than  most  of  the  others;  their  head  length  mean  reaches  the  excessive 
dimension  of  198.3  mm.,  while  their  head  height,  120.3  mm.,  is  ex- 
tremely low.  Thus  they  have  the  relatively  low  cephalic  index  of  77.8, 
and  the  orthocephalic  length-height  index  of  60.7.  Their  total  face 
height  reaches  the  extreme  mean  of  130  mm.,  their  nose  height  of  57  mm. 
It  is  impossible,  at  present  at  least,  to  discover  a  continental  prototype 
for  the  Aran  Island  racial  dimensions.  For  the  moment  we  must  consider 
it  a  local  development  of  race-forming  proportions. 

Aside  from  the  Aran  Islands,  we  find  that  the  tallest  population  lives 
along  the  western  coast,  from  Gal  way  to  Kerry;  the  shortest  in  the  east, 
in  the  counties  of  Wicklow,  Carlow,  and  Dublin.  The  heaviest  men  live 
in  the  western  counties,  with  one  center  in  Mayo,  Galway,  and  Ros- 
common,  another  in  Kerry.  In  these  counties  the  means  attain  160-161 
pounds;  in  the  east,  from  Louth  to  Carlow,  they  fall  to  153-154  pounds. 
There  is  very  little  regional  variation  in  head  length,  but  the  breadth 
varies  from  means  of  over  155  mm.  in  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  Clare,  and 
Mayo,  to  those  between  152  and  153  mm.  in  all  of  southeastern  and  eastern 
counties  included  within  a  line  drawn  from  Armagh  to  Longford,  and 
south  to  Waterford.  Head  height  varies  little,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
sagittal  dimensions  of  the  face.  The  same  regional  divisions  which  are 
seen  in  head  breadth  are  maintained  in  the  three  breadths  of  the  face; 
minimum  frontals  and  bigonials  of  110  and  111  mm.  typify  the  western 
counties,  of  107  and  108  mm.  the  eastern;  western  bizygomatic  means 
run  to  141  and  142  mm.,  those  in  the  east  to  139  mm.  On  the  whole, 
greater  size  and  greater  laterality  are  concentrated  in  the  western  counties 
from  Mayo  and  Galway  to  Cork,  with  Kerry  as  the  greatest  center;  in 
Kerry  the  cephalic  index  rises  to  80;  in  the  eastern  counties  it  falls  to  78. 
The  inference  is  that  the  maximum  survival  of  the  Mesolithic  food- 
gathering  population  is  to  be  found  in  the  west  and  southwest  of  Ireland, 
in  the  more  mountainous,  more  rugged  part  of  the  country,  and  in  the 
very  section  which  is  poor  in  archaeological  remains;  on  the  other  han4 


380  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

the  descendants  of  the  later  invaders,  from  Neolithic  through  Iron  Age 
times,  are  most  concentrated  on  the  more  fertile  land  along  the  Irish 
Sea,  and  on  the  Great  Plain. 

Let  us  now  examine  the  pigment  characters  and  morphological  traits 
of  the  Irish,  both  as  a  total  group  and  regionally.  In  the  first  place,  the 
Irish  are  almost  uniquely  pale  skinned  when  unexposed,  untanned  parts 
of  the  body,  are  observed.  Out  of  10,000  men,  over  90  per  cent  had 
skins  of  the  pale  pink  shade  represented  by  von  Luschan  #3,  while  not  a 
single  individual  was  darker  than  von  Luschan  #11.  Although  regional 
differences  are  not  great,  they  are  suggestive.  In  the  southwestern  coastal 
regions  which  we  have  designated  as  a  metrical  unit,  the  darker  shades 
run  from  4  per  cent  to  7  per  cent;  in  the  east,  in  the  central  plain  and 
the  counties  near  and  south  of  Dublin,  they  run  from  10  per  cent  to  18 
per  cent. 

The  pale  Irish  skin,  where  exposed  to  the  sun,  shows  a  marked  inclina- 
tion to  freckling.  Forty  per  cent  of  the  entire  group  are  freckled  to  some 
extent;  in  Kerry  the  ratio  rises  as  high  as  60  per  cent,  in  Waterford  and 
Wexford,  Carlow  and  Wicklow — the  southeastern  counties — it  falls  to 
30  per  cent.  Thus  a  difference  of  two  to  one  in  this  character  serves  to 
differentiate  the  southwest  from  the  southeast  even  more  clearly  than  do 
metrical  criteria. 

The  hair  form  shows  a  difference  between  Protestants  and  Catholics; 
44  per  cent  of  Protestants  have  straight  hair,  and  only  28  per  cent  of 
Catholics;  the  most  numerous  category  in  both  groups,  however,  is  low 
waves.  The  hair  is  almost  uniformly  medium  in  texture;  coarse  and  fine 
alike  are  rare.  The  beard  is  moderately  developed  in  the  general  European 
sense,  extremely  heavy  and  sparse  beards  are  alike  rare.  At  the  same 
time  the  body  hair,  which  is  almost  always  present,  is  of  a  moderate 
development,  and  few  very  hairy  men  are  found.  The  Aran  Islanders 
are  much  less  hairy,  much  thinner  bearded,  and  on  the  whole  straighter 
haired,  than  the  other  Irish.  Elsewhere  the  waviest  hair,  along  with  a 
minimum  of  pilous  development,  is  found  in  the  Great  Plain. 

The  hair  color  of  the  Irish  is  predominantly  brown;  black  hair  accounts 
for  less  than  3  per  cent  of  the  total,  while  the  ashen  series  (Fischer  #20-26) 
amounts  to  but  one-half  of  one  per  cent.  Forty  per  cent  have  dark  brown 
hair  (Fischer  #4-5);  35  per  cent  have  medium  brown  (Fischer  #7-9); 
reddish  brown  hues  total  over  5  per  cent  (closest  to  Fischer  #6,  #10), 
while  clear  reds  (Fischer  #1-3)  run  higher  than  4  per  cent.  The  rest, 
some  15  per  cent,  fall  into  a  light  brown  to  golden  blond  category  (Fischer 
#11-1 9).  Thus  the  hair  color  of  the  Irish  is  darker  than  that  of  most  regions 
of  Scandinavia,  but  not  much  darker  than  Iceland;  it  is  notably  different 
from  Nordic  hair,  as  exemplified  by  eastern  Norwegians  and  Swedes, 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  381 

in  its  almost  total  lack  of  ash-blondism.  The  rufous  hair  color  pigment 
reaches  a  world  maximum  here;  not  so  much  in  reds  as  in  the  prevalence 
of  golden  hues  in  blond  and  brown  shades.  The  lightest  hair  is  found  in 
the  Aran  Islands,  where  the  commonest  shade  is,  nevertheless,  medium 
brown;  in  the  southwestern  counties  there  are  more  goldens  and  at  the 
same  time  more  dark-browns  than  in  Ireland  as  a  whole,  while  the  Great 
Plain  runs  fairest  of  all.  Red  hair,  with  a  regional  maximum  of  8  per  cent, 
is  commonest  in  Ulster,  rarest  in  Waterford  and  Wexford. 

In  the  proportion  of  pure  light  eyes,  Ireland  competes  successfully  with 
the  blondest  regions  of  Scandinavia.  Over  46  per  cent  of  the  total  group 
has  pure  light  eyes,  and  of  these  all  but  4  per  cent  are  blue.  Very  light- 
mixed  eyes  (equivalent  to  Martin  #13-14)  account  for  another  30  per  cent, 
while  less  than  one-half  of  one  per  cent  have  pure  brown.  There  is  prob- 
ably no  population  of  equal  size  in  the  world  which  is  lighter  eyed,  and 
bluer  eyed,  than  the  Irish.  The  almost  total  absence  of  gray  eyes  corre- 
sponds to  the  equal  paucity  of  ash-blond  hair.  Compared  to  eastern 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Finnic  and  Baltic  groups,  the  eye  color  is  dispro- 
portionately light  in  comparison  to  hair  color.  Regional  differences, 
while  not  great,  are  of  some  importance.  The  ratio  of  pure  blue  eyes  falls 
to  33  per  cent  in  Kerry  and  Glare,  and  rises  to  50  per  cent  in  other  re- 
gions— Carlow  and  Wicklow  in  the  southeast,  and  Armagh,  Monaghan, 
and  eastern  Cavan  in  the  North.  On  the  whole,  the  east  is  lighter  eyed 
than  the  west,  as  it  is  lighter  haired.  At  the  same  time  the  Presbyterians 
are  blonder  than  the  Catholics,  who  are  in  turn  fairer  than  the  members 
of  the  Church  of  Ireland. 

External  eyefolds  occur  in  1 3  per  cent  of  the  total ;  median  and  internal 
eyefolds  are  apparently  rare  or  lacking;  eyebrows  show  some  degree  of 
concurrency  in  all  but  2  per  cent  of  the  group,  and  the  greatest  concur- 
rency is  found  in  the  north  and  east,  the  least  in  the  south  and  west; 
regional  differences  are  consistent  but  small.  Since  concurrent  eyebrows 
are  not  a  Nordic  trait,  and  there  cannot  be  enough  Bronze  Age  Dinaric 
blood  in  Ireland  to  have  spread  this  feature  to  the  entire  population,  one 
assumes  that  it  goes  with  the  older  Mesolithic  strain.  Bushy  eyebrows, 
not  included  in  this  survey,  are  known  by  common  observation  to  be 
prevalent  among  the  Irish,  especially  in  advanced  age. 

Moderately  developed  browridges  are  observed  in  over  half  the  Irish 
group;  pronounced  ones  in  20  per  cent.  A  Mediterranean  smoothness  of 
the  supraorbital  region  is  rare.  The  strongest  browridges  are  found  in 
the  Aran  Islands  and  in  the  southwestern  counties,  especially  in  Kerry, 
Cork,  Kilkenny,  and  Tipperary.  Another  center  is  found  in  Ulster,  and 
on  the  whole  the  Protestants  have  heavier  browridges  than  the  Catholics. 

In  the  profile  of  the  nose,  convex  forms  total  45  per  cent,  straight  48 


382  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

per  cent;  while  the  rest  are  mostly  concave.  There  is  a  special  center  of 
nasal  convexity  in  the  northwest,  especially  in  Donegal,  Mayo,  and  Gal- 
way.  Concave  profiles,  on  the  other  hand,  are  commonest  in  the  south- 
west, and  reach  the  ratio  of  10  per  cent  in  Kerry.  Protestants  are  much 
more  frequently  convex  in  nasal  profile  than  Catholics,  and  concavity 
is  at  a  minimum  among  them. 

The  tip  of  the  nose  is  of  moderate  thickness  in  three-fourths  of  the 
Irish,  thick  in  almost  all  the  rest;  few  have  really  thin  tips.  Such  regional 
variation  as  there  is  shows  that  the  fewest  thick  tips  occur  in  the  Aran 
Isles  and  in  northwestern  Ireland;  the  greatest  number  of  them  in  the 
east,  and  on  the  Great  Plain.  The  nasal  tip  of  the  Irish  is,  on  the  whole, 
too  thick  for  a  strictly  Nordic  classification.  At  the  same  time  less  than 
2  per  cent  of  these  nasal  tips  point  downward,  and  almost  all  the  rest 
are  inclined  upward;  pronouncedly  upturned  noses  occur  as  frequently 
as  in  20  per  cent  of  cases  in  some  counties.  Aside  from  East  Baltic  and 
eastern  Slavic  countries,  it  is  unlikely  that  any  region  in  Europe  possesses 
so  high  a  ratio  of  elevated  nasal  tips,  which,  in  the  complex  of  races 
which  have  entered  into  the  Irish  people,  can  only  be  associated  with  the 
Palaeolithic  element.  The  Alpines,  Lapps,  the  East  Baltics,  and  the 
central  Asiatic  mongoloids,  all  being  to  some  extent  Palaeolithic  survivors, 
are  all  characteristically  snub-nosed. 

The  nasal  wings  are  almost  uniformly  medium  in  lateral  extension; 
compressed  and  flaring  forms  are  about  equal  in  number  and  together 
form  but  10  per  cent  of  the  whole.  The  distribution  of  these  is  of  no  im- 
portance, except  that  the  most  compressed  are  found  in  the  Aran  Isles. 
The  lips  are  as  a  rule  of  moderate  thickness  and  eversion;  very  thin, 
straight  or  convex  lips  are  not  uncommon,  particularly  in  the  south;  while 
very  thick  or  very  everted  lips  are  not  found  anywhere.  The  lips  and  the 
whole  mouth  region  are  sometimes,  however,  thrown  into  prominence 
by  the  presence  of  facial  prognathism;  this  occurs  in  8  per  cent  of  the 
whole,  while  purely  alveolar  prognathism  is  found  in  but  2  per  cent. 
There  is  a  strong  regional  differentiation  in  both  kinds  of  prognathism, 
however;  the  center  of  concentration  is  in  the  eastern  counties,  from 
Armagh  to  Waterford;  facial  prognathism  reaches  its  maximum  of  24  per 
cent  in  Wicklow  and  Carlow.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  counties 
which  show  the  maximum  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  features  are  the  least 
prognathous  of  all,  and  that  the  Protestants  show  it  more  frequently, 
to  a  slight  degree,  than  do  the  Catholics. 

One  feature  for  which  the  Irish  face  is  famous  in  caricature,  along  with 
the  freckles,  the  great  malar  breadth,  the  upturned  nose,  and  the  long, 
convex  upper  lip,  is  the  great  prominence  of  the  chin.  Sub-medium  chin 
development,  characteristic  of  many  European  racial  groups,  is  found  in 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES  383 

but  10  per  cent  of  the  whole  in  Ireland,  but  rises  to  15  per  cent  and  17  per 
cent  in  the  counties  of  Ulster,  where  it  is  commonest;  the  extremely  pro- 
jecting, square  chin,  often  cleft,  also  attains  nearly  10  per  cent  of  the 
whole,  and  is  concentrated  in  the  southwestern  counties  of  Cork,  Kerry, 
Limerick,  Kilkenny,  and  Tipperary,  reaching  a  maximum  of  15  per  cent 
in  Cork.  One  more  feature,  less  noticeable  on  the  living  but  even  more 
important  as  a  diagnostic  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors,  is  lamb- 
doidal  flattening.  Among  Irish  Catholics  this  is  found  in  81  per  cent  of 
the  whole,  while  among  Presbyterian  Protestants,  only  27  per  cent,  and 
among  Church  of  Ireland  members,  40  per  cent  possess  it.  Its  regional 
variability  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  character  studied;  it  ranges 
from  over  90  per  cent  in  all  the  western  counties  to  but  54  per  cent  in 
Waterford  and  Wexford.  On  the  other  hand  some  degree  of  occipital 
flattening,  which  is  associated  with  the  Bronze  Age  Dinaric  element  in 
the  Irish  population,  is  perceptible  in  18  per  cent  of  the  population,  and 
is  especially  concentrated  in  Ulster  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  east. 
It  is  especially  prevalent  among  Protestants,  particularly  Presbyterians. 
We  have  now  reviewed  in  some  detail  the  racial  characters  of  the  living 
Irish,  and  are  prepared  to  make  some  tentative  conclusions.  These  are: 
the  Irish  people  represent  a  blend  between  two  principal  racial  groups, 

(a)  the  survivors  of  the  unreduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  people  of  north- 
western  Europe,    in  a  mesocephalic  or  sub-brachycephalic  form,   and 

(b)  a  Keltic  Iron  Age  Nordic.    The  other  two  factors,  (c)  the  tall,  long- 
headed Mediterranean  form  brought  by  •  the  Megalithic  invaders,  and 
(d)  the  Dinaric  introduced  during  the  Bronze  Age,  have  both  been  sub- 
merged by  the  earliest  and  latest  population  waves. 

The  Upper  Palaeolithic  people  are  concentrated  in  southwestern  Ire- 
land, especially  in  Kerry  and  Cork;  just  in  the  part  of  Ireland  from  which 
the  Irish  in  America  are  mostly  derived.  The  Iron  Age  Nordic  element  is 
concentrated  in  the  eastern  counties  and  in  the  fertile  Great  Plain  region 
of  central  Ireland;  what  other  Nordic  elements  brought  by  Danes  and 
English  are  also  centered  here.  The  Megalithic  and  Bronze  Age  minority 
elements  are  found  also  in  the  east,  and  the  latter  is  particularly  common 
among  members  of  the  Protestant  landlord  class. 

By  means  of  this  study  it  is  possible  to  reconstruct  with  some  probabil- 
ity the  living  appearance  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  men.  They  were  typi- 
cally tall,  broad-shouldered,  large-chested;  their  heads  were  large,  their 
browridges  heavy  to  medium;  their  foreheads  broad  and  high;  their  faces 
were  broad  and  slightly  flattish,  the  mouth  large,  with  lips  of  moderate 
thickness  and  little  eversion,  the  lines  around  the  mouth  deeply  drawn, 
the  whole  lower  jaw  wide  and  deep,  with  a  prominent  chin.  The 
nose  was  of  moderate  to  large  size,  straight  to  concave-profiled,  with  a 


384  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

moderately  thick,  upturned  tip.  The  hair  was  brown  and  wavy,  fre- 
quently rufous,  of  medium  abundance  on  beard  and  body;  the  eyes 
light-mixed  blue.  The  skin  was  typically  inclined  to  freckling,  and  very 
fair. 

In  contrast  to  this  type,  the  Iron  Age  Keltic  people  were  slightly  shorter, 
and  usually  slender  in  bodily  build,  with  finer  bones;  they  were  narrower 
in  head  and  face  diameters,  with  a  more  retreating  forehead,  a  higher- 
bridged,  more  convex-profiled  nose  with  a  thin,  less  frequently  everted 
tip;  the  mouth  was  smaller,  and  the  mandible  much  shallower  and  nar- 
rower, the  chin  of  more  moderate  dimensions.  The  hair  was  straight  or 
wavy,  brown  or  light  brown  in  color,  and  the  eyes  typically  blue. 

It  is  impossible  at  present  to  define  with  equal  clarity  the  two  minor 
types;  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean  element,  if  it  were  brown  eyed  and 
black  haired,  has  completely  lost  its  original  pigment  qualities  through 
mixture.  Yet  "Mediterranean"  types  can  be  isolated  in  Ireland,  and  one 
may  perhaps  ascribe  to  them  the  occurrence  of  prognathism  and  some  of 
the  curly  hair.  If  we  grant  that  the  eye  color  of  the  Megalithic  people 
may  have  borne  the  germ  of  blondism,  and  may  have  changed,  through 
mixture  and  other  causes,  to  mixed  and  blue,  then  there  are  Megalithic 
descendants  in  Ireland  who  can  easily  be  recognized.  The  planoccipital, 
brachycephalic,  aquiline-nosed  Dinaric  element,  if  it  were  ever  brunet, 
must  also  have  lost  its  original  pigment  association;  today  it  is  frequently 
red  haired. 

(3)   GREAT  BRITAIN,   GENERAL  SURVEY 

In  comparison  with  Ireland,  the  larger  and  more  populous  island  of 
Great  Britain  is  more  varied  in  topography  and  climate,  and  possesses  a 
much  greater  regional  variability  in  population.  The  materials  which 
serve  to  describe  the  living  British,  while  only  partly  adequate,  neverthe- 
less suffice  to  show  that  there  are  several  important  racial  differences 
between  them  and  the  Irish.  In  the  first  place,  none  of  the  regionally 
differentiated  British  groups  shows  as  great  a  reemergence  of  the  northern 
Briinn  race  as  that  in  Ireland.  In  the  second,  brunet  Mediterraneans, 
difficult  to  isolate  in  Ireland,  have  survived  or  reemerged  in  large  numbers 
in  Wales  and  in  the  manufacturing  districts  of  the  Midlands  and  of  Scot- 
land. In  the  third  place,  the  numerically  predominant  racial  element  in 
the  British  population  is  Nordic,  with  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  variety  more 
important  than  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  Germanic  form.  Brachycephals  of 
Bronze  Age  inspiration  are  not  uncommon  as  individuals,  but  have  no 
large  modern  area  of  concentration. 

In  studying  the  modern  British,  let  us  first  run  over  the  whole  island 
in  a  general  way  in  a  few  characters,  and  then  concentrate  upon  some 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  385 

of  the  more  distinctive  local  groups  which  seem  to  possess  racial  individ- 
ualities of  their  own. 

The  pigmentation  of  the  British  has,  in  no  large  or  significant  series, 
been  studied  by  means  of  standard  charts.  In  regard  to  skin  color,  little 
is  known  from  the  statistical  standpoint,  except  that  it  is  characteristically 
fair,15  and  apparently  as  light  as  that  of  the  Irish  in  most  cases,16  although 
in  certain  relatively  brunet  regions,  such  as  Devonshire,  Cornwall,  Wales, 
and  parts  of  western  Scotland,  there  are  without  doubt  darker-skinned 
minorities.  The  Irish  tendency  to  freckling  is  also  common  in  Great 
Britain,  especially  among  the  Scotch,  who  without  doubt  equal  the  Irish 
in  this  respect.17  More  characteristic  of  British  skin  than  freckling,  even, 
is  its  tendency  to  become  red  when  constantly  exposed  to  the  air.  This 
extreme  vascularity,  although  without  doubt  partly  climatic,  must  be 
racial  to  a  certain  extent,  since  it  is  accompanied  by  a  physiological  in- 
ability to  tan. 

Taking  Great  Britain  as  a  whole,  the  hair  color  of  its  inhabitants  is 
very  similar  to  that  of  the  Irish,  except  that  the  British  have  more  light 
brown,  and  the  Irish  more  dark  brown,  shades.  In  this  comparison, 
England,  including  Wales,  is  nearly  identical  with  Scotland.  Both  the 
English  and  the  Scotch  have  as  much  red  hair  as  the  Irish,  while  the  Welsh 
have  more;  both  the  Scotch  and  the  Irish  have  somewhat  higher  incre- 
ments of  black  hair  than  England  with  Wales;  and  if  Wales  is  studied 
separately,  England  emerges  as  the  lightest  haired  of  the  four  major  divi- 
sions of  the  British  Isles,  and  Wales  as  the  darkest.18 

The  regional  distribution  of  hair  color  in  Great  Britain  19  closely  follows 

15  Luschan,  F.  von,  and  Emma  von,  ZFE,  vol.  46,  1914,  pp.  58-80.  This  study  con- 
tains observations  on  84  British  scientists,  taken  with  the  von  Luschan  table. 

16  Hooton,  E.  A.,  in  data  on  many  thousands  of  American  prison  inmates,  finds 
prisoners  of  British  birth  to  be  as  fair  skinned  as  Irish  and  Scandinavian  prisoners. 
Hooton,  E.  A.,  The  American  Criminal. 

17  From  Hooton's  criminal  material. 

18  This  comparison  is  based  largely  upon  the  study  of  30,000  soldiers  born  in  the 
British  Isles,  who  served  in  the  Union  Army  during  the  American  Civil  War,  and  upon 
a  further  study  of  1 2,000  who  served  in  the  American  Expeditionary  Forces  during  the 
World  War. 

Gould,  B.  A.,  Investigations  in  the  Military  and  Anthropological  Statistics  of  American 
Soldiers. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  and  Love,  A.  G.,  Army  Anthropometry. 

19  Based  upon  numerous  studies,  including  especially  the  Report  of  the  Anthropo- 
metric  Committee,  and  the  works  of  Beddoe,  Fleure,  and  Parsons.    A  limited  bibliog- 
raphy of  general  works  on  Great  Britain  which  include  hair  color  studies,  and  of  specific 
works  on  England  and  Wales,  follows: 

Anonymous,  Report  of  the  Anthropometric  Committee,  RBAA,  Sess.  49,  1880,  pp.  175- 
209. 

Anonymous,  Final  Report  of  the  Anthropometric  Committee,  London,  1883. 

Beddoe,  J.,  The  Races  of  Britain;  The  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Isle  of  Man;  On  the 
North  Settlements  of  West  Saxons;  JRAI,  vol.  27,  T898,  pp.  164-170;  vol.  34,  1904,  pp.  92- 


386  THE   RACES  OF  EUROPE 

that  of  total  pigmentation  as  shown  on  Map  8.  In  England,  black  hair 
ranges  from  nearly  0  to  10  per  cent,  except  in  Devonshire  and  Corn- 
wall, where  it  reaches  a  maximum  of  20  per  cent  in  the  region  of  Pen- 
zance.  Along  the  eastern  coast  it  is  extremely  rare,  and  the  average 
for  the  country  is  probably  between  4  per  cent  and  5  per  cent.  Dark 
brown  hair  accounts  for  14  per  cent  to  43  per  cent  of  the  population  in 
the  different  parts  of  England.  In  general,  it  runs  below  30  per  cent  in 
the  regions  of  intensive  Saxon  and  Danish  occupation — that  is,  Lincoln- 
shire, Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Yorkshire— while  it  averages  above  30  per 
cent  in  the  west,  and  has  a  mean  of  approximately  40  per  cent  in  Corn- 
wall. Brown  hair,  a  light- to-intermediate  hue,  ranges  from  57  per  cent  to 
24  per  cent,  and  has  a  distribution  precisely  opposite  to  that  of  dark 
brown  hair,  which  may  be  considered  intermediate-to-dark.  On  the 
whole  brown  is  more  prevalent  than  dark  brown,  and  the  blond  element 
is  considerably  more  important  than  the  brunet  one  among  the  English. 
Fair  hair,  representing  golden,  ashen,  and  also  light  brown  hues,  varies 
from  5  per  cent  to  47  per  cent.  Well  over  25  per  cent  is  typical  of  the 
North  Sea  coast,  while  in  Cornwall  it  runs  from  10  per  cent  to  15  per 
cent.  Among  English  blonds,  golden  hair  is  far  commoner  than  the 
ashen  variety,  but  ash-blondism  is  by  no  means  absent,  nor  as  rare  as  in 
Ireland. 

99;  MASL,  vol.  2,  1866,  pp.  37-45,  348-357;  AR,  vol.  1,  1863,  pp.  310-312;  RBAA, 
vol.  41,  1872,  p.  147. 

Bradbrooke,  W.,  and  Parsons,  F.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  52,  1922,  pp.  113-126. 

Davies,  E.,  and  Fleure,  H.  J.,  JRAI,  vol.  46,  1936,  pp.  129-188. 

Dunlop,  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  22,  1893,  pp.  335-345. 

Eickstedt,  E.  von,   ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  19-64. 

Fleming,  R.  M.,  Man,  vol.  22,  1922,  pp.  69-75. 

Fleure,  H,  J.,  The  Races  of  England  and  Wales. 

Fleure,  H.  J.,  and  James,  T.  C.,  JRAI,  vol.  46,  1916,  pp.  35-154;  RBAA,  vol.  80, 
1910-11,  pp.  726-727. 

Flower,  W.  H.,  Garson,  J.  G.,  Bloxam,  G.  W.,  Haddon,  A.  C.,  and  Smith,  W., 
RBAA,  vol.  63,  1893-94,  pp.  654,661. 

Flower,  W.  H.,  Garson,  J.  G.,  Bloxam,  G.  W.,  Haddon,  A.  G.,  and  Windle,  B., 
RBAA,  vol.  64,  1895,  pp.  444-453. 

Fox,  A.  L.,  JRAI,  vol.  6,  1887,  pp.  443-457. 

Freire-Marecco,  B.,  Man,  vol.  9,  1909,  pp.  99-108. 

Goring,  G.,  The  English  Convict. 

Griinbauni,  O.  F.  F.,  RBAA,  vol.  67,  1898,  pp.  505-506. 

Haddon,  A.  G.,  RBAA,  pp.  503-504. 

Muffang,  M.  H.,  Anth,  vol.  10,  1899,  pp.  21-41. 

Moore,  A.  W.,  and  Beddoe,  J.,  JRAI,  vol.  27,  1897,  pp.  104-130. 

Parsons,  F.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  50,  1920,  pp.  159-182. 

Pearson,  K.,  and  Tippett,  L.  H.  C.,  Biometrika,  vol.  16,  1924,  pp.  118-138. 

Pitt-Rivers,  A.  H.  L.,  JRAI,  vol.  11,  1882,  pp.  455-471. 

Shrubsall,  F.  C.,  RSBH,  vol.  39. 

Taylor,  J.  J.,  RBAA,  vol.  67,  1898,  pp.  507-510. 

Walk,  C.  S.,  TYNU,  1886. 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES  387 

In  Wales,  10  per  cent  of  the  total  have  black  hair,  and  only  8  per  cent 
are  fair  in  the  English  sense.  Dark  brown  predominates  over  medium 
brown,  while  red,  which  averages  5  per  cent,  runs  as  high  as  9  per  cent 
in  small  localities.  Beddoe  finds  as  much  as  86  to  89  per  cent  of  black  and 
dark  brown  hair  in  such  places  as  Newquay  and  Denbighshire  Upland. 
On  the  whole,  Wales,  in  accordance  with  its  mountainous  character  and 
its  general  preservation  of  ancient  cultural  traits,  is  a  region  of  strong  local 
variability,  which  manifests  itself  particularly  in  pigmentation. 

In  Scotland,  the  systematic  study  of  7000  adult  males  and  of  half  a 
million  schoolchildren 20  makes  our  knowledge  of  the  regional  distribution 
of  hair  color  relatively  complete.  Black  hair  ranges  among  adults  from 
0  to  8  per  cent  -by  counties,  but  nowhere  attains  the  figures  observed 
in  Cornwall,  Devonshire,  and  Wales.  Dark  brown  hair  account^  for  38 
per  cent  of  the  population;  the  medium  to  light  brown  shade,  with  42 
per  cent,  is  the  most  numerous;  fair  hair  runs  to  11  per  cent,  and  red  to 
5  per  cent. 

Tocher  finds  that  jet  black  hair  is  commoner  in  the  western  highlands 
than  elsewhere,  and  is  statistically  correlated  with  the  greatest  survival  of 
Gaelic  speech.  But  since  Gaelic  was  brought  from  Ireland  in  the  Christian 
era,  and  the  Goidelic  Kelts  of  Ireland  were  not  notably  black  haired,  this 
brunet  condition  must  be  due  to  an  earlier  racial  element.  That  black 
hair  and  Keltic  speech  both  survive  in  Wales,  furthermore,  does  not  mean 
that  the  two  were  originally  associated,  for  Kymric  had  been  spoken  in 
Wales  only  a  few  hundred  years  before  the  Saxons  came.  The  western 
lowland  counties  of  Scotland,  which  include  the  ancient  Kymric  kingdom 
of  Strathclyde,  are  no  darker  in  hair  color  than  the  rest  of  Scotland. 

The  eastern  Scottish  coast,  from  Caithness  to  Berwick,  shows  little  of 
this  black  hair,  and  in  general  the  areas  of  both  Pictish  and  Saxon  con- 
centration are  quite  deficient  in  it.  This  finding  should  dispel  the  idea 

20  See  especially  the  works  of  Tocher  and  of  Gray  in  the  following  limited  bibliogra- 
phy of  works  on  Scotland  which  include  hair  color  data. 

Beddoe,  J.,  JRAI,  vol.  38,  1908,  pp.  212-220. 

Cooper,  J.,  RBAA,  vol.  67,  1898,  p.  507. 

Duncan,  J.  W.r  RBAA,  p.  506. 

Forbes,  A,,  RBAA,  p.  506. 

Gray,  J.,  RBAA,  vol.  69,  1899-1900,  pp.  874-875 ;  JRAI,  vol.  30,  1900,  pp.  104-124; 
vol.  37,  1907,  pp.  375-401. 

Gray,  J.,  and  Tocher,  J.  F.,  The  Ethnology  of  Buchan;  JRAI,  vol.  30,  1900,  pp.  86-88. 

Gregor,  W.,  RBAA,  vol.  67,  1898,  pp.  500-502. 

Macleay,  K.  S.,  RBAA,  p.  507. 

Reid,  R.  W.,  and  Mulligan,  J.  H.,  JRAI,  vol.  54,  1924,  pp.  300-313. 

Smith,  J.,  and  Gardiner,  J.  B.,  RBAA,  vol.  67,  1898,  p.  507. 

Teit,  J.  A.,  and  Parsons,  F.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  53,  1923,  pp.  473-483. 

Tocher,  J.  F.,  TBFC,  1897,  pp.  1-16;  Biometrika,  vol.  5,  1906-07,  pp.  298-350; 
vol.  6}  1908-09,  pp.  129-234;  HTR,  Edenburgh  and  London,  vols.  2  and  3,  1924. 


388  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

that  the  Picts  were  a  notably  brunet  people.  Fair  hair  is  commonest 
in  the  east,  in  both  highlands  and  lowlands,  and  is  especially  prevalent 
in  the  very  northeastern  corner,  and  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands,  where 
much  of  the  blood  is  Scandinavian. 

In  the  cities  of  Scotland  some  important  facts  in  regard  to  hair  color 
have  been  uncovered.  While  Edinburgh  and  Aberdeen  have  relatively 
fair  populations,  and  reflect  the  pigment  character  of  the  populations 
around  them,  Glasgow,  which  is  not  only  the  largest  city  in  Scotland  but 
also  the  second  largest  in  the  British  Isles,  is  notable  for  a  heavy  con- 
centration of  dark  brown  hair,  which  seems  distinctive  not  only  of  the 
city  itself  but  also  of  the  thickly  settled  manufacturing  district  which 
surrounds  it.  Tocher,  who  has  made  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  city  by 
sections,  finds  that  while  dark  hair  is  commonest  in  the  poorer  districts 
and  in  the  portions  of  the  city  which  contain  the  largest  ratio  of  foreign 
population,  it  cannot  be  entirely  attributed  to  foreign  blood,  which  is  in 
the  minority  everywhere. 

In  the  Glasgow  district,  as  in  the  Midlands,  slum  conditions  and  factory 
existence  have  brought  about  a  reemergence  of  the  older  Mediterranean 
element  in  the  population,  submerged  since  the  Neolithic;  although  pub- 
lished evidence  from  the  English  Midlands  which  will  confirm  this  is  as 
yet  lacking,  there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  general  accuracy  of  this  con- 
clusion. The  study  of  other  criteria  from  Scotland  will  confirm  it  in  regard 
to  the  Glasgow  district. 

Whereas  the  British  are  on  the  whole  lighter  haired  than  the  Irish, 
they  are  at  the  same  time  darker  eyed.  The  difference  is  not,  however, 
a  great  one,  and  in  both  England  and  Scotland  blue  and  light-mixed 
eyes  are  in  the  majority.21  Since  the  pigment  division  of  Great  Britain 
runs  north  and  south,  the  total  eye  color  classes  of  both  Scotland  and 
England-plus-Wales  are  nearly  identical,  and  regional  variations  follow 
those  of  hair  color. 

In  only  one  published  British  series  was  a  Martin  eye  color  chart  used — 
that  of  von  Luschan's  British  scientists,  a  highly  selected  group  of  84  men 
returning  from  a  scientific  congress  in  Australia.22  Of  this  group,  which 
included  Charles  Darwin  the  younger,  29.8  per  cent  had  pure  light  eyes 
(Martin  #15-16);  27.4  per  cent  light-mixed  eyes  (Martin  #12-14);  2.4  per 
cent  pure  dark  eyes  (Martin  #1-4);  while  the  remaining  40.4  per  cent  had 
medium-  or  dark-mixed  irises.  According  to  most  European  standards 
the  total  of  lights  would  be  considered  57  per  cent.  This  small  series  is  as 

21  Sources  same  as  for  skin  color  and  hair  color,  and  also : 
Galton,  E.,  JRAI,  vol.  28,  1889,  pp.  420-430. 

Pitt-Rivers,  Garson,  and  Bloxam,  RBAA,  vol.  59,  1889-90,  pp.  423-435. 

22  Luschan,  Felix  and  Emma  von,   ZFE,  vol.  46,  1914,  pp.  58-80. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  389 

light  eyed  as  some  of  the  Norwegian  coastal  groups,  but  not  as  light  as 
most  of  Scandinavia,  or  as  Ireland. 

In  the  large,  regional  studies  of  British  eye  color,  62  per  cent  of  English 
are  called  light  eyed,  and  34  per  cent  dark.  On  this  basis  the  fishermen 
of  the  English  North  Sea  coast  have  as  much  as  90  per  cent  of  light  eyes, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  the  Cornish  run  as  low  as  55  per  cent.  Other  ratios 
of  55  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  occur  in  towns  and  cities  scattered  through- 
out England,  and  seem  typical  of  urban  populations.  The  Cornish,  who 
are  the  darkest  eyed  of  the  English,  are  still  predominantly  a  light-mixed- 
eyed  people,  as  are  the  English  as  a  whole.  No  typically  brunet  population 
may  be  found  in  England. 

Wales,  however,  is  notably  darker  eyed.  Out  of  Beddoe's  series  of  3000, 
34  per  cent  are  called  brown  eyed,  15  per  cent  mixed,  and  51  per  cent 
light.  Although  the  light-eyed  element  is  still  the  more  numerous  in  the 
principality  as  a  whole,  it  is  possible  to  distinguish  typically  dark-eyed 
districts.  Fleure  found  between  60  per  cent  and  70  per  cent  of  "dark" 
eyes  in  Llandyssul,  Newquay,  and  Denbighshire  Upland,  and  Beddoe 
found  the  same  among  the  Abergavenny  country  people,  among  the 
townsmen  of  Brecon,  and  in  Merthyr  and  Taffvale.  These  are  all  isolated 
regions,  and  the  antiquity  of  dark  eye  color  in  Wales  is  evident. 

In  Scotland,  32  per  cent  of  adult  males  have  pure  light  eyes,  48  per  cent 
are  called  mixed,  and  20  per  cent  dark.  The  latter  category  probably 
includes  a  number  of  dark-mixed  iris  patterns.  Blue  eyes  are  commonest 
in  the  north  and  south  of  Scotland,  and  gray  eyes  appear  in  numbers  in 
the  Shetlands  and  Orkneys,  under  Scandinavian  inspiration.  Mixed  eyes 
are  typical  of  east  central  Scotland,  while  brown  eyes  reach  their  highest 
ratio  in  the  Glasgow  region,  among  the  industrial  population.  The  area 
of  Gaelic  speech,  which  Tocher  found  associated  with  an  excess  of  dark 
hair,  is  also  notably  blue  eyed. 

The  general  pigment  character  of  Great  Britain,  as  shown  on  Map  8,  is 
predominantly  light  mixed.  Fair,  vascular  skin,  medium  brown  hair,  an 
excess  of  rufosity  and  freckling,  and  blue  or  light-mixed  eyes  are  typical 
of  the  British  as  a  whole.  This  pigment  combination  without  doubt  reflects 
the  coloring  of  the  Iron  Age  Kelts,  who  have  made  the  greatest  single 
contribution  to  the  present  British  population.  Blondism  of  Scandinavian 
intensity,  reflecting  Saxon  and  Danish  influence,  is  characteristic  of  the 
whole  eastern  coast  of  England  and  Scotland,  while  a  strong  brunet  sur- 
vival in  Cornwall  and  Wales  indicates  the  presence  of  a  pre-Keltic  pop- 
ulation of  considerable  intensity.  The  industrial  revolution,  which  has 
fostered  dense  under-privileged  populations  in  the  Midlands  and  on  the 
Clyde,  has  enormously  increased,  by  some  selective  process,  the  darker- 
haired  and  darker-eyed  elements  in  Britain.  In  general,  differences  in 


390  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

social  level  and  in  occupation  reflect  racial  differences,  which  show  them- 
selves to  a  certain  extent  in  pigmentation.  The  upper  social  strata,  being 
on  the  whole  blonder,  follow  the  pigment  pattern  of  the  Saxons,  Danes, 
and  Normans.  This  differentiation  may  well  have  been  even  stronger 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  when  social  lines  were  more  strictly  and  overtly 
drawn  than  today.  The  Englishman  who  travels  abroad  and  is  seen  by 
foreigners,  and  the  one  whose  photograph  frequently  appears  in  the 
London  Illustrated  News,  is  more  likely  to  be  blond  than  the  general  run 
of  his  more  obscure  compatriots  who  stay  at  home,  and  whose  faces  are 
publicly  depicted  only  when  they  have  committed  crimes. 

The  regional  variations  of  stature  in  Great  Britain  may  be  observed 
with  sufficient  accuracy  on  Map  5.  The  mean  for  the  whole  island  is 
approximately  172  cm.,23  which  is  comparable  to  Ireland,  and  to  Nor- 
way and  Sweden.  On  the  whole,  Scotland  is  taller  than  England,  and 
England  taller  than  Wales.  The  blond  Saxon-Danish  strip  of  country 
along  the  North  Sea  shore,  from  Scotland  through  Suffolk,  is  the  tallest 
part  of  England,  as  tall  as  most  of  Scotland;  while  tlie  counties  bordering 
on  the  Thames  estuary  and  the  Channel  are  taller  than  those  immediately 
inland.  In  western  England  and  in  Wales,  shorter  stature  is  not  regionally 
associated  with  the  most  brunet  pigmentation.  Cornishmen  are  the  tallest 
of  the  British  west  of  Berkshire,  while  the  shortest  stature  in  Britain  by 
counties  is  found,  not  in  the  brunet  districts  of  central  Wales,  but  in  the 
mining  country  of  south  Wales,  in  the  counties  bordering  the  inner  section 
of  the  Bristol  Channel,  in  Shropshire  and  Hereford,  and  in  the  counties 
immediately  adjoining  London.  In  no  county,  however,  does  the  mean 
fall  below  168  cm.  although  in  individual  villages  in  Wales  it  is  as  low  as 

23  References  to  stature  may  be  found  in  most  of  the  previously  noted  works  referred 
to  in  this  section.  In  addition  to  these,  the  following  list  may  be  mentioned: 

Anonymous,  RBAA,  vol.  48,  1879,  pp.  152-155;  vol.  51,  1882,  pp.  225-272. 

Beddoe,  J.,  Anth,  vol.  5,  1894,  pp.  513-529,  658-673. 

Cripps,  L.,  Greenwood,  R.,  and  Newbold,  E.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  14,  1922-23, 
pp.  31 6-336. 

Downes,  R.  M.,  JAPL,  vol.  48,  1914,  pp.  299-309. 

Elderton,  E.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  21,  1929,  pp.  429-430. 

Fleure,  H.  J.,  JRAI,  vol.  50,  1920,  pp.  12-40. 

Fox,  A.  L.,  JRAI,  vol.  5,  1875,  pp.  101-106. 

Greenwood,  R.,  Thompson,  G.  M.,  and  Woods,  H.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  17,  1925, 
pp.  142-158. 

MacDonnell,  W.  R.,  Biometrika,  vol.  1,  1901-02,  pp.  177-227. 

Marshall,  J.,  JAPL,  vol.  26,  1892,  pp.  445-500. 

Peate,  I.  C.,  JRAI,  vol.  55,  1925,  pp.  58-72. 

Pitt-Rivers,  Garson,  and  Bloxam,  RBAA,  vol.  60,  1890-91,  pp.  549-552. 

Reid,  R.  W.,  and  Mulligan,  J.  H.,  JRAI,  vol.  46,  1912,  pp.  1-10;  vol.  54,  1924, 
pp.  287-300. 

Schuster,  E.,  Biometrika,  vol.  8,  1911-12,  pp.  40-51. 

Venn,  J,,  JRAI,  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  140-154. 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES  391 

165  cm.24  In  Scotland  a  belt  of  relatively  short  stature  running  from 
169  cm.  to  171  cm.  stretches  across  the  country  diagonally  from  the  Clyde 
to  the  Forth,  and  includes  the  Glasgow  industrial  area. 

The  mean  stature  of  England  and  Wales  appears  to  have  increased 
from  about  170  cm.  in  1865,  to  its  present  level  of  over  172  cm.25  At  the 
same  time,  that  of  the  Scotch  may  have  shrunk  in  certain  areas,  although 
Scotland  as  a  whole  has  probably  increased.26  The  general  British  in- 
crease may  be  traced  in  different  social  classes  as  well  as  in  regional  pop- 
ulations. Cambridge  students  in  1888  had  a  mean  stature  of  175  cm., 
Oxford,  in  1911,  of  177  cm.  During  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  cen- 
tury, English  convicts  rose  from  166  cm.  to  168  cm. 

In  England  as  in  Sweden,  social  and  occupational  differences  in  stature 
are  greater  than  regional  differences.27  As  early  as  1880,  the  mean  for 
the  nobility  and  for  professional  men  and  financial  leaders  was  174.4  cm.; 
between  them  and  the  next  tallest  group,  clerks  and  shopkeepers,  was  a 
drop  to  172.6  cm.;  farmers  and  road  workers  followed  with  171.5  cm.; 
factory  workers,  miners,  laborers  in  general,  and  seamen  all  had  occupa- 
tional means  of  under  170  cm.,  while  convicts,  at  the  bottom  of  the  list, 
averaged  only  166  cm.  Among  Goring's  English  convicts,  those  coming 
from  destitute  family  surroundings  had  a  mean  stature  of  161  cm.,  those 
from  well-to-do  families  167.7  cm.,  with  others  graded  between.28 

The  English  are,  on  the  whole,  equal  in  weight  to  the  Irish,  or  slightly 
lighter,  and  show  as  great  a  class  differentiation  in  this  character  as  in 
stature.  Oxford  and  Cambridge  students,  who  are  for  the  most  part 
under  25  years  of  age,  have  means  of  155  Ibs.,  while  prison  inmates  vary 
from  132  to  154  Ibs.  in  accordance  with  differences  in  home  environment. 
Heavy  weights  are  common  on  the  east  coast,  as  at  Flamborough,  York- 
shire, where  a  mean  of  168  Ibs.  has  been  recorded;  in  Leeds  and  in  Cardiff 
the  mean  is  156  Ibs.  The  bodily  proportions  of  English  and  Scotch  are 
on  the  whole  indicative  of  a  linear  to  somatic,  or  "athletic,"  constitutional 
form.  The  relative  span  is  as  a  rule  around  102  and  103,  comparable  to  the 
Nordic  means  for  eastern  Norway  and  Sweden.  These  low  span  ratios 
are  due  not  to  narrow  shoulders  but  to  relatively  short  arms.  The  relative 
sitting  heights  of  52  to  53  are  slightly  shorter  than  those  of  the  Irish,  and 
again  similar  to  those  of  Scandinavian  Nordics.  The  hips  are  moderate 

24  Eickstedt,  E.  von,  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  #1,  1935,  pp.  19-64. 

25  Using  the  two  American  army  figures  as  end  points,  and  the  British  Association 
report  for  1883. 

26  The  1883  British  survey  gives  a  mean  of  174.6  cm.  for  1304  Scotsmen;  Tocher, 
40  years  later,  found  a  mean  of  171.5  cm.  for  a  series  of  3474.  The  United  States  Army 
figures  for  the  Civil  War  are:  4822  Scotch,  Stature  =  171.5  cm.;  World  War,  2074 
Scotch,  Stature  =  172.5  cm. 

27  Roberts,  C.,  Manual  of  Anthropometry. 

28  Goring,  C.,  The  English  Convict. 


392  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

for  Europeans,  with  bi-iliac  means  of  28-30  cm.,  and  narrow  in  proportion 
to  the  shoulder  breadths. 

Since  the  Mesolithic  the  British  have  possessed,  even  during  the  Bronze 
Age,  heads  of  unusual  length.  Hence  it  is  not  surprising  to  find  that  the 
modern  English,  Welsh,  and  Scotch  exceed  most  European  groups  in  this 
respect.  Only  in  western  Norway,  Iceland,  and  Ireland  can  they  be 
equalled.  The  mean  for  each  of  the  three  British  groups  is  approximately 
195  mm.29  In  England  most  of  the  differences  known  are  social  rather 
than  geographical;  university  students  and  men  of  science  have  means 
ranging  from  196  mm.  to  199  mm.,  while  criminal  means  run  as  low  as 
191  mm.  In  Wales  the  head  length  varies  regionally  from  192  mm.  in 
Montgomeryshire  to  198  and  199  mm.  in  Cardiganshire  and  Cardiff. 
Extreme  lengths  which  approach  the  200  mm.  mark  are  mostly  confined 
to  isolated,  rural  groups.  In  Scotland  the  greatest  lengths  appear  in  the 
far  north,  and  the  least  in  the  industrial  trough  from  the  Clyde  to  the 
Forth. 

For  all  its  length  the  English  head  is  not  especially  narrow,  since  a 
general  mean  for  the  country  would  approximate  153  to  154  mm.  In 
Wales  the  narrower  mean  of  152  mm.  is  found  for  the  entire  principality. 
Although  in  some  parts  of  Wales  the  heads  are  as  broad  as  in  England,  in 
others,  such  as  Montgomeryshire  and  Carmathen,  the  means  fall  to  148 
and  149  mm.  In  Scotland  a  total  mean  of  about  152  mm.  applies  to  the 
civil  population,30  but  there  is  a  difference  of  4.4  mm.  between  the  means 
for  Aberdeen  and  Banffshire  (153  mm.),  at  one  extreme,  and  that  for 
Dumbarton  (148  mm.)  at  the  other.  In  general,  the  northern  Scottish 
counties  are  broader  headed  than  the  industrial  districts  and  the  low- 
lands. 

As  Ripley  stated  some  forty  years  ago,  the  cephalic  index  is  one  of  the 
least  variable  physical  traits  in  the  British  Isles.  England,  Scotland,  and 
Wales  are  all  fundamentally  mesocephalic,  and  no  regional  mean  falls 
below  76  or  rises  above  80.  On  the  whole,  Great  Britain  is  narrower 
headed  than  Ireland,  and  the  British  resemble  the  eastern  Irish  and  the 
Irish  Protestants  in  this  respect.  As  Map  6  shows,  the  lowest  cephalic 
indices  are  to  be  found  in  Wales  and  in  the  Midlands,  and  also  in  the 
lowlands  and  industrial  districts  of  Scotland,  while  the  highest  occur  in 

89  Many  of  the  preceding  references  contain  data  on  head  length,  head  breadth,  and 
the  cephalic  index.  The  following  may  be  added : 

Beddoe,  J.,  Anth,  vol.  5,  1894,  pp.  658-673. 

Parsons,  F.  G.,  Man,  vol.  22,  1922,  pp.  19-23. 

Gladstone,  R.  J.,  JAPL,  vol.  37,  1903,  pp.  333-346;  vol.  51,  1921,  pp.  343-369. 

Griffiths,  G.  B.,  Biometrika,  vol.  4,  1904,  pp.  60-62. 

80  Tocher,  J.  F.,  1924.  Tocher's  means  for  soldiers  are  over  a  millimeter  less  than  for 
the  civil  population,  and  the  same  is  true  in  regard  to  head  length.  His  total  Scotch 
means  for  soldiers  are:  Head  Length  =  193.0  mm.,  Head  Breadth  =  150.3  mm. 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES  393 

the  north  of  Scotland,  where  a  minor  survival  of  Bronze  Age  brachy- 
cephaly  is  suggested.  High  indices  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands  may 
rather  imply  the  settlement  of  Vikings  from  southwestern  Norway. 

Measurements  on  the  head  height  and  on  the  facial  dimensions  of 
British  are  not  numerous  enough  or  sufficiently  standardized  to  be  satis- 
factory. Minimum  frontal  means  range  from  105  to  110  mm.;  the  bizy- 
gomatic  diameter  is  narrow  (136-137  mm.)  among  criminals,  broad 
(144  mm.)  among  scientists;  in  Wales  local  means  of  139  and  140  mm. 
are  found,  in  the  north  of  Scotland,  of  140-142  mm.  Bigonials  follow  the 
minimum  frontal,  and  range  from  105  to  109  mm.  These  breadth  dimen- 
sions fall  within  Norwegian  and  Irish  ranges,  and  seem  for  the  most  part 
essentially  Nordic.  Both  foreheads  and  jaws  are  too  broad  for  most  Med- 
iterraneans. Face  heights  of  122  to  126  mm.  confirm  this  Nordic  associa- 
tion. The  noses  are  longer  and  narrower  than  those  of  the  Irish,  as  a  rule, 
and  nasal  indices  of  62  to  65  are  comparable  to  those  in  Scandinavia. 
There  seem  to  be  no  perceptible  regional  variations  in  this  respect,  as 
far  as  one  can  tell  from  available  data. 

The  results  of  this  extremely  unsatisfactory  survey  of  the  facial  charac- 
ters of  the  English,  Welsh,  and  Scotch  are  that  all  three  seem  to  be  very 
much  the  same;  the  face  is  typically  moderate  in  width,  and  of  more 
than  average  European  length.  The  forehead  and  jaw  diameters  are 
relatively  great,  and  give  to  the  face  a  parallel-sided  appearance.  The 
nose  is  leptorrhine  and  of  normal  European  dimensions.  The  facial  di- 
mensions are  on  the  whole  Nordic,  and  fall  between  Irish  and  eastern 
Norwegian  means. 

If  metrical  constants  aside  from  stature,  length,  and  head  breadth  are 
scarce,  observational  statistics  on  the  British  are  even  less  satisfactory.31 
Like  the  Irish,  the  British  appear  normally  equipped  for  Europeans  in 
body  hair  and  in  degree  of  beard  development.  In  hair  form,  the  ma- 
jority are  usually  recorded  as  straight,  the  rest  mostly  as  wavy;  on  the 
whole  the  English,  at  least,  are  probably  straighter  haired  than  the  Irish. 
Although  the  Silures  of  Wales  were  said  by  the  Romans  to  have  had  curly 
hair,  there  is  no  evidence  from  Wales  to  show  that  this  hair  form  is  es- 
pecially common.  On  the  whole  the  British  hair  is  finer  in  texture  than 
that  of  many  Europeans. 

Among  the  English,  Welsh,  and  Scotch  internal  and  median  eyefolds 
are  very  uncommon,  while  external  folds  are  not  infrequent.  Thick  eye- 
brows, characteristic  of  the  Irish,  are  also  found  among  the  Scotch,  es- 
pecially in  old  age.  Concurrency  of  the  eyebrows  is  found  in  only  30  to 

81  Almost  entirely  limited  to  Hooton's  British-born  convicts  in  American  jails,  Gor- 
ing's  convicts,  and  a  series  of  32  Shetland  Islanders  emigrating  to  Canada.  (Teit,  J.  A., 
and  Parsons,  F.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  53,  1923,  pp/473-483.) 


394  THE   RACES  OF   EUROPE 

40  per  cent  of  British;  in  Goring's  criminal  series  it  is  linked  with  dark 
hair  color.  Among  the  British  browridges  of  all  normal  European  degrees 
are  found,  and  on  the  whole  the  development  is  medium,  with  a  large 
minority  of  prominent  forms. 

The  slope  of  the  forehead  is  frequently  pronounced,  as  is  typical  of  the 
Keltic  Iron  Age  crania,  and  as  may  be  seen  from  the  composite  silhouettes 
of  English  men  and  women  shown  in  Fig.  32.  The  nasion  depression  is 


FIG.  32.  COMPOSITE  SILHOUETTES  OF  ENGLISH  MEN  AND  WOMEN. 
After  McLearn,  Morant,  and  Pearson,  Biometrika,  vol.  20b,  1928-1929,  Plates  2  and  3. 

characteristically  slight,  and  the  root  of  the  nose  high  and  narrow.  The 
bridge  is  as  a  rule  also  high,  and  of  narrow  to  moderate  breadth.  Straight 
nasal  profiles  are  found  in  from  50  per  cent  to  80  per  cent  of  cases,  and 
the  second  most  numerous  category  is  wavy  or  concavo-convex,  which 
runs  as  high  as  40  per  cent  and  averages  25  per  cent  of  the  whole.  This 
type  of  profile  is  produced  by  a  prominence  of  the  nasal  bones,  the  forma- 
tion of  a  slight  angle  between  their  extremities  and  the  cartilage,  and  an 
elevation  of  the  tip  lobes  slightly  above  the  cartilage  level.  From  the 
Nordic  standpoint,  this  type  of  nose  is  closer  to  the  Tr^ndelagen  type  in 
Norway  than  to  the  classic  Nordic  of  the  eastern  valleys;  it  is  also  asso- 
ciated in  antique  sculpture  with  representations  of  the  Kelts.  The  Dying 
Gaul,  for  example,  has  a  nose  of  this  type.  Concave  noses  are  much  rarer 
than  in  Ireland,  and  of  the  large  convex  minority,  the  angular  or  humped 
variety  is  the  usual  type,  and  the  smoothly  convex  form  is  infrequent. 

Lips  seem  to  be  thin  to  medium  and  little  everted,  chins  strongly  de- 
veloped, but  not  to  the  degree  found  in  western  Ireland.  Temples,  malars, 
and  gonial  angles  are  as  a  rule  compressed.  All  in  all  the  scanty  picture 
which  our  material  gives  us  substantiates  the  impressions  drawn  from 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES  395 

life.  Although  the  British  are  quite  variable  in  facial  form,  the  features 
by  which  a  foreigner  would  remember  them  would  be  a  longness  and 
narrowness  of  head  and  face,  floridity,  and  a  pinched  prominence  of  the 
nose. 

It  is  possible  to  make  a  number  of  correlations  within  some  of  the  numer- 
ous series  upon  which  our  knowledge  of  British  physical  anthropology  is 
based.32  Brunet  hair  and  eye  color  uniformly  go  with  a  lower  cephalic 
index  than  does  light  pigmentation.  This  reflects  the  fact  that  the  Neo- 
lithic peoples  had  a  cranial  index  of  72  and  lower,  while  both  varieties  of 
Nordic  have  cranial  means  of  75.  There  is  no  evidence  of  a  brunet  round- 
headed  type  except  in  one  series  from  the  Ghiltern  Hills,  in  Oxfordshire, 
where  dark  complexion  is  positively  associated  with  great  head  breadth. 
In  Caithness  and  Sutherland,  in  the  Scottish  Highlands,  pure  light  com- 
plexion is  linked  with  great  head  breadth,  indicating  that  the  broad- 
headed  factor  is  in  this  case  probably  Borreby  in  origin.  In  western  Ireland 
four  correlations  indicate  the  same  linkage,  confirming  the  supposition 
that  a  broad  head  is  borne  by  the  Palaeolithic  element. 

In  Cardiganshire  in  west  central  Wales,  a  selected  group  of  520  men 
with  black  or  dark  brown  hair  had  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  74.6,  and  a 
stature  of  167  cm.  The  index  would  be  about  72  on  the  skull,  which  is  the 
mean  for  the  Long  Barrow  type  of  the  Neolithic,  and  furthermore,  the  stat- 
ure is  comparable.  Similarly  in  a  Scottish  Highland  series 33  dark  haired 
men  have  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  77.7,  fair-haired  ones  of  78.1.  The 
brunets  have  a  mean  head  length  of  196.7  mm.,  the  blonds  of  193.9  mm. 
In  Elgin  and  Nairn,  similarly,  absolutely  greater  head  lengths  go  with 
mixed  and  dark  complexion. 

These  correlations  on  the  whole  show  that  a  brunet  racial  type  char- 
acterized by  an  extremely  long  cranial  vault  and  moderately  tall  stature 
has  retained  its  identity  in  the  peripheries  of  Great  Britain,  notably  in 
Wales  and  the  Scotch  Highlands,  while  the  more  numerous  Nordic  ele- 
ments are  characterized  by  a  more  moderate  head  length  and  mesoceph- 
aly.  They  also  show  that  brachycephalic  strains  which  have  entered  into 
the  British  racial  composition  must  have  been  largely  blond,  although 
there  is  evidence  of  a  minor  element  of  brunet  brachycephaly  in  one  local 
instance. 

If  specific  data  for  racial  description  is  scanty  in  Great  Britain,  both  the 
author  and  the  reader  can  largely  supply  that  deficiency  from  common 
observation.  The  most  frequent  type  is  a  Nordic  variety,  as  described 

32  Scheldt,  in  a  lengthy  and  thorough  survey  of  the  published  series,  made  2  racially 
significant  correlations  in  England,  2  in  Wales,  6  in  Scotland,  and  4  in  Ireland. 
Scheldt,  W.,  ZFMA,  vol.  28,  1930,  pp.  1-1  ?8. 
83  Gray,  J.,  and  Tocher,  J.  F.,  The  Ethnology  of  Buchan. 


396  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

above;  but  it  is  well  known  that  other  types  are  by  no  means  rare.  The 
thick-set,  wide-faced,  and  large-nosed  type,  so  common  in  caricature 
under  the  guise  of  John  Bull,  must  be  derived  from  the  larger  brachy- 
cephalic  element  brought  in  by  the  Bronze  Age  invasions;  it  is  a  British 
form  of  the  continental  Borreby  race.  In  the  fishing  villages  of  the  York- 
shire coast,  where  local  dialects  are  spoken  in  which  much  Scandinavian 
still  remains,  and  where  the  older  fishermen  still  wear  T-shaped  amulets 
around  their  necks  reminiscent  of  Thor's  hammer,  pure  Norwegian  and 
Danish  physical  types  are  common,  and  the  same  is  true  in  the  Orkneys 
and  Shetlands. 

Cornwall,  which  is  the  darkest  county  in  England  and  an  ancient  Keltic 
linguistic  stronghold,  contains,  like  Wales,  strong  vestiges  of  a  pre-Keltic 
population.  That  this  is  not  a  short  Mediterranean  variety,  on  the  whole, 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  stature  of  Cornwall  is  relatively  tall,  and  the 
mean  cephalic  index  of  the  duchy  not  particularly  low.  A  large-bodied, 
muscular  type,  with  a  head  which  is  frequently  brachycephalic,  is  common 
here,  and  must  be  attributed  to  the  Bronze  Age  invasions.  It  has  been 
claimed,  without  statistical  evidence,34  that  there  is  a  special  racial  type 
among  the  fishermen  and  sailors  who  live  in  the  seaports  of  Cornwall, 
Devonshire,  Somerset,  and  South  Wales,  but  especially  in  Cornwall.  Be- 
sides having  medium  or  tall  stature,  and  a  tendency  to  brachycephaly, 
they  are  said  to  be  heavy-bodied,  lateral  in  build,  thick-necked,  with 
features  of  a  somewhat  Armenoid  cast,  dark,  curly  hair,  thick  eyebrows, 
and  eyes  which  are  frequently  brown. 

This  type  is  recognized  in  local  Keltic  tradition,  and  according  to  one 
legend,  is  said  to  have  been  brought  from  Troy.  It  may  also  be  associated 
with  the  strong  local  belief  that  the  Cornish  are  descended  from  Phoeni- 
cians. That  there  is  such  a  type  cannot  be  proved  without  metrical  evi- 
dence, but  it  will  be  recognized  by  most  persons  familiar  with  this  part  of 
England.  It  can  also  be  found  in  Massachusetts  among  old  Cape  Cod  fam- 
ilies whose  ancestors  came  from  Cornwall  and  Devon. 

The  most  difficult  local  British  type  to  study,  with  present  materials,  is 
the  long-headed  brunet  population  of  the  remoter  districts  of  Wales.36  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  under  the  category  of  brunet  dolichocephals 
there  are  actually  several  racial  types  of  different  origins  which  have  been 
preserved  by  the  marginal  geographical  nature  of  this  country,  as  have  the 
more  easily  identified  Beaker  types  of  more  recent  arrival. 

In  the  first  place,  the  work  of  Fleure  and  James  on  the  Plynlimon  moor- 

**  Andrews,  T.  H.,  Man,  vol.  21,  1921,  pp.  137-139.      - 

86  Eickstedt,  E.  von,  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  19-64. 

Fleure,  H.  J.,  The  Races  of  Britain  and  Wales. 

Fleure,  H.  J.,  and  James,  T.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  46,  NS.  19,  1916,  pp.  35-153. 

Peate,  I.  C.,  JRAI,  vol.  40,  1925,  pp.  58-72. 


THE  BRITISH   ISLES  397 


lands  people  of  Cardiganshire,  an  isolated  group  who  live  for  the  most  part 
as  shepherds,  shows  that  this  region  is  the  center  for  all  Wales  of  the  greatest 
concentration  of  brunet  dolichocephaly;  their  work  also  indicates  that  a 
primitive  human  type,  with  large  browridges,  a  low  vault,  a  projecting 
occiput,  sloping  forehead,  a  broad  face,  and  prognathism  survives  here, 
and  is  to  be  found  in  solution  throughout  most  of  Wales.  That  this  type  is 
a  survival  from  pre-Neolithic  times  seems  reasonable.  The  head  lengths 
associated  with  it  run  well  over  200  mm.,  in  many  cases  over  210  mm., 
and  the  stature  is  usually  under  1 70  cm.  The  moderate  stature,  the  narrow 
vault  breadth,  and  the  brunet  pigmentation,  as  well  as  the  general  mor- 
phological character,  prevent  this  type  from  being  closely  associated  with 
the  large-headed  northern  Palaeolithic  sub-stratum  in  Ireland;  one  is  re- 
minded rather  of  the  early  Combe  Capelle  skull,  and  to  a  lesser  extent,  of 
the  Mesolithic  men  of  Teviec  in  Brittany. 

The  majority  of  the  brunet  dolichocephals,  however,  belong  rather  to 
the  Long  Barrow  race  of  Megalithic  introduction  from  the  eastern  Mediter- 
ranean shorelands.  A  selected  group  of  46  men  from  all  parts  of  Wales, 
but  in  many  cases  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  Plynlimon  district,  with 
cephalic  indices  under  73.0,  have  a  mean  head  length  of  201  mm.,  a 
breadth  of  144.2  mm.,  and  a  stature  of  168.0  cm.  If  this  dolichocephalic 
element  were  predominantly  a  small  Mediterranean,  one  would  expect 
both  the  head  length  and  stature  to  be  much  less  than  they  are.  Many 
other  series  from  other  parts  of  Wales  confirm  the  general  head  form  char- 
acter of  this  predominant  dolichocephalic  brunet  element.  That  it  has 
absorbed  the  earlier  Mesolithic  or  Palaeolithic  type  is  likely,  for  there  is 
nothing  in  the  English  Long  Barrow  crania  to  indicate  the  importation  of 
such  a  primitive  variety  as  an  end  type. 

If  we  consider  that  the  Long  Barrow  type  was  in  original  form  almost 
purely  brown  eyed,  then  it  must  be  less  important  in  the  racial  structure 
of  Wales  than  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  Nordic,  for  in  but  few  districts  are  brown 
eyes  in  the  majority.  It  is  possible,  however,  here  as  in  Ireland,  that  there 
was  an  incipient  blue-eyed  condition  among  the  Long  Barrow  people,  as 
among  living  North  Africans  who  belong  to  a  closely  similar  type,  and 
that  in  northwestern  Europe  this  condition  was  increased  through  stimuli 
similar  to  those  which  produced  blondism  among  other  races.38 

Among  individual  Welshmen  it  is  possible  to  pick  out  individuals  of  a 
smaller  Mediterranean  type,  similar  to  that  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
suggesting  a  survival  from  the  Neolithic  peoples  of  Windmill  Hill  cultural 
affiliation  who  entered  southern  Britain  from  the  continent.  This  type  is 
also  easily  isolated  in  the  Midland  factory  districts,  and  among  the  Glasgow 
population.  In  Wales,  however,  it  is  difficult  to  separate  it  from  the  Long 

88  Eickstcdt,  E.  von,  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  19-64. 


398  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Barrow  type,  with  which  it  is  frequently  associated.  Von  Eickstedt's  series 
of  30  men  from  Llangynog  in  North  Montgomeryshire,  and  from  Kerry 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  same  county,  furnish  the  best  anthropometric 
evidence  of  its  presence.  In  both  regions  brunet  pigmentation  is  character- 
istic; both  series  are  mesocephalic.  The  mean  stature  of  the  Kerry  men  is 
166.5  cm.,  of  the  Llangynog  group  168.2  cm.  The  first  mean  is  low  enough 
to  indicate  a  strong  Mediterranean  element.  The  head  and  face  measure- 
ments, however,  of  both  groups  are  much  alike,  and  too  great  for  a  small 
Mediterranean  series;  the  head  length  mean  is  196  mm.  in  each,  the 
breadth  154;  the  mention-nasion  face  height  is  124  mm.  in  Kerry,  125  mm. 
in  Llangynog;  the  bizygomatic  of  Kerry  140  mm.,  that  of  Llangynog 
139  mm.  The  noses  of  each  are  roughly  55  mm.  by  34  mm.,  the  nasal  in- 
dices— 61.8  for  Kerry,  62.8  for  Llangynog. 

The  head  breadth,  face  height,  and  face  breadth  are  all  a  little  too 
great  for  a  small  Mediterranean  type,  but  an  examination  of  the  distribu- 
tion curves  of  the  two  series  eliminates  this  difficulty.  The  stature  is 
strongly  bimodal,  with  a  smaller  mode  at  163  cm.,  and  a  larger  peak  at 
169  cm.;  head  length  has  modes  at  193  and  199  mm.;  head  breadth 
at  151  mm.  and  157  mm.;  the  facial  index  at  86  and  92;  the  nasal  index  at 
59  and  67.  If  we  grant  the  small  Mediterranean  type  a  mean  stature  of 
163  cm.,  a  head  length  of  193  mm.,  and  the  lower  facial  and  higher  nasal 
indices,  it  assumes  a  metrical  character  which  can  easily  be  duplicated  in 
the  countries  in  which  this  type  is  more  numerous  and  more  easily  iden- 
tified, for  example,  Arabia  and  North  Africa. 

The  pursuit  of  these  early  brunet  survivals  in  remote  districts  of  Wales 
must  not,  however,  make  us  forget  that  the  bulk  of  the  evidence  from  that 
country  as  a  whole  indicates  that  the  variety  of  Nordic  to  which  the  bearers 
of  Kymric  speech  belonged  is  today  nearly  if  not  fully  as  important  there 
as  the  totality  of  earlier  human  varieties. 

(4)   THE   BRITISH   ISLES,   SUMMARY 

The  racial  history  of  the  British  Isles,  reviewed  in  the  first  section  of  the 
present  chapter,  is  a  more  complicated  matter  than  one  would  expect  in 
view  of  the  marginal  position  of  these  islands.  Its  complexity  serves  to 
illustrate  the  little  appreciated  fact  that  men  of  European  racial  type  be- 
gan navigation  in  a  serious  way  while  still  limited  to  the  tools  and  resources 
of  a  Neolithic  economy;  and  that  even  at  that  remote  time  navigation  was 
a  primary  means  by  which  large  populations  were  transferred  between 
distant  points.  The  population  of  the  British  Isles  has  been  drawn  from  a 
number  of  widely  separated  regional  sources,  and  the  sea  has  served  not 
so  much  as  a  barrier  as  a  highroad  over  which  these  diverse  elements  have 
converged. 


THE  BRITISH  ISLES  399 

These  elements  include  most  of  the  known  branches  of  the  white  race; 
one  or  more  varieties  of  unreduced  or  unaltered  Palaeolithic  man;  two 
varieties  of  brunet  Mediterranean,  of  which  the  sea-borne  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  is  the  more  important;  the  two  principal  surviving  vari- 
ants of  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  group;  brachycephals  of  Dinaric  or  Armenoid 
type,  as  well  as  the  composite  Beaker  type  which  is  a  blend  of  Dinaric, 
Borreby,  and  early  Corded  elements. 

The  snub-nosed  Neo-Danubians  and  East  Baltics,  the  brunet  hook- 
nosed Irano-Afghans,  may  for  practical  purposes  be  considered  absent, 
while  the  Alpine  race,  that  important  bearer  of  brachycephaly  in  central 
Europe  from  France  to  the  Bosporus,  and  over  into  the  highlands  of 
western  Asia,  is  notably  uncommon.  Individuals  of  apparent  Alpine  type 
are,  in  most  cases,  Borreby  descendants.  It  is  the  virtual  absence  of  Alpines 
in  the  British  Isles  which  has  prevented  the  British  from  undergoing  a 
brachycephalization  comparable  to  that  found  in  most  of  central  Europe. 
There  seem  to  be  no  dominant  trends  in  head  form,  for  the  component 
elements  in  the  British  racial  amalgam  have  retained  their  original 
cephalic  index  levels. 

In  both  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  invasion  of  the  Keltic  Iron  Age 
Nordics  was  the  event  which  brought  in  the  largest  single  body  of  people, 
and  the  British  of  today,  by  and  large,  owe  more  in  a  physical  sense  to 
these  Kelts  than  to  any  other  group  of  invaders.  In  both  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  the  Neolithic  and  Bronze  Age  invasions  were  of  secondary 
importance  in  respect  to  the  present  population,  as  were  the  invasions  of 
Germanic-speaking  peoples. 

In  the  different  countries  which  make  up  the  British  Isles,  these  various 
minorities  have  differential  values  in  the  local  populations.  It  is  these 
minority  differences  which  separate  the  English,  the  Scotch,  the  Irish,  and 
the  Welsh,  while  the  community  of  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  element  serves 
as  an  opposing  force  to  hold  them  together. 

In  England,  the  Germanic  element  is  the  most  distinctive;  in  Wales  it 
is  the  Atlan to-Mediterranean;  in  Scotland  it  is  a  combination  of  Bronze 
Age  and  Scandinavian  elements  in  the  northeast,  of  Irish  with  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  in  the  west;  in  Ireland  the  one  fact  of  greatest  importance 
is  the  reemergence  of  the  old  northern  Palaeolithic  stock.  The  Keltic 
Iron  Age  racial  type  is  least  important  in  northeastern  Scotland,  where 
Keltic  speech  never  penetrated,  and  in  Wales,  where  it  has  attained  its 
maximum  survival. 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  SUPPLEMENT 


Photographic  Supplement l 
INTRODUCTION 

The  photographic  supplement  which  follows  has  been  arranged  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  may  serve  both  to  illustrate  the  text  of  Chapters  VIII  through  XII,  and  to  sum- 
marize the  material  of  the  book  as  a  whole.  The  basic  theses  of  the  book,  which  these 
pictures  illustrate,  are: 

(1 )  The  living  members  of  the  white  race  who  occupy  Europe  and  the  adjacent  por- 
tions of  Asia  and  Africa  owe  their  initial  differentiation  to  a  dual  origin. 

(2)  Some  are  descended  primarily  from  the  hunters  and  food-gatherers  who  occupied 
frigid,  sub-glacial  lands  at  the  time  of  the  last  Wurm  advance.  These  hunters  and  food- 
gatherers  were  in  turn  descendants  of  Neanderthaloid-sapiens  hybrid  ancestors. 

(3)  Others  are  descended  primarily  from  the  purely  sapiens  Mediterranean  peoples, 
who  had  never,  during  the  Glacial  Period,  seriously  encountered  the  cold,  and  who,  in 
post-glacial  times,  developed  agriculture  and  animal  husbandry  as  a  primary  means  of 
subsistence.    The  Mediterranean  peoples  began  colonizing  Europe  from  the  east  and 
south  about  3000  B.C. 

(4)  Still  others,  and  in  Europe  these  form  the  most  numerous  group  of  all,  repre- 
sent clearly  differentiated  hybrid  forms,  indicating  descent  from  both  of  the  two  stocks 
mentioned  above.  These  hybrid  forms  follow  well-marked  metrical  and  morphological 
racial  patterns,  in  accordance  with  definite  biological  principles.   (See  Plate  35  seq.) 

(5)  All  mixture  does  not  produce  these  forms,  however,  since  most  if  not  all  of 
Group  A  or  Palaeolithic  phenotypes  must  from  a  genetic  standpoint  represent  reemer- 
gences. 

(6)  The  racial  map  of  Europe  is  never  constant;  there  is  always  change,  due  to  (a)  en- 
vironmental conditioning,  (b)  migration,  (c)  socially  and  economically  conditioned  ra- 
cial selection  both  in  migratory  and  in  geographically  static  populations. 

In  the  following  pages  the  scheme  will  be  to  deal  first  with  the  descendants  of  the  Late 
Pleistocene  inhabitants  of  the  white  racial  area,  then  with  those  of  the  Mediterranean 
race  in  its  various  forms,  and  finally  with  mixed  types  combining  the  characters  of  A 
andB. 

Anthropometric  specifications  of  the  subjects  will  be  found  in  the  tables  which  follow 
the  plates. 

1  The  pictures  which  appear  on  the  following  plates  have  been  collected  from  many  sources.  All  which  are 
not  otherwise  accredited  were  taken  by  the  author  either  in  the  United  States  or  abroad.  The  author  wishes 
to  express  his  gratitude  to  the  subjects  who  permitted  him  to  photograph  and  measure  them,  and  who  stated 
their  willingness  to  have  their  pictures  appear  in  this  book;  he  assures  them  that  whatever  remarks  may  appear 
in  reference  to  their  physical  characters  are  concerned  with  racial  and  historical  matters  only;  there  is  no  im- 
plication of  superiority  or  inferiority,  intellectual,  moral,  biological,  or  otherwise,  in  any  case.  No  pictures  of 
convicts  or  of  other  persons  socially  stigmatized  have  been  knowingly  used.  The  sole  object  of  the  author  in 
compiling  this  supplement  has  been  to  cover  as  well  as  possible  the  range  of  racial  variation  within  the  white 
group. 

The  following  individuals,  other  than  the  two  New  Englanders  specified  as  such,  the  American-born  English 
Gypsy,  and  the  Jews  whose  American  birthplaces  arc  specified,  were  born  in  the  New  World  of  parents  from 
the  places  mentioned.  Plate  5,  Fig.  5;  9-4;  9-7;  22-3;  22-4;  23-1;  23-3;  26-4;  27-1;  27-3;  30-4;  32-3;  33-4; 
37-2. 


Plate  1 
LAPPS  AND  SAMOYEDS 

During  the  Late  Pleistocene  and  the  post-glacial  Mesolithic  cultural  period,  descend- 
ants of  Upper  Palaeolithic  hunters  lived  in  North  Africa,  in  most  of  Europe,  and  in  west- 
ern Siberia,  where  some  of  them  merged  into  the  ancestors  of  the  mongoloid  group  of 
humanity.  Even  during  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  cultural  period  in  western  Europe, 
some  of  the  hunting  peoples  showed  incipiently  mongoloid  racial  tendencies.  Among  the 
living  descendants  of  these  hunters,  these  tendencies  are  more  common  in  the  eastern 
groups  than  among  those  living  in  the  west. 

Aside  from  the  Ainu,  the  Lapps  represent  the  easternmost  in  locus  of  development 
of  the  basically  white  hunting  groups  which  survived,  and  the  only  one  which  retained 
a  non-agricultural  economy  until  modern  times.  Their  present  location  in  northern 
Scandinavia  and  the  Kola  Peninsula  is  probably  recent,  and  their  area  of  differentia- 
tion is  believed  to  have  been  situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Urals. 

FIG.  1  (3  views,  Lundborg  and  Linders,  The  Racial  Characteristics  of  the  Swedish  Nation, 
Plate  28).  This  Swedish  Reindeer  Lapp  from  Jam tland  shows  no  evidence  of  Nordic  or 
other  non-Lappish  admixture;  he  may  be  taken  as  the  closest  approximation  to  a  Lap- 
pish prototype  which  may  be  found.  Like  the  Lapps  as  a  whole,  he  is  short-statured, 
small-bodied,  small-headed,  and  brachycephalic.  His  morphological  resemblance  to  the 
Alpine  race  is  striking;  he  is  less  mongoloid  in  appearance  than  some  others  of  equal 
purity. 

Fig.  2  (1  view,  photo  Martin  Luther).  An  unmixed  coastal  Lapp  from  Norway,  who 
looks  just  as  Alpine  as  does  Fig.  1. 

FIG.  3  (1  view,  photo  Martin  Luther),  Another  unmixed  coastal  Lapp  from  Norway, 
who  shows  more  of  an  incipiently  mongoloid  character  than  do  the  two  preceding. 
Like  the  others,  this  individual  is  brunet  white  in  skin  color,  dark-haired  and  dark-eyed. 

FIG.  4  (1  view,  photo  Martin  Luther).  The  incipiently  mongoloid  features  found  in 
some  Lapps  are  usually  more  pronounced  in  the  women  than  in  the  men.  This  Norwe- 
gian Lapp  woman,  who  possesses  these  features,  is  seen  to  resemble  facially  the  type 
commonly  known  as  "Slavic"  or  "East  Baltic/'  in  central  and  eastern  Europe.  There 
is  nothing  really  mongoloid  about  these  features;  the  resemblance  is  remote  and  col- 
lateral. 

FIG.  5.  (1  view,  photo  Martin  Luther).  This  18  year  old  Norwegian  Lapp  boy  pos- 
sesses all  of  the  most  characteristically  Lappish  features  of  the  face:  a  shallow  mandible; 
a  pointed,  retreating  chin;  a  lateral  malar  prominence;  facial  prognathism;  a  pointed 
and  elevated  nasal  tip;  and  a  low  nasal  bridge. 

FIG.  6  (2  views,  photo  Martin  Luther).  A  Norwegian  Lapp,  with  light  skin,  light  eyes, 
and  brown  hair.  Although  considered  a  pure  Lapp,  this  man  has  many  Nordic  traits. 
He  is  much  more  typical  of  the  Lapps  as  a  whole  than  are  Figs.  1,2,  or  3,  who  were 
chosen  to  represent  the  Lappish  prototype  rather  than  the  Lapps  as  a  group. 

FIG.  7  (3  views,  Anthropological  Laboratory,  Institute  of  Peoples  of  the  North, 
Leningrad).  A  20  year  old  Samoyed,  from  northern  Russia.  This  young  Samoyed, 
while  by  no  means  exaggeratedly  mongoloid,  is  much  more  so  than  any  unmixed  Lapp; 
his  coarse,  black,  and  straight  hair,  his  dark  skin,  and  black  iris  color,  as  well  as  his 
facial  features,  show  that  he  is  at  least  partially  descended  from  fully  evolved  mongoloid 
ancestors.  Samoyeds  vary  greatly  in  mongoloid  content;  this  individual  seems  to  ap- 
proach the  mean  in  this  respect.  The  arrival  of  the  Samoyeds  in  northern  Europe  was 
later  than  that  of  the  Lapps;  their  point  of  departure  in  Asia  farther  east. 


FKX  1 


Plate  2 
UGRIAN-SPEAKERS  OF  LADOGAN-RACIAL  TYPE 

The  Uralic  linguistic  stock,  spoken  by  Lapps,  Finns,  Magyars,  Asiatic  Ugrians,  and 
Samoyeds,  is  divided  into  Finno-Ugrian  and  Samoyedic.  The  Ugrian  branch  is  today 
spoken  by  two  widely  separated  groups,  the  Magyars  of  Hungary  and  Transylvania, 
and  the  Ostiaks  and  Voguls  of  the  Obi  drainage.  The  early  Ugrians  were  presumably, 
like  the  Finns,  Danubian-like  or  Nordic  peoples  of  the  middle  Volga  country,  who  ab- 
sorbed the  older  hunting  population  of  the  eastern  European  forest.  Later  the  Ugrians 
were  subjected  to  mongoloid  influences  at  the  times  of  Hunnish,  Turkish,  and  Mongol 
invasions.  The  individuals  shown  on  Plate  2  were  chosen  to  illustrate  in  varying  forms 
and  degrees  the  old  Ladogan  racial  type. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Magyar  from  Budapest;  a  man  of  moderately  tall  stature,  hyper- 
brachycephaly,  and  moderately  great  head  size;  with  a  large  face,  low  orbits,  a  wide 
interorbital  distance,  and  a  median  eyefold.  These  characters,  in  combination  with 
laterally  prominent  malars  and  a  wide,  heavy  mandible,  mark  this  individual  as  a  La- 
dogan prototype.  He  represents  a  reemergence  of  a  racial  element  living  in  the  eastern 
European  woodlands  in  early  post-glacial  times;  this  type  is  one  of  the  general  group  of 
Palaeolithic  survivors,  in  this  case  largely  unreduced.  As  with  the  related  Palaeolithic 
survivors  of  northwestern  Europe,  its  tendency  to  blondism  must  be  considered  inte- 
gral, and  not  the  result  of  Nordic  admixture.  Like  the  Lapp  this  type  is  incipiently 
mongoloid,  but  it  differs  profoundly  from  the  Lapp  in  pigmentation,  general  size,  and 
in  the  size  and  structure  of  the  mandible.  This  individual  appears  to  recapitulate  in 
many  respects  the  original  Ladogan  strain  found  among  the  Ugrian-speaking  ancestors 
of  the  Magyars  who  invaded  Hungary  from  their  home  in  the  Volga  country.  While 
typical  of  a  true  Magyar  element  in  his  country,  he  is  not  typical  of  the  population  of 
Hungary  as  a  whole. 

FIG.  2  (3  views,  Institute  of  Peoples  of  the  North).  An  Ostiak  woman  from  Siberia. 
The  Ladogan  facial  features  are  usually  better  exemplified  in  women  than  in  men.  The 
Ostiak  woman  shown  above  is  as  good  a  Ladogan  prototype  as  the  Magyar  shown 
above.  Note  the  blond  hair,  light  eyes,  the  great  interorbital  distance,  the  broad,  low- 
bridged  nose  with  elevated  snub  tip,  and  the  wide  malars. 

FIG.  3  (3  views,  Institute  of  Peoples  of  the  North).  An  Ostiak  man  with  some  Sam- 
oyed  admixture;  the  hair  is  brown,  the  eyes  mixed,  the  face  freckled.  In  addition  to 
the  Ladogan  element  seen  in  the  first  two,  this  individual  probably  contains  some 
evolved  mongoloid  admixture. 

FIG.  4  (3  views,  Institute  of  Peoples  of  the  North).  A  Vogul  man;  showing  more  evi- 
dence of  mongoloid  admixture  than  the  above.  It  must  be  emphasized  that  nearly  all 
of  the  mongoloid  racial  factors  possessed  by  the  Ugrian  speakers  resident  in  Siberia 
were  acquired  after  their  shift  of  territory  from  European  Russia  to  Asia. 


FIG,  1 


FIG.  2 


Plate  3 

MONGOLOID   INFLUENCES   IN  EASTERN 
EUROPE  AND  IN  TURKESTAN 

The  invasions  of  mongoloid  peoples  from  central  Asia  during  the  millennium  from 
about  400  to  1400  A.D.  caused  the  settlement  of  some  Mongols  proper  (Kalmucks)  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  and  the  partial  Mongolizing  of  some  Finnic  tribes,  especially 
those  which  adopted  Turkish  speech.  In  Russian  Turkestan  erstwhile  white  populations 
became  Mongolized  in  varying  degrees. 

FIG.  1  (2  views,  photo  B.  N.  Vishnevsky).  This  deeply  brunet  Chuvash,  a  member  of 
a  tribe  of  Turkicized  Finns  in  what  is  now  the  Chuvash  Republic  of  eastern  Russia,  rep- 
resents, in  his  facial  features,  either  a  pronounced  early  Ladogan  prototype,  or  Mongol 
admixture,  or  both. 

FIG.  2  (1  view,  photo  B.  N.  Vishnevsky).  A  lighter-skinned,  less  mongoloid  Chuvash. 
The  median  eyefold  and  snubbed  nasal  tip,  with  laterally  oriented  nostril  axes,  are 
Ladogan  rather  than  mongoloid. 

FIG.  3  (3  views,  photo  J.  Wastl,  Archivfur  Rassenbilder,  Bildaufsatz  2,  Archivkarte  11, 
1926.  Herausgeber  E.  von  Eickstedt,  J.  F.  Lehmans  Verlag,  Miinchcn).  A  Bashkir, 
member  of  another  tribe  of  Turkicized  Finns  living  in  the  Kazan  district  and  the  south- 
ern Urals.  This  individual  is  almost  completely  mongoloid  in  the  central  Asiatic  sense. 

FIG.  4  (2  views,  photo  Gordon  T.  Bowles).  An  Uzbeg  from  Russian  Turkestan.  The 
Uzbegs  are  Turkish -speaking  inhabitants  of  the  central  Asiatic  khanates,  of  mixed  ori- 
gin. This  individual  shows  a  partially  mongoloid  condition  usual  among  these  people. 

FIG.  5  (1  view,  photo  B.  N.  Vishnevsky).  A  Tajik  from  Russian  Turkestan;  the  Ta- 
jiks are  Iranian-speaking  farmers  inhabiting  the  oases  of  some  of  the  khanates,  and  the 
Pamir  mountains  to  the  south.  While  characteristically  European  in  race,  a  few  of  the 
Tajiks  show  evidences  of  mongoloid  admixture. 

FIG.  6  (3  views,  photo  B.  N.  Vishnevsky).  An  Arabic-speaking  native  of  Russian 
Turkestan.  The  remnants  of  the  Arab  invasions  of  the  Middle  Ages  have  been  mostly 
absorbed  by  the  Uzbegs,  and  those  who  retain  their  Semitic  idiom  have  been  in  most 
cases  racially  altered.  The  old  man  shown  here  represents  a  common  type  in  Turkestan 
regardless  of  speech  or  ethnic  affiliation;  a  mixture  between  a  mongoloid  and  a  long- 
faced  local  Mediterranean  strain,  giving  a  pseudo-Armenoid  appearance.  Note  the 
long,  straight,  coarse  beard,  a  common  feature  among  individuals  of  this  type,  which 
von  Eickstedt  calls  Turanid. 


FIG. 


Plate  4 
BRUNN  SURVIVORS   IN  SCANDINAVIA 

All  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors  may  be  divided  into  two  general  groups  (a)  those 
who  have  been  subjected  to  reduction  in  head  size  and  bodily  bulk,  and  who  have  been 
partially  foetalized  in  the  course  of  the  same  process;  and  (b)  those  who  retain  the  head 
size,  bodily  bulk,  and  masculinity  of  features  characteristic  of  the  Pleistocene  hunters. 
Most  of  the  latter  group  are  to  be  found  in  northwestern  Europe.  Dolichocephalic  indi- 
viduals who  recapitulate  the  metrical  and  morphological  qualities  of  the  Cr6-Magnon 
and  Brunn-Pfedmost  Aurignacian  people  are  commonest  in  Scandinavia  and  in  Ire- 
land. In  Scandinavia  they  are  found  concentrated  along  the  southern  Swedish  coast  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Goteborg,  and  in  the  mountains  of  southwestern  Norway. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Swede  from  Trollhatton,  southern  Sweden.  This  man  is  both 
tall  and  heavy;  of  lateral  bodily  build.  His  head  is  of  prodigious  length,  his  face  nearly 
as  wide  as  his  cranial  vault;  all  dimensions  of  the  face  are  great,  especially  the  width  of 
the  mandible;  the  distance  between  the  eyes,  and  the  heaviness  of  the  browridges,  are 
likewise  remarkable.  This  individual  recapitulates,  as  closely  probably  as  any  other 
living  human  being,  the  physical  type  of  many  of  the  hunters  who  lived  in  western  and 
central  Europe  during  the  Laufen  Interglacial  and  the  last  advance  of  the  ice.  Note 
that  in  his  case,  as  with  most  of  his  type,  only  a  partial  degree  of  blondism  is  present. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  Another  Swede,  in  this  case  from  Goteborg,  a  slightly  less  ex- 
treme example  of  the  same  type.  Swedes  of  this  type  are  habitually  found  in  association 
with  the  sea.  Both  of  these  individuals,  as  well  as  Fig.  4,  were  measured  and  photo- 
graphed in  a  Boston  shipyard. 

FIG.  3  (3  views,  from  Alette  Schreiner,  Anthropologische  Lokaluntersuchungen  in  Norge; 
Valle,  Halandsdat,  und  Eidfjord,  Oslo,  1930.  #113).  This  Norwegian  from  the  isolated 
mountain  settlement  of  Valle  in  southwestern  Norway  represents  the  same  basic  type  as 
the  two  men  above;  his  face  and  mandible,  however,  are  narrower,  and  his  hair  ash 
blond;  admixture  with  Nordics  is  indicated. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  The  same  conclusion  is  suggested  in  reference  to  this  extremely  long- 
"aced  and  golden-haired  Swede  from  Helsingborg.  He  is,  however,  much  larger  in  head 
and  face  size,  much  heavier  in  body  build,  and  heavier  in  the  facial  skeleton  than  any 
Vordic.  The  predominant  strain  is  Upper  Palaeolithic. 


FIG*  4 


Plate  5 
BORREBY  SURVIVORS   IN  THE  NORTH 

In  the  same  districts  of  southern  Sweden  where  Briinn  survivors  are  found,  and  across 
the  Skaggerrak  in  Jutland,  are  found  brachycephalic  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors, 
equally  unreduced  in  head  and  body  size,  equally  if  not  more  lateral  in  bodily  build. 
The  ancestors  of  these  people  arrived  on  the  western  Baltic  shores  during  the  Late 
Mesolithic.  Other  colonies  of  them  are  to  be  found  in  the  coastal  districts  of  south- 
western Norway,  and  they  form  an  element  of  primary  importance  in  the  population 
of  Germany,  In  general,  their  present  distribution  is  wider  than  that  of  their  dolicho- 
cephalic counterparts. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Dane  from  Jutland,  very  tall,  heavy,  lateral  in  build,  with  an 
enormous  head  and  an  extremely  wide  face.  This  individual  is  as  exaggerated  an  ex- 
ample of  the  Borreby  race  as  is  #1  of  the  preceding  plate  of  the  Briinn  race. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Swede  from  Goteborg,  representing  more  nearly  the  mean  of 
the  Borreby  race  as  it  is  found  today.  Both  this  man  and  #1  are  golden  blond  in  hair 
color;  the  Borreby  group  seems  to  run  lighter-haired  than  the  Briinn. 

FIG.  3  (2  views,  Bryn  and  Schreiner,  Die  Somatologie  der  Norweger,  Table  44,  Fig,  121). 
This  individual,  while  less  brachycephalic  than  many  of  his  compatriots,  especially 
those  in  the  Jaeren  district,  shows  an  essential  affiliation  to  the  Borreby  race.  The  ap- 
parent facial  flatness  and  the  formation  of  the  region  of  the  nasal  tip  and  the  upper  lip 
look  "Irish";  this  is  an  Upper  Palaeolithic  facial  condition  common  both  to  Scandina- 
vians and  to  British  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  type. 

FIG.  4  (1  view,  Gudrnundur  Kamban,  author  oil  See  a  Wondrous  Land,  G.  P.  Putnam 
&  Sons,  N.  Y.).  A  prominent  Icelandic  author,  who  presents  the  same  facial  features 
and  belongs  to  the  general  Borreby  racial  type.  Iceland  was  settled  mainly  from  the 
coastal  regions  of  Norway  in  which  the  Borreby  race  is  prevalent;  an  important  Irish 
increment  may  have  added  a  similar  racial  element. 

FIG.  5  (3  views).  A  Finnish  example  of  the  Borreby  race.  This  Finn  is  more  brachy- 
cephalic than  most  Borreby  men;  however  his  lateral  bodily  build,  and  his  extreme 
breadth  of  face  and  mandible  show  that  he  is  a  trans-Baltic  member. 


Plate  6 
BORREBY  MEN  IN  GERMANY  AND  ELSEWHERE 

The  Borreby  race  was  a  relatively  late  Mesolithic  arrival  in  Scandinavia;  its  earlier 
seat  was  central  Germany,  with  ramifications  both  to  the  east  and  the  west.  Today  it  is 
probably  the  one  most  important  racial  element  in  much  of  northern  and  central  Ger- 
many, with  wide  ramifications  elsewhere.  Its  German  form  is,  however,  seldom  as 
exaggerated  as  that  in  the  north.  In  this  sense  it  is  partly  transitional  to  the  Alpine  race 
on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  Ladogan  on  the  other. 


FIG.  1  (2  views,  Sailer,  K.,  "Die  Fehmaraner,"  Deutsche  Rassenkunde,  vol.  4,  1930, 
Tafel  XI,  #H-11,  #2193).  A  concentration  of  a  specialized  and  exaggerated  Borreby 
type  or  types  is  found  on  the  island  of  Fehmaran,  between  the  Danish  Archipelago  and 
Germany.  The  individual  shown  has  especially  heavy  browridges  and  a  great  nasion 
depression.  Others  are  often  rounder-faced  and  usually  show  less  exaggerated  facial 
profiles.  The  browridges  on  this  individual  recall  Upper  Palaeolithic  prototypes. 

FIG.  2  (1  view,  C.  W.  Dupertuis,  Century  of  Progress).  A  German  Borreby  type  with 
the  excessive  head  breadth  of  175  mm.,  which  must  be  one  of  the  widest  non-deformed 
head  breadths  ever  measured.  This  width  is  greater  than  the  lengths  of  some  heads 
shown  in  this  section. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  characteristic  West-German  Borreby  type,  from  Stuttgart.  The 
south  west- German  Borreby  nucleus  has  mixed  with  all  invaders  from  the  initial  Neo- 
lithic onwards.  It  was  with  Borreby  people  from  this  region  that  the  Bell-Beaker  Folk 
mixed,  before  their  invasion  of  Britain  in  the  Early  Bronze  Age. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  metrically  typical  Borreby  specimen,  a  White  Russian  from  the 
region  of  Vilna.  The  presence  of  this  type  to  the  southeast  of  the  Baltic  establishes  its 
continuity  between  Germany  and  Finland. 

FIG.  5  (3  views).  A  North  Italian  from  Lombardy,  who,  although  brunet  in  hair 
color,  conforms  metrically  and  morphologically  to  the  Borreby  standard.  He  comes 
from  typically  Alpine  and  Dinaric  territory. 


FIG,  S 


Plate  7 
EAST  BALTICS 

The  term  East  Baltic  is  properly  applicable  to  a  racial  type  of  composite  nature,  found 
chiefly  in  northeastern  Germany,  Poland,  the  Baltic  States,  and  Finland,  although  it 
also  occurs  sporadically  in  Sweden  and  elsewhere.  It  is  a  partially  reduced  Borreby 
derivative,  with  Ladogan  and  Nordic  admixture. 

FIG.  1  (2  views,  Wide  World  photos).  Field  Marshal  von  Hindenburg,  a  native  of 
East  Prussia,  and  a  classic  example  of  the  East  Baltic  racial  type,  to  which  many  Prus- 
sians of  the  land-owning  Junker  class  belong. 

FIG.  2  (1  view,  Pix  Publications,  Inc.).  Field  Marshal  Werner  von  Blomberg,  a  suc- 
cessor of  von  Hindenburg,  derived  from  the  same  ethnic  source  and  a  member  of  the 
same  racial  category. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Pole  from  Grodno.  This  individual  approaches  Borreby  dimen- 
sions in  the  cranial  vault. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Lithuanian  from  the  region  of  Vilna,  who  shows  the  Ladogan 
affiliation  of  this  type  clearly. 

FIG.  5  (3  views).  A  Finn  from  Tampere,  Tavastehus.  This  man  seems  to  show  more 
evidence  of  Nordic  influence  than  the  others.  As  these  pictures  show,  the  East  Baltic  is 
not  a  stable  or  a  basic  racial  type,  but  a  variable  blend. 


F«3L     1 


Fio.  2 


FIG.  5 


Plate  8 

CARPATHIAN  AND  BALKAN  BORREBY-LIKE 

TYPES 

Evidence  of  the  survival  of  an  extremely  tall,  brachycephalized,  Upper  Palaeolithic 
stock  is  found  to  a  lesser  extent  in  the  Carpathians;  and  to  a  greater,  in  the  nucleus  of 
the  Dinaric  Alpine  region,  from  Bosnia  to  northern  Albania,  and  centered  in  Montene- 
gro. Although  the  presence  of  these  nuclei  cannot  now  be  fully  explained,  it  seems 
probable  that  they  represent  local  survivals  and  reemergences  of  relatively  unreduced 
Upper  Palaeolithic  populations.  The  Montenegrins  are  the  tallest  people  in  Europe; 
their  tallness  does  not,  however,  imply  a  thin  or  linear  build ;  their  bodies  are  frequently 
thick-set,  lateral  in  constitutional  type. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Carpatho-Russian,  or  Ruthenian,  from  the  Polish  Carpathians. 
His  tall  stature,  heavy  bony  structure,  large  face,  etc.,  point  to  a  basic  relationship  with 
the  unreduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors  of  the  northwest. 

FIG.  2  (3  views),  A  Montenegrin  of  aristocratic  lineage;  in  the  main  an  oversized, 
Upper  Palaeolithic  survivor,  but  brunet  in  pigmentation,  like  many  of  the  Serbs  to 
whom  the  Montenegrins  are  closely  related,  and  who  do  not,  as  a  rule,  possess  the  over- 
sized characters  of  their  mountain  kinsmen. 

FIG.  3  (2  views,  R.  W.  Ehrich  photo).  A  blond  Montenegrin  with  extreme  width  of 
the  cranial  vault  and  mandible. 

FIG.  4  (1  view).   An  Albanian  from  Malsia  e  Madhe,  near  the  Montenegrin  border. 

FIG.  5  (2  views).  An  Albanian  from  the  clan  of  Shoshi  in  the  isolated  mountain  tribe 
of  Dukagin.  This  man  is  a  blond  giant  with  a  broad,  heavy-boned  body;  his  face  is 
shorter  than  the  width  of  his  mandible.  The  unreduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  character 
of  the  local  mountain  type  is  clearly  seen  in  this  individual. 

FIG.  6  (1  view).  A  tall,  portly  man  from  Malsia  e  Madhe;  his  facial  features  show  an 
approach  to  those  of  the  smaller,  less  rugged  form  of  the  Alpine  race,  which  is  particu- 
larly strong  in  southern  Albania. 


Era.  5 


Fia,  6 


Plate  9 
UPPER   PALAEOLITHIC   SURVIVALS   IN   IRELAND 

Ireland  was  first  settled  in  the  post-glacial  Mesolithic  by  people  of  Upper  Palaeolithic 
type  corning  overland  from  Scotland.  The  Mesolithic  cultural  period  was  long  and  full 
in  Ireland,  and  the  subsequent  invaders  of  this  westernmost  fringe  of  Europe  have  been 
unable  to  effect  a  genetic  displacement  of  the  strain  introduced  by  the  earliest  human 
occupants.  This  strain  has  undergone  an  evolution  of  its  own  in  Ireland,  as  the  presence 
side  by  side  of  individuals  showing  various  stages  and  types  of  change  will  make  clear. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  County  Cork.  A  man  of  medium  stature  but  great  body  size,  mas- 
sive bony  structure  and  heavy  musculature;  a  large  head,  heavy  brows,  deep,  wide  man- 
dible and  projecting  chin.  This  individual  is  a  close  Irish  approximation  to  the  Briinn 
race  of  Scandinavia.  His  golden  hair  is  curly;  curly  hair  is  a  local  specialty  of  the  Irish 
Upper  Palaeolithic  group.  It  is  also,  however,  occasionally  found  among  Lapps  and 
Finns. 

FIG.  2  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  County  Clare.  Cork,  Kerry,  and  Clare  are 
the  three  Irish  counties  in  which  unreduced  Palaeolithic  survivors  form  the  major  ele- 
ment in  the  population.  This  large  individual  has  a  head  of  full  Briinn-Borreby  size  di- 
mensions, but  one  that  is  intermediate  between  the  two  Scandinavian  types  in  form. 
This  is  typical  of  the  Irish  Palaeolithic  group,  which  is  characteristically  mesocephalic 
or  sub-brachycephalic  and  forms  a  single  unit  in  this  respect.  The  individual  depicted 
possesses  a  mandible  of  extreme  width,  comparable  to  the  widest  in  Scandinavia.  Note 
that  the  hair  is  red  and  the  complexion  florid;  rufosity  is  closely  linked  to  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic survival  in  Ireland 

FIG.  3  (1  view,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  Another  Clare  man  of  similar  type  but  less 
extreme  dimensions.  This  type  of  Irishman  is  very  common  in  America. 

FIG.  4  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  An  Irishman  from  Lei  trim,  whose  facial 
features  are  typically  Irish,  and  yet  who  approximates  a  Nordic  form  in  most  anthropo- 
metric  dimensions.  There  may  well  have  been  Nordic  mixture  involved  in  the  produc- 
tion of  this  type,  taking  the  form  of  a  simple  reduction  in  lateral  size  dimensions.  In 
any  case  the  facial  features  are  of  pure  Upper  Palaeolithic  inspiration. 

FIG.  5  (1  view).  A  Finn  from  Vasa  (S.  Ostrobothnia),  who  is  anthropometrically  and 
morphologically  very  close  to  the  Irishman  from  Leitrim.  The  same  curly  hair,  and 
the  same  conformation  of  the  forehead,  lips,  and  nose  have  produced  a  striking  similar- 
ity. This  and  other  evidence  indicate  that  features  which  in  Finns  are  often  popularly 
supposed  to  be  mongoloid  are  actually  of  European  Upper  Palaeolithic  inspiration. 

FIG.  6  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  A  small-headed,  absolutely  short-headed, 
and  snub-nosed  youth  from  County  Longford.  This  individual  serves  as  an  excellent 
example  of  the  extreme  in  size  reduction  and  in  partial  foetalization  which  has  taken 
place  in  some  Irish  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors,  comparable  and  parallel  to  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Alpine  race  on  the  Continent. 

FIG.  7  (1  view).  County  Cork.  An  example  of  notable  facial  and  alveolar  progna- 
thism  in  the  case  of  a  dark-haired,  light-eyed  Irishman.  This  feature  is  commoner  with 
Irish  of  a  tall  Mediterranean  type  than  with  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  strain  proper. 


Fw*  € 


F»,  7 


Plate  10 
UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC  SURVIVALS  IN  MOROCCO 

During  the  Late  Pleistocene  North  Africa  was  inhabited  by  the  Afalou  men,  a  race  of 
tall,  large-headed,  heavy-boned,  people  with  exaggeratedly  rugged  cranial  and  facial 
features  comparable  to  those  of  the  Cr6-Magnon — Briinn  group  in  Europe.  This  Afa- 
lou race  bore  with  it  a  tendency  to  brachycephaly.  In  post-glacial  time  North  Africa 
has  been  a  highroad  of  invasion,  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean  to  Europe,  and  the 
survivors  of  those  Afalou  people  who  remained  are  to  be  found  mostly  in  two  refuge 
areas,  the  Moroccan  Rif  and  the  Canary  Islands.  Here  only  the  Riffian  group  will  be 
depicted.  In  the  Rif,  besides  more  numerous  Mediterraneans,  Nordics,  and  mixed 
types,  the  Afalou  strain  has  survived  or  reemerged  in  recognizable  form,  and  may  be 
seen  to  have  gone  through  an  evolution  parallel  to  that  of  European  Upper  Palaeolithic 
survivors  in  Ireland  and  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  As  in  Europe,  these  survivors  are 
often  blond;  as  in  Ireland,  frequently  rufous. 

FIG.  1  (2  views).  A  sheikh  of  Targuist.  Blond,  metrically  comparable  to  the  Nordics, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Irishman  in  FIG.  4  of  the  preceding  plate,  but  in  the  same  sense  un- 
Nordic  in  facial  features;  probably  Nordic  mixture  is  partly  responsible. 

FIG.  2  (2  views).  A  larger-headed,  mesocephalic  example  of  the  same  type,  compa- 
rable in  features  to  Northwest  Europeans  with  Borreby  blood ;  like  the  first  example  and 
wholly  unlike  the  Nordic  and  Mediterranean  strains  in  the  Rif,  this  individual  is  lateral 
in  constitutional  type;  heavy  boned,  and  heavily  muscled.  This  man  is  a  fkih  (school- 
master and  leader  of  the  mosque)  in  the  Riffian  tribe  of  Beni  Ulishk. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  The  kaid  or  governor  of  the  tribe  of  Targuist.  For  some  unknown 
reason  Riffians  who  hold  public  office  usually  belong  to  this  physical  type.  The  kaid 
is  rufous,  and  like  many  Riffians,  could  pass  for  an  Irishman  if  differently  clothed  and 
coiffured. 

FIG.  4  (2  views).  A  very  blond  youth  from  the  Senhajan  tribe  of  Ktama,  the  most 
isolated  spot  in  northern  Morocco.  Facially  he  resembles  a  southern  Swede;  closely 
similar  individuals  have  been  observed  in  the  Canary  Islands.  The  dimensions  of  his 
head  are  small,  however;  he  must  be  regarded  as  a  mesocephalic,  cranially  reduced 
type  similar  to  the  Irishman  on  plate  9,  Fig.  6. 

FIG.  5  (2  views).  A  highland  Beni  Urriaghel  Riffian;  short-statured,  laterally  built, 
rufous;  with  a  snub  nose  and  short  face;  a  reduced  mesocephalic  Afalou  type. 

FIG.  6  (1  view).  A  kaid  of  Taghzuth,  a  small  tribe  of  Senhajan  craftsmen  located  in 
the  high  mountain  forest  immediately  west  of  the  Rif.  Rufous  and  exaggeratedly  "Irish" 
in  facial  features. 

FIG.  7  (1  view).  An  old  Riffian  warrior,  one  of  the  Ulad  Abd  el  Mumen  clan  in  the 
Vale  of  Iherrushen,  Gzennaya.  Although  indistinguishable  metrically  from  many  tall 
Mediterraneans,  this  individual  possesses  morphological  features  in  the  region  of  the  eyes, 
nose,  mouth,  and  jaw,  which  are  clearly  of  Afalou  inspiration,  and  which  give  him  an 
"Irish"  look. 


Plate  11 
THE  ALPINE  RACE  IN  GERMANY 

The  Alpine  race  is  a  reduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivor;  Alpines  are  as  a  rule  of 
but  medium  stature,  and  lateral  in  bodily  build ;  their  heads  of  moderate  size  and  globu- 
lar; their  faces  characteristically  round  and  their  facial  features  slightly  infantile.  Their 
pigmentation  ranges  from  blond  to  brunet,  but  is  usually  intermediate.  The  Alpines 
represent  a  reemergence  of  a  brachycephalized  and  partially  foetalized  Palaeolithic  sur- 
vival in  the  central  highland  and  forest  zone  of  Europe  and  Asia,  all  the  way  from  the 
Pyrenees  to  the  Pamirs.  Alpines  are  at  the  root  of  all  or  nearly  all  the  brachycephalic 
racial  types  throughout  this  entire  expanse  of  territory.  The  Alpine  territorial  distribu- 
tion is  not  the  result  of  an  invasion  or  expansion,  but  of  a  parallel  set  of  emergences.  In 
Europe,  southern  Germany  is  the  seat  of  one  of  the  greatest  Alpine  concentrations  in 
the  continent.  The  best  place  in  the  world  to  find  Alpines  is  in  a  Bavarian  restaurant; 
that  is  where  all  four  individuals  on  this  plate  were  photographed  and  measured. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  metrically  and  morphologically  perfect  Alpine,  from  Branden- 
burg. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  tall,  curly-haired,  and  portly  Alpine  from  the  Hirschenberg,  near 
Miesbach,  Upper  Bavaria;  this  individual  might  be  considered  the  quintessence  of  a 
Bavarian. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).   An  Alpine  from  the  Black  Forest,  Baden. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  An  Alpine  from  the  Spreewald,  of  German,  not  Wendish,  origin. 
The  low  brachycephalic  index,  and  the  relative  fineness  of  the  facial  features  indicate 
a  tendency  in  a  Nordic  direction. 


FIG.  4 


Plate  12 

THE  ALPINE  RACE   IN  WESTERN 
AND   CENTRAL  EUROPE 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Basque  from  Vizcaya,  Spain.  This  blond  Basque  was  rufous  and 
freckled  in  childhood;  his  curly  hair  and  facial  features  give  him  an  Irish  appearance. 
Nevertheless  his  general  racial  classification  is  with  the  Alpine  group.  This  is  an  un- 
common type  for  a  Basque,  since  most  of  them  are  Atlanto-Mediterraneans  and  Binaries. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  perfect  example  of  a  French  Alpine.  This  individual  is  a  Parisian, 
but  his  mother  came  from  the  Pyrenees. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Ladin-speaking  Swiss  from  the  Canton  of  Ticino  (Tessin).  A  fully 
brunet  Alpine,  typical  of  southeastern  Switzerland  and  northern  Italy. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Czech  from  Bohemia,  Alpine  morphologically  but  not  as  brachy- 
cephalic  as  the  Alpine  mean. 


Fm,  t 


Fio.  2 


Wm,  4 


Plate  13 

ABERRANT  ALPINE  FORMS  IN  WESTERN  AND 
CENTRAL  EUROPE 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Scotsman  from  Aberdeen,  with  blue  eyes  and  dark  brown  hair. 
This  brachycephalic  Aberdonian  is  Alpine  in  head  form  and  in  most  facial  features;  the 
length  of  the  face  and  of  the  nose,  however,  are  aberrant  and  point  to  non-Alpine  in- 
fluences. The  predominant  Alpine  element  present  in  this  individual  is  presumably 
that  which  entered  Scotland  from  the  Continent  during  the  Bronze  Age  with  the  Short 
Gist  People.  Other  brachycephalic  Scotsmen  sometimes  show  Borreby  features. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Frenchman  from  the  Limousin  region;  father  from  the  Dordogne, 
mother  from  Limoges.  The  sloping  forehead  and  prominent  nasal  profile  of  this  indi- 
vidual, as  well  as  his  long  face  and  wide  jaw,  indicate  non- Alpine  influences;  he  pre- 
sumably carries  a  strain  of  the  large-headed  early  Mediterranean  or  Upper  Palaeolithic 
element  prevalent  in  this  part  of  France  and  first  noticed  by  Ripley. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Frenchman  from  Doubs,  in  Burgundy.  This  large-headed  and  rel- 
atively tall  northeastern  Frenchman  represents  the  local  brachycephalic  type  differen- 
tiated from  the  southcentral  French  Alpines  largely  by  stature  and  pigmentation. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Walloon,  born  in  France,  whose  parents  were  from  Ghent. 
Large-headed,  not  excessively  brachycephalic,  this  individual  is  typical  of  the  Wal- 
loon-speaking population  of  the  hilly  southeastern  half  of  Belgium. 


»  4 


Plate  14 

ALPINES   FROM   CENTRAL,   EASTERN,   AND 
SOUTHEASTERN  EUROPE 

East  of  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  and  Switzerland,  typical  Alpines  are  relatively  rare  until 
one  reaches  southern  Albania  and  Greece;  their  northeastern  limit  of  frequency  is  the 
Carpathians,  and  between  the  Carpathians  and  the  Adriatic,  they  are  usually  found  in 
a  hybridized  (Dinaricized)  form. 

FIG.  1  (3  views),  Magyar  from  Pecas,  Hungary.  This  tall  Alpine  from  Hungary  is, 
except  for  his  stature,  as  perfect  an  example  of  the  Alpine  race  as  could  be  found;  he 
may  be  compared  to  the  Alpines  on  Plate  1 1 ,  from  Germany.  Hungary  is  ethnically  a 
composite  nation,  and  this  individual's  family  has  traditions  of  both  French  and  Ger- 
man admixture. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  Ukrainian  from  Novograd  Volynsk,  in  the  Volhyn  District.  Like 
many  Volhynians,  this  individual  is  predominantly  Alpine,  although  he  shows  evidence 
of  Atlanto-Mediterranean  or  Nordic  admixture,  or  both.  The  Volhyn  constitutes  in 
part  an  Alpine  sub-nucleus  to  the  northeast  of  the  Carpathians. 

FIG.  3  (2  views,  photo  Marion  Lambert).  A  Tosc  from  Katundi,  southern  Albania. 
This  man  is  as  perfect  an  Alpine  as  the  Hungarian  on  the  preceding  plate,  the  French- 
man on  Plate  12,  Fig.  2,  or  the  Germans  on  Plate  11.  Southern  Albania  forms  an  Al- 
pine nucleus  comparable  to  that  in  southcentral  France  or  Bavaria. 

FIG.  4  (1  view).  Another  Alpine  Tosc;  in  this  case  from  Gjinokaster,  in  the  extreme 
southwest  of  Albania,  bordering  on  Epirus. 

FIG.  5  (3  views).  A  Greek  from  Sparta.  The  Alpine  strain  of  southern  Albania  ex- 
tends down  through  western  Greece  into  the  Peloponnesus/  In  Greece  it  is  frequently 
blended  with  a  local  tall  Mediterranean  strain. 


FIG.  5 


Plate  15 
ASIATIC  ALPINES 

The  Alpine  race  is  as  important  in  the  mountain  zone  from  Syria  to  the  Pamirs  as  it 
is  in  the  corresponding  portion  of  Europe.  Both  anthropometrically  and  morphologi- 
cally, the  European  and  Asiatic  Alpines  are  essentially  identical.  Furthermore,  when 
not  too  strongly  altered  by  mixture  with  other  stocks,  the  Asiatic  Alpines  tend  to  an  in- 
termediate pigment  condition  comparable  to  that  of  their  European  counterparts, 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Syrian  Alpine  from  Damascus.  This  man  is  typically  Alpine,  ex- 
cept perhaps  for  his  rather  extreme  face  length. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Druze  from  Shuf,  southern  Syria.  This  man  is  in  all  respects  an 
excellent  Alpine.  The  Druze,  followers  of  a  secret  religion  based  on  the  schismatic  teach- 
ings of  the  Khalifa  Hakim  of  the  Mediaeval  Fatimid  Dynasty,  claim  to  be  descended 
from  immigrants  who  moved  from  Yemen  to  Syria  in  the  sixth  century  A.D.  Although 
this  tradition  may  be  accurate,  nevertheless  the  majority  of  the  Druzes  today  are 
brachycephalic,  and  show  a  predominance  of  Alpine  racial  characters,  which  could 
only  have  had  a  local  origin. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  An  Armenian  from  Cilicia,  Asia  Minor.  The  Armenians,  for  the 
most  part  Dinaricized,  include  in  their  ranks  a  minority  of  individuals  who  represent, 
as  does  this  man,  the  Alpine  prototype  of  the  Asia  Minor  brachycephals. 

FIG.  4  (1  view,  photo  B.  N.  Vishnevsky).  An  Iranian  speaker  from  Russian  Turke- 
stan; a  good  example  of  a  central  Asiatic  Alpine. 

FIG.  5  (1  view,  photo  B.  N.  Vishnevsky),  A  Mountain  Tajik  from  the  Pamirs.  The 
Tajiks  are  basically  Alpine,  and  resemble  the  south-central  French  closely  in  an  anthro- 
pometric  sense.  They  form  the  last  major  outpost  of  the  Alpine  race  to  the  East,  as  far 
as  we  know  at  present. 

FIG.  6  (1  view,  from  a  tempera  painting  by  the  artist  lacovleff,  from  his  album  Pern- 
lures  d'Asie,  Paris,  1935,  permission  Mme.  lacovleff).  An  Alpine-looking  Hunza  from 
the  Hunza  valley  above  Gilgit,  in  the  Himalayas.  The  western  Himalayas,  from  Kafiri- 
stan  over  into  Tibet,  are  proving  to  be  a  refuge  area  of  the  greatest  importance,  with 
interesting  racial  as  well  as  cultural  implications.  Nordics,  various  varieties  of  Mediter- 
raneans, as  well  as  Alpines  and  other  strains  are  apparently  preserved  in  the  inaccessible 
valleys  of  this  territory. 


Plate  16 
THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RACE  IN  ARABIA 

The  Mediterranean  race,  in  the  widest  sense,  is  one  of  the  two  basic  divisions  of  the 
white  stock.  Although  varying  greatly  in  stature,  different  varieties  of  Mediterraneans 
do  not,  as  types,  attain  the  bulk,  either  in  head  or  body  size,  of  the  unreduced  Upper 
Palaeolithic  group;  tall  Mediterraneans,  whether  or  not  depigmented  (partially  depig- 
mented  Mediterraneans  are  Nordics)  are  usually  slender,  Small  or  moderate  statured 
Mediterraneans  are  as  a  rule  less  lateral  in  build  than  reduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  sur- 
vivors. 

The  homeland  of  the  Mediterranean  race  appears  to  lie  somewhere  between  East 
Africa  and  the  Mediterranean,  between  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  and 
between  the  Egyptian  Delta  and  India.  Arabia  is  centrally  located  within  this  general 
territory,  and  the  parts  of  Arabia  lying  west  and  north  of  the  Rubaf  el  Khali  desert 
seem  to  be  basic  Mediterranean  territory. 

FIG.  1  (2  views),  A  youthful  Yemeni  from  the  desert-border  tribe  of  Hadha.  Facially 
he  is  a  perfect  example  of  a  refined  Mediterranean  type ;  his  head  length  is  a  little  short, 
his  stature  a  little  tall,  for  the  mean.  He  is  a  brunet-white  in  unexposed  skin  color, 
brunet  in  hair  and  eye  color;  narrower-faced  than  any  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  sur- 
vivors, reduced  or  unreduced,  whom  we  have  seen  in  the  preceding  plates.  His  fore- 
head and  jaw  are  both  consistently  narrow.  It  is  a  characteristic  of  the  Mediterranean 
race,  as  of  this  individual,  that  the  upper  face  height  and  nose  height  are  great,  no  mat- 
ter how  small  the  other  dimensions.  Imagine  this  individual  pink-skinned,  blue-eyed, 
and  blond-haired,  and  you  will  have  a  close  approximation  to  a  Nordic.  There  is  no 
essential  difference  between  the  two  races  other  than  pigmentation.  Both,  however,  are 
separated  by  a  wide  racial  gap  from  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  group. 

FIG.  2  (2  views).  Another  Yemeni  highlander,  in  this  case  from  the  escarpment  tribe 
of  Beni  Madhar.  This  man  is  shorter  in  stature,  and  much  longer-headed.  He  is  mixed 
in  eye  color;  some  25  per  cent  of  all  pure  brunet  Mediterranean  groups  possess  a  trace 
of  incipient  blondism.  The  cranial  and  facial  dimensions  of  this  individual  resemble 
those  of  the  larger,  Atlanta-Mediterranean  strain  as  found  in  western  Europe  and 
North  Africa.  In  Arabia  the  two  are  not  clearly  differentiated. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  A  Yemeni  soldier  from  the  tribe  of  Khaulan,  which  goes  back  his- 
torically to  Sabaean  times.  Metrically  a  perfect  Mediterranean  central  type,  this  indi- 
vidual possesses  a  thin,  aquiline  nose  of  a  type  found  frequently  but  by  no  means  ex- 
clusively among  Arabs. 

FIG.  4  (2  views,  photo  Henry  Field.  Courtesy  of  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Chicago).  A  Ruwalla  Bedawin,  a  member  of  an  aristocratic  tribe  of  camel  breeders 
who  inhabit  the  Syrian  desert.  The  Ruwalla,  more  brunet  than  the  Yemenis,  resemble 
them  closely  in  most  respects. 

FIG.  5  (2  views,  photo  Henry  Field.  Courtesy  of  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Chicago).  A  Solubbi;  member  of  a  small  group  of  desert  wanderers  and  outcasts 
who  inhabit  the  North  Arabian  desert,  travelling  in  small  family  groups  and  serving 
as  hunters  and  tinkers  for  the  Bedawin.  They  are  the  purest  Mediterraneans  in  north- 
ern Arabia,  and  probably  represent  an  extremely  ancient  element  in  the  North  Arabian 
population,  This  Solubbi  may  be  considered  a  classical  Mediterranean. 

FIG.  6  (2  views,  photo  Henry  Field.  From  Field,  Henry,  Arabs  of  Central  Iraq,  Anth. 
Mem.  of  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  History,  vol.  4,  1935,  Plate  LXXX).  A  tall 
Mediterranean  from  Iraq.  The  Iraqians,  who  are  apparently  direct  and  unaltered  de- 
scendants of  the  ancient  Mesopotamians,  are  Mediterraneans.  They  are,  however,  on 
the  whole  taller,  darker-skinned,  longer-faced,  and  straighter-haired  than  the  Arabs. 


LONG-FACED  MEDITERRANEANS   OF  THE 
WESTERN  ASIATIC  HIGHLANDS 

In  the  highland  zone  of  western  Asia,  aside  from  the  Alpine  reemergences  already 
studied,  the  most  important  racial  type  is  a  moderately  tall  to  tall,  slender,  brunet 
Mediterranean  type  characterized  especially  by  a  great  length  of  the  face  and  nose.  In 
Syria  and  Anatolia,  as  in  Armenia  and  the  Caucasus,  this  type  occurs  sporadically  in 
the  midst  of  Alpines  and,  more  commonly,  of  Alpine-Mediterranean  hybrids;  in  Iran 
and  Afghanistan  the  dolichocephalic  strain  or  strains  are  numerically  predominant. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Turk  from  Kharput,  eastern  Turkey.  This  moderately  tall, 
brunet  Mediterranean  Turk  is  remarkable  for  his  considerable  head  length,  and  espe- 
cially for  the  great  height  of  his  upper  face  and  nose.  The  original  Seljuks  and  Osmanlis 
who  invaded  Asia  Minor  and  founded  the  Turkish  Empire  probably  were  men  of  this 
same  general  physical  type.  Like  the  Finns,  the  Turks  never  were,  in  all  likelihood, 
mongoloid. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Syrian  from  Kfar  fAkal,  who,  although  slightly  brachycephalized 
by  the  prevailing  head  form  of  Syria,  still  retains  the  essential  features  of  the  long-faced, 
long-nosed  Mediterranean  prototype  of  this  region. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  dolichocephalic  Armenian  from  Kharput.  Dolichocephalic 
Armenians  are  rare ;  this  individual  appears  to  be  a  perfect  example  of  the  tall,  long- 
headed, and  long-faced  Mediterranean  prototype  which,  brachycephalized  by  Alpine 
admixture,  is  at  the  basis  of  the  Armenian  population. 

FIG.  4  (2  views,  Photo  Wm.  M.  Shanklin).  A  Gherkess  (Circassian)  from  the  north- 
western Caucasus.  The  Caucasic  peoples  include  in  their  racial  repertoire  a  strong  bru- 
net Mediterranean  element  of  the  type  shown  above;  this  is  especially  prevalent  among 
the  Cherkesses,  of  whom  this  individual  apparently  forms  a  good  example.  One  can- 
not be  sure,  however,  in  view  of  his  kalpak,  that  he  has  not  been  partly  brachycepha- 
lized. 

FIG.  5  (1  view,  tempera  painting  by  lacovleff).  This  magnificent  head  by  lacovleff 
illustrates  an  extreme  example  of  the  long-faced  Mediterranean  type  characteristic  of 
the  Turkomans,  who  inhabit,  besides  the  plains  of  Turkestan,  some  of  the  mountain 
districts  of  northern  Iran  and  Afghanistan. 


Wm.  2 


ff%^,' 
ifcitf 


*  5 


Plate  18 

LONG-FACED   MEDITERRANEANS   OF  THE 

WESTERN  ASIATIC   HIGHLANDS:    THE 

IRANO-AFGHAN  RACE 

The  individuals  shown  in  the  preceding  plate  might  be  generally  classified  within 
the  Irano-Afghan  branch  of  the  Mediterranean  race,  the  main  diagnostic  features  of 
which  are  an  extreme  vault  length,  face  height,  and  nose  height.  In  many  instances  ex- 
treme nasal  convexity  and  prominence,  and  in  others  an  extremely  high  cranial  vault, 
are  additional  features. 

FIG.  1  (2  views,  photo  Henry  Field.  Courtesy  of  the  Field  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Chicago).  A  Lur  from  Luristan,  Iran.  This  Persian  tribesman  shows  in  exagger- 
ated degree  the  great  nasal  prominence  often  associated  with  this  branch  of  the  Medi- 
terranean race,  and  endemic  among  many  Near  Eastern  peoples.  Not  only  is  the  nose 
convex  and  salient,  but  also  the  forehead  is  sloping,  and  the  chin  receding,  although  the 
mandible  is  deep. 

Fio.  2  (1  view,  tempera  painting  by  lacovleff).  The  same  racial  characters,  typical 
among  Kurds,  appear  in  this  Baghdadi  Kurd  in  less  exaggerated  form. 

FIG.  3  (1  view,  tempera  painting  by  lacovleff).  Although  one  cannot  be  sure  of  the 
head  form  of  this  venerable  Persian  official  from  Teheran,  his  facial  features  are  charac- 
teristically Irano-Afghan. 

FIG.  4  (2  views,  photo  Gordon  T.  Bowles).  A  Momnand  tribesman  from  eastern 
Afghanistan.  The  Afridis  and  Mohmands  of  the  Khyber  Pass  country,  the  traditional 
harriers  of  the  Northwest  Frontier  Province,  are  of  the  same  racial  type,  for  the  most 
part,  as  the  Persians  and  the  Afghanis.  This  individual  might  be  a  brother  of  the  Luri 
(Fig.  1)  from  the  opposite  end  of  the  Irano-Afghan  plateau. 

FIG.  5  (1  view,  tempera  painting  by  lacovleff).  An  Afghan,  the  "son  of  a  nomadic 
chief."  This  youth  possesses  the  high,  narrow  cranial  vault  common  to  one  variety  of 
the  Irano-Afghan  race. 

FIG.  6  (2  views,  photo  Wm.  M.  Shanklin).  A  tribesman  from  the  desert  border  of 
northeastern  Syria,  this  gray-bearded  man  possesses  the  high  cranial  vault  mentioned 
above. 

FIG.  7  (2  views,  photo  Gordon  T.  Bowles).  Closely  similar  to  the  Syrian  desert  border 
tribesman  is  this  Afridi  from  eastern  Afghanistan.  Its  high,  narrow  cranial  vault,  in 
combination  with  a  great  facial  and  nasal  height,  and  its  general  cast  of  cranial  features 
makes  this  type  nearly  identical  with  that  of  the  Corded  people  who  invaded  Europe 
from  the  east  toward  the  beginning  of  the  third  millennium  B.C. 

FIG.  8  (1  view,  tempera  painting  by  lacovleff).  This  Persian  from  Teheran  seems  to 
belong  to  the  same  general  branch  of  the  Irano-Afghan  race  as  the  two  preceding.  The 
great  length  of  his  nose  is  an  attribute  of  senility  as  well  as  a  racial  character. 


Plate  19 

GYPSIES,    DARK-SKINNED   MEDITERRANEANS, 
AND  SOUTH  ARABIAN  VEDDOIDS 

The  Gypsies,  who  are  believed  to  have  left  their  home  in  the  lower  Indus  Valley  about 
the  turn  of  the  present  millennium,  and  who  arrived  in  Europe  some  four  centuries  later, 
belong,  when  comparatively  unmixed,  to  a  dark-skinned,  small-bodied  racial  type  of 
general  Mediterranean  appearance  which  is  common  in  India. 

FIG,  1  (2  views,  photo  V.  Lebzelter,  from  "Anthropologische  Untersuchungen  an 
serbischen  Ziguenern,"  MAGW,  vol.  52,  1922).  A  nomadic  Serbian  Gypsy,  appar- 
ently relatively  pure,  who  shows  the  characteristic  Gypsy  combination  of  straight  jet 
black  hair,  black  eyes,  and  dark  skin,  in  connection  with  Mediterranean  facial  features. 

FIG,  2  (2  views),  An  English  Gypsy  of  the  Cooper  family,  whose  ancestors  moved  to 
New  England  a  century  ago  Although  some  of  the  Coopers  and  Stanleys  are  blue- 
eyed  and  show  other  signs  of  non-Gypsy  mixture,  this  individual  possesses  a  sallow 
brownish  skin,  straight,  coarse,  shiny  black  hair,  and  dark  brown  eyes.  He  is  appar- 
ently a  relatively  pure  representative  of  the  Gypsy  prototype. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  Of  much  greater  antiquity  outside  of  India  is  a  dark-skinned,  black- 
eyed,  and  straight-haired  Mediterranean  type  which  appears  with  some  frequency  in 
southern  Iraq  and  along  the  coasts  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  This  young  sailor  from  Kuwait 
will  serve  as  an  example.  The  origin  and  affiliations  of  this  type  have  not  as  yet  been 
fully  explained. 

FIG.  4  (2  views).  In  southern  Arabia,  south  of  the  Rubar  el  Khali  desert,  the  popula- 
tions consist  of  a  Mediterranean  upper  stratum  overlaid  upon  a  non-white  racial  group 
whose  affinities  are  with  the  Vedda  of  Ceylon,  and  the  curly-haired  aboriginal  tribes 
of  southern  India;  more  remotely,  it  possesses  strong  connections  with  the  aborigines  of 
Australia.  The  individual  shown  in  Fig.  4  is  an  extreme  example  of  this  Veddoid  pro- 
totype. Note  the  great  prognathism,  the  ringlet  hair  form,  the  extreme  nasion  depres- 
sion, and  the  general  form  of  the  nose  and  lips.  Except  for  his  light  unexposed  skin 
color,  this  individual,  who  is  quite  brown  where  exposed,  could  pass  for  an  Australian 
aborigine. 

FIG.  5  (2  views).  A  coarse  type  of  Hadhramauti,  who  represents  a  mixture  between 
the  Veddoid  element  shown  above  and  the  Mediterranean  race;  or  who  might  be  called 
a  less  extreme  example  of  the  former. 

FIG.  6  (2  views,  photo  Wm.  M.  Shanklin).  A  coarse,  dark-skinned  type  of  Ruwalla 
Bedawi.  Among  the  North  Arabian  Bedawin,  besides  the  more  delicately  formed  Medi- 
terranean types  already  observed,  occur  individuals  who  seem  to  show  relationships 
with  the  Veddoid  element  on  the  other  side  of  the  desert,  and  perhaps  also  with  the 
deeply  pigmented  element  of  southern  Iraq,  as  exemplified  by  Fig.  3.  Tribes  and  popu- 
lations possessing  these  racial  elements  do  not  possess  the  normal  25  per  cent  of  incipi- 
ent blondism  characteristic  of  most  Mediterranean  groups. 


Plate  20 

THE   NEGROID   PERIPHERY  OF  THE 
MEDITERRANEAN  RACE 

In  the  deserts  and  highlands  of  Ethiopia,  Eritrea,  and  the  Somalilands  is  found  a  con* 
centration  of  several  related  Mediterranean  types,  mixed  in  varying  degrees  with  ne- 
groes. To  the  west  these  partial  whites  border  on  Sudanese  negroes;  to  the  southwest, 
the  partially  Hamitic  tribes  of  Kenya  and  Uganda  form  an  extension  of  the  peripheral 
Mediterranean  racial  area.  To  the  north,  the  Beja-Bisharin  group  of  Hami tic-speaking 
nomads  connect  the  East  African  Hamitic-speaking  peoples  with  their  wholly  white 
Egyptian  and  Berber  relatives  of  North  Africa. 

FIG.  1  (2  views),  A  Somali  from  the  tribe  of  Mahmud  Grade,  British  Somali  land. 
This  Somali  represents  the  closest  approximation  to  a  white  man  found  among  his 
people.  The  extreme  narrowness  of  his  head  and  face,  the  straight  nasal  profile,  and  the 
prominence  of  his  chin,  mark  him  as  less  negroid  than  many  of  his  fellows.  At  the  same 
time  his  skin  is  nearly  black,  his  hair  curly  but  not  frizzly.  The  type  to  which  this  So- 
mali belongs  is  ancient  in  East  Africa,  as  shown  by  the  excavations  of  Leakey  in  Kenya. 
It  is  a  specialized,  locally  differentiated  Mediterranean  racial  form. 

FIG.  2  (2  views).  Closer  to  the  standard  Mediterranean  type  of  Arabia  and  North 
Africa  is  this  senile  Agau,  a  member  of  a  fast  diminishing  group  of  Hamitic-speaking 
aborigines  in  the  kingdom  of  Gojjam  in  northern  Ethiopia.  Although  his  skin  is  dark, 
his  hair  is  nearly  straight,  and  his  measurements  as  well  as  his  cranial  and  facial  fea- 
tures are  purely  or  almost  purely  Mediterranean.  He  shows  no  visible  signs  of  negroid 
admixture,  although  from  a  purely  genetic  standpoint  some  must  be  present. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  This  individual  is  a  tall,  slender  Semitic-speaking  Ethiopian  from 
the  kingdom  of  Shoa.  Except  for  his  hair  form  he  is  essentially  white  and  Mediter- 
ranean. His  skin  is  a  sallow  yellowish,  of  a  hue  often  seen  among  attenuated  negro- 
white  hybrids  in  America. 

FIG.  4  (2  views).  A  Hamitic-speaking  Wollega  Galla,  frizzly  haired  but  otherwise  not 
specifically  negroid.  There  is  a  non-negroid  brachycephalic  strain  in  Ethiopia,  with 
heavy  browridges  and  a  strong  facial  bony  structure.  This  individual  shows  some  traits 
characteristic  of  this  element. 

FIG.  5  (1  view,  ©  Karakashian  Bros.  Tropical  Photo  Stores,  Khartoum).  The 
Mediterranean  quality  found  among  the  partly  negroid  Beja  and  Bisharin  is  most  evi- 
dent in  the  female  sex.  Their  bodily  build  and  breast  form,  as  well  as  their  facial  fea- 
tures and  hair  form,  show  this  especially.  This  Baggara  woman  from  the  Anglo-Egyp- 
tian Sudan  is  less  negroid  than  the  majority. 


Plate  21 
MEDITERRANEANS  FROM  NORTH  AFRICA 

FIG.  1  (2  views,  photo  Ale§  HrdliCka.  From  Hrdli£ka,  A.,  Anthropometric  Survey  of  the 
Natives  of  Kharga  Oasis,  Egypt;  MCSI,  vol.  59,  #1,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1912,  pi.  14). 
An  oasis  dweller  from  Kharga.  This  extremely  dolichocephalic,  low-vaulted,  and 
relatively  low-nosed  Mediterranean  sub-type  is  typical  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  oases 
of  the  Libyan  desert,  in  Siwa  and  Awjla,  where  Berber  is  spoken,  as  well  as  in  Arabic- 
speaking  Kharga. 

FIG.  2  (2  views,  photo  N.  Puccioni.  Puccioni,  N.,  Anthropometria  delle  Genii  delta  Cire- 
naica,  Firenze,  1936,  Tab.  XVI,  #277).  A  tall,  slender  North  African  Arab  from  the 
tribe  of  el  Hasa  in  Cyrenaica.  The  narrow,  prominent  nose,  the  sloping  forehead, 
and  the  protruding  occiput  are  features  typical  of  the  nomadic  Arabs  of  North  Africa 
from  Gyrenaica  to  the  Atlantic. 

FIG.  3  (2  views,  from  Zeltner,  F.  de,  "A  Propos  des  Touareg  du  Sud,"  RA,  vol. 
25,  1915,  p.  172;  Fig.  3  from  original  blocks).  A  young  Bourzeinat  Tuareg,  from 
the  region  of  Timbuctu;  this  southern  Tuareg  shows  clearly  the  Mediterranean  character 
of  this  Saharan  Berber  people.  Pictures  of  unveiled  Tuareg  men  are  very  rare. 

FIG.  4  (2  views,  photo  H.  H.  Kidder).  A  moderately  tall,  long-faced  Algerian  Kabyle. 

FIG.  5  (2  views).  A  small  Mediterranean  who  may  be  taken  as  a  type  example  of  this 
race  in  its  North  African  form.  This  individual  is  a  Shluh  Berber  from  the  Sous,  south- 
ern Morocco. 

FIG.  6  (2  views).  An  equally  standardized  Mediterranean  from  the  Riffian  coastal 
tribe  of  Beni  Itteft,  northern  Morocco.  These  two  individuals  may  be  considered  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Mediterranean  invaders  who  entered  western  Europe  over  Gibraltar 
in  the  Neolithic. 


Plate  22 

SMALL  MEDITERRANEANS  OF  SOUTHERN 

EUROPE 

The  earliest  Neolithic  invaders  of  the  southern  fringe  of  Europe  were  brunet  Mediter- 
raneans of  small  to  moderate  stature  and  moderate  head  size.  Unaltered  representa- 
tives of  this  type  or  group  of  types  may  be  found  today  from  Crete  to  Portugal. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  native  of  Crete,  a  perfect  representative  of  the  small  Mediter- 
ranean race,  similar  metrically  to  the  Mediterranean  Yemenite  Arabs  shown  on 
Plate  1 6,  and  identical,  as  nearly  as  can  be  determined,  with  the  mean  type  of  Cretans 
in  Minoan  times. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  An  equally  typical  example  of  the  same  racial  strain,  from  the  region 
of  Naples  in  Italy.  The  only  aberrant  feature  of  this  individual  is  his  blue  eyes. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Mediterranean  Spaniard;  his  father  is  a  Galician,  his  mother  a 
Cuban  of  unmixed  Spanish  descent. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  very  dark-skinned,  large-headed  mesocephalic  Mediterranean 
from  Beira  Alta  in  Portugal,  with  heavy  beard  and  body  hair.  Many  of  the  Portugese 
belong  to  this  more  robust  Mediterranean  sub-variety,  which  is  also  common  in  south- 
ern Italy,  and  may  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  Mediterranean  elements  to  arrive  in 
southwestern  Europe. 


Fio.  2 


i;  ,  w-v- 


Fio.  3 


^-,-;(    .-,|,^^r-';^^^^^.  '  vy;-1",^  ^*!3^^^ 

BBlii : ' •: ' '    •'  •  ^    .^^flMfeftfe*,    :  -=  ^°  ^: ! ' ; <   i_.^^*^ 

.  '^;v''- ; 


*  4 


Plate  23 

ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEANS  FROM   SOUTH- 
WESTERN EUROPE 

Toward  the  end  of  the  Neolithic  period,  the  western  Mediterranean  countries  were 
invaded  by  seafarers  of  a  tall,  exceptionally  long-headed  Mediterranean  variety;  some 
of  these  invaders  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  whence  they  also  invaded  the 
British  Isles  and  Scandinavia.  The  accompanying  pictures  show  modern  derivatives  of 
this  sea-borne  type. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).   A  north  Italian  from  Villa  Romagno,  Piedmont,  near  Genoa. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Frenchman  from  the  Midi,  a  native  of  Toulouse.  The  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  race  is  an  important  element  in  the  south  of  France,  but  is  most  fre- 
quently partially  or  wholly  brachycephalized  by  Alpine  admixture,  of  which  this  indi- 
vidual shows  no  evidence. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  metrically  and  morphologically  perfect  example  of  the  late  Neo- 
lithic Megalithic  or  Long  Barrow  race,  the  modern  Atlanto-Mediterranean,  from  Azer 
in  Portugal. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  dolichocephalic  Spanish  Basque  from  Sexto  in  the  Basque  Prov- 
ince. Like  many  Basques,  he  is  extremely  leptorrhine,  narrow-jawed,  and  blue-eyed. 


Fio.  1 


FIG.  2 


FIG,  3 


FIG,  4 


Plate  24 
BLUE-EYED  ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEANS 

As  was  seen  in, the  case  of  the  Basque  on  Plate  23,  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  tall,  ex- 
tremely long-headed  Atlanto-Mediterranean  race  toward  a  combination  of  black  or 
dark  brown  hair  and  blue  eyes.  The  four  men  shown  on  this  plate  all  possess  this  same 
pigment  combination,  all  are  170  cm.  or  over  in  stature,  have  head  lengths  well  over 
200  mm.,  and  form  a  unit  in  regard  to  general  anthropometric  and  morphological 
position.  All  come  from  regions  near  the  sea,  and  touched  by  Megalithic  navigators. 

FIG.  1  (3  views),  A  Sicilian  from  Messina.  Aberrant  in  respect  to  an  excessive  mandi- 
ble width,  but  otherwise  typical. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).    A  Spaniard  from  Vigo,  northwestern  Spain. 

FIG.  3  (3  views),  A  black-haired  Irishman  from  County  Donegal.  The  Neolithic  in- 
vaders of  Ireland  were  apparently  all  or  nearly  all  of  this  tall,  sea-borne  Mediterranean 
variety,  This  individual  is  aberrant  in  head  breadth,  but  otherwise  typical. 

FIG,  4  (3  views).  A  Scotsman  from  Ayrshire,  An  excellent  example  of  the  British 
Long  Barrow  type  and  a  direct  Neolithic  survival. 


FIG,  1 


FIG.  2 


Plate  25 

THE  MEDITERRANEAN  REEMERGENCE   IN 
GREAT  BRITAIN 

The  Atlanta-Mediterraneans  were  not  the  only  members  of  the  Mediterranean  stock 
to  invade  Great  Britain;  smaller  Mediterraneans  are  commonest  in  Wales  and  in  the 
former  Cymric  territory  which  stretches  from  the  Midlands  to  Glasgow.  With  the  rise 
of  the  industrial  revolution,  the  population  increased  greatly  in  these  two  last  named 
regions,  which  became  the  most  heavily  industrialized  areas  in  Britain;  hence  the 
Mediterranean  increment  in  the  British  population  has  risen  during  the  last  century 
and  a  half. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Lancastrian  from  Blackburn,  a  slender,  delicately  built  Mediter- 
ranean with  an  extremely  narrow  nose  and  mandible.  He  represents  a  characteristic 
Midlands  type. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  metrically  similar  New  Englander  from  a  Massachusetts  coastal 
city,  of  Colonial  Yankee  lineage.  He  represents  a  reemergence  or  survival  within  the 
New  England  stock  of  the  same  British  Mediterranean  element. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Welshman  from  the  neighborhood  of  Cardiff.  An  absolutely 
great  head  length,  a  heavier  facial  structure,  and  a  less  leptorrhinc  nose  form  indicate 
a  different  Mediterranean  sub-type  from  the  two  above. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Mediterranean  Scotsman  from  Paisley;  typical  of  the  industrial 
population  of  the  Glasgow  district. 


FIG.  1 


Fro.  2 


Fto.  3 


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' '( 


4 


Plate  26 
THE   PONTIC  MEDITERRANEANS 

Along  the  northern  and  western  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  are  found,  among  other 
populations,  brunet  Mediterraneans  of  a  generalized  type,  called  Pontic  by  the  Russian 
anthropologists,  who  are  usually  of  medium  to  tall  stature  and  who  seem  related  on  the 
one  hand  to  the  Atlanto-Mediterraneans  and  on  the  other  to  the  long-faced  Mediter- 
ranean prototype  of  Asia  Minor  and  the  Caucasus  Inland  from  the  Black  Sea  shores 
they  are  found  sporadically  in  Russia,  Poland,  and  the  countries  along  the  upper  course 
of  the  Danube.  They  also  seem  to  form  an  early  population  level  in  Serbia  and  Albania. 
Their  precise  archaeological  history  has  not  yet  been  traced,  and  their  relationship  to 
the  Danubian  invaders  of  central  Europe  at  the  beginning  of  the  local  Neolithic  is  un- 
known. They  do  not,  however,  conform  closely  to  the  physical  type  of  the  early  Danu- 
bians  as  known  to  us  by  a  small  series  of  skeletal  remains.  Much  more  work  needs  to  be 
done  in  southeastern  Europe  before  their  historical  position  and  relationships  can  be 
established. 

FIG.  1  (3  views)  A  Bulgarian  from  Chepelarc.  An  excellent  example  of  the  Pontic 
Mediterranean  type,  except  for  an  unusually  small  cranial  vault.  In  Bulgaria  this 
Mediterranean  type  seems  actually  in  the  majority. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  Photo  F.  I.  Rainer,  from  Rainer,  F.  I.  Recherches  Anthropologiques 
dans  Trois  Villages  Carpathiennes^  Bucharest,  1937,  Plate  II,  #3.)  A  Moldavian  farmer. 
This  Mediterranean  type  is  common  in  Rumania  on  the  plains  of  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia,  as  well  as  in  Bulgaria,  but  is  largely  replaced  by  brachycephalic  forms  in  the 
Carpathians. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  This  man,  who  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  type  in  question,  comes 
from  the  region  of  Vilna,  and  has  a  Lithuanian  father  and  a  Polish  mother.  He  is  said 
to  resemble  his  mother's  family.  This  type  is  recognized  by  Polish  anthropologists  as 
an  element  in  the  population  of  their  country,  and  is  designated  by  them  as  Mediter- 
ranean. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Czech  of  Pontic  Mediterranean  affiliation,  unusual  in  a  popula- 
tion which  is  for  the  most  part  brachycephalic.  Bohemia  is  nearly  the  last  outpost  of  this 
type  to  the  west;  a  few,  however,  occur  in  Bavaria. 


FIG,  1 


FIG,  3 


Plate  27 

THE  NORDIC  RACE:   EXAMPLES  OF  CORDED 
PREDOMINANCE 

The  Nordic  race  is  a  partially  depigmented  branch  of  the  greater  Mediterranean 
racial  stock.  It  is  probably  a  composite  race  made  up  of  two  or  more  basic  Mediter- 
ranean strains,  depigmented  separately  or  in  conjunction  by  a  progressive  evolutionary 
process.  As  has  been  demonstrated  on  plates  9  and  10,  it  is  impossible,  as  some  European 
anthropologists  believe,  to  derive  a  Nordic  directly  from  a  dolichocephalic  Upper  Palae- 
olithic ancestor  of  Briinn  or  Cro-Magnon  type.  Reduction  of  these  overgrown  races 
produces  a  result  which  is  quite  un-Nordic  morphologically  as  well  as  in  constitutional 
type.  It  is  the  author's  thesis  that  the  Nordic  race  in  Europe  was  caused  by  a  blending 
of  the  early  Danubian  Mediterranean  strain  with  the  later  Corded  element.  At  the 
present  time  both  Corded  and  Danubian  elements  may  be  isolated,  while  other  Nordics 
preserve  the  blended  form.  Nordics  in  eastern  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  Africa  may 
have  been  formed  by  separate  recombinations  or  simple  depigmentations  of  comparable 
Mediterranean  strains,  or  by  invasions  of  these  regions  from  an  European  or  West 
Asiatic  depigmentation  center. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Finn  of  predominantly  Corded  type;  note  the  ash-blond  hair  and 
grayish  eyes,  the  great  head  length,  and  extremely  low  cephalic  index.  In  head  and 
face  proportions  a  resemblance  is  seen  to  the  Corded-like  Irano- Afghan  sub-type,  a  re- 
semblance which  is  enhanced  if  pigmentation  differences  are  ignored  Both  metrically 
and  morphologically  this  individual  is  seen  to  be  fully  Mediterranean;  there  is  no  evi- 
dence of  Upper  Palaeolithic  admixture. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Swede  from  Sonderhamn  who  represents  the  same  type,  and  who 
is  very  similar  in  most  dimensions.  The  population  of  most  of  Sweden  is  predominantly 
Nordic;  typical  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors  are  numerous  only  along  the  southwestern 
coast. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Nordic  Dane  of  Jutish  parentage  who  also  shows  Corded  pre- 
dominance. His  face  is  of  extreme  length,  a  trait  common  among  ancient  Corded 
crania.  This  individual  is  the  son  of  the  classic  Borreby  man  shown  on  Plate  5,  Fig.  1 ; 
this  is  graphic  evidence  of  the  fact  that  ancient  racial  types  may  be  repeated  in  toto  in 
individuals  of  mixed  racial  ancestry.  Only  through  the  agency  of  such  segregation  is  it 
possible  to  present  this  collection  of  basic  European  racial  photographs. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  New  Englander  of  Colonial  British  descent.  This  tall,  slenderly 
built,  ash-blond -haired  Nordic  is  an  extreme  example  of  the  Corded  type  which  en- 
tered Britain  first  during  the  Bronze  Age  in  conjunction  with  brachycephals,  and  later 
during  the  Iron  Age  as  an  element  in  the  Nordic  invading  groups.  Its  presence  in  New 
England  in  1 938  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  complete  reernergence. 


FIG.  1 


Fio.  2 


FIG.  3 


.  4 


Plate  28 

THE  NORDIC  RACE:   EXAMPLES  OF  DANUBIAN 
PREDOMINANCE 

In  contrast  to  the  last  plate,  the  present  one  shows  a  series  of  Nordics  in  whom  the 
Corded  element  is  notably  weak  or  absent,  so  that  an  approximation  to  the  earlier, 
smaller-headed,  mesocephalic  Danubian  strain  is  perhaps  attained.  The  reason  for 
qualification  on  this  score  is  that  not  enough  Danubian  crania  have  been  found  and 
described  to  make  this  point  certain. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Norwegian  from  Drommen,  near  Oslo.  The  head  is  absolutely  of 
moderate  size,  comparable  to  that  of  small  brunet  Mediterranean  sub-varieties;  the 
stature  and  bodily  bulk  are  also  small. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  mesocephalic  Englishman  from  Southampton,  whose  small  face, 
concave-profiled,  round-tipped  nasal  form,  and  whose  lack  of  angularity  or  bony  ex- 
travagance in  the  cranial  and  facial  skeleton,  combined  with  a  high  vault,  indicate  a 
close  similarity  to  the  known  skeletal  remains  of  Neolithic  Danubians. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Galician  of  mixed  Ukrainian  and  Polish  parentage;  an  excellent 
example  of  the  Danubian  type,  bound  to  the  soil  since  the  Neolithic,  which  has  re- 
emerged  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  rich  agricultural  plain  which  stretches 
across  southern  Poland  and  Russia,  while  Nordics  proper  have  for  the  most  part 
moved  elsewhere. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Lithuanian,  who  although  brachycephalic,  belongs  essentially  to 
the  same  Danubian  type. 


JFio.  1 


FIG,  2 


Plate  29 

THE  NORDIC  RACE:   HALLSTATT  AND  KELTIC 
IRON  AGE  TYPES 

FIG.  1  (2  views,  Bryn  and  Schreiner,  Somatologie  der  Norweger,  Table  27,  Fig.  81).  A 
Norwegian  from  Drangedal  of  standard,  Eastern  Valley  type  as  specified  in  Chapter  9, 
section  4.  This  is  the  type  associated  with  the  Hallstatt  Iron  Age  remains  in  central 
Europe,  and  which  probably  did  not  enter  Scandinavia  much  before  the  middle  of  the 
first  millennium  B.C.  It  has  since  been  largely  replaced  in  central  Europe,  but  has  found 
a  refuge  in  Sweden  and  in  the  eastern  valleys  of  southern  Norway. 

FIG.  2  (2  views).  An  Englishman  from  the  neighborhood  of  London,  who  belongs  to 
exactly  the  same  central  Nordic  type.  In  England  this  type  is  largely  of  Anglo-Saxon 
and  Danish  inspiration. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  An  East  Anglian  from  Ipswich,  Suffolk.  More  of  the  English  belong 
to  this  locally  older  Keltic  Iron  Age  type,  which  came  from  southwestern  Germany 
with  the  Kelts  and  is  differentiated  by  a  lower  cranial  vault,  a  more  sloping  forehead, 
and  greater  nasal  prominence.  The  hair  color  is  more  frequently  brown  than  light 
blond. 

FIG.  4  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  The  Iron  Age  Nordic  type  is  particularly 
important  in  Ireland,  which  was  never  strongly  invaded  by  Germanic-speaking  Hall- 
statt Nordics.  This  individual,  a  man  from  County  Clare,  with  his  sloping  forehead, 
aquiline  nose,  and  brown  hair,  is  an  excellent  example. 

FIG.  5  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  A  special  population,  largely  the  product 
of  isolation,  has  developed  in  the  Aran  Isles.  Here  a  local  Nordic  type  of  great  vault 
length  and  exceptionally  low  vault  height,  great  facial  and  nasal  length,  and  an  excess 
of  blue  eyes  and  golden  and  red  hair,  has  developed.  The  young  man  shown  in  this 
figure  is  an  excellent  example  of  this  type. 

FIG.  6  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  The  Aran  Islander  shown  in  this  figure  is 
relatively  brunet  for  his  group,  and  has  the  exceptionally  low  auricular  head  height  of 
110  mm.  He  illustrates  the  principle  that  the  low-headed  factor  is  borne  by  the  least 
blond  element  in  the  Aran  population.  Note  the  convergent  temporal  planes  and  the 
cylindrical  profile  of  the  vault  when  seen  in  the  front  view.  This  feature,  in  less  exag- 
gerated form,  is  a  cranial  diagnostic  of  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  type  in  general. 


Plate  30 
EXOTIC  NORDICS 

On  this  plate  art  shown  portraits  of  Nordics  from  places  distant  from  the  present 
northwestern  European  center  of  Nordic  concentration. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Russian  of  the  upper  class  from  the  Kharkov  Government  in 
southeastern  Russia.  His  home  is  a  secondary  Nordic  center,  and  probably  has  been  a 
Nordic  concentration  point  since  the  days  of  the  Scythians.  Nordics  are  common  in 
what  used  to  be  the  upper  social  levels  in  Russia;  this  may  be  ascribed  largely  to  the  re- 
tention of  an  original  Slavic  racial  condition,  and  partly  to  the  infusion  of  Scandinavian 
blood  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  Russian  nation.  Other  Nordic  increments  may 
have  been  absorbed  from  both  Iranians  and  Finns. 

FIG.  2  (2  views,  photo  B.  N.  Vishnevsky).  A  Chuvash  from  the  Chuvash  Republic, 
eastern  Russia.  The  Chuvash,  who  are  Tatarized  Finns,  include  both  partially  mongo- 
loid  forms,  as  shown  on  Plate  3,  and  also  Nordics  and  Nordic-Ladogan  hybrids.  The 
Chuvash  shown  here  is  a  Nordic  of  a  long-faced,  narrow-nosed  type,  and  his  Nordic 
character  may  be  either  ancestrally  Finnish  or  else  derived  from  the  Iranian  and  Turk- 
ish-speaking Nordics  of  central  Asia,  brought  in  both  by  Scytho-Sarmatians  and  by 
Turkish  invaders. 

FIG.  3  (1  view).  An  Albanian  Nordic  from  the  Gheg  tribe  of  Luma.  Nordics,  rare  in 
Albania,  are  most  frequently  found  in  the  tribe  of  Luma,  on  the  northeastern  Albanian 
border,  where  there  are  traditions  of  the  settlement  of  Volkcrwanderung  Germans,  and 
where  early  Slavic  influence  is  strong. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Portuguese  from  Tras  os  Montes,  who  shows  strong  Nordic  tend- 
encies. Nordics  occur  occasionally  in  northern  Portugal  as  well  as  in  northern  Spain; 
from  the  days  of  the  Keltic  migrations  onward,  there  have  been  Nordic  invasions  and 
settlement  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 

FIG.  5  (2  views).  A  Riffian  from  the  coastal  village  of  Ajdir,  in  the  tribe  of  Beni  Ur- 
riaghel.  In  pigment,  in  measurements,  and  morphologically  this  Riffian  is  as  perfect  a 
Nordic  as  one  could  find  in  northern  Europe.  Nordics  are  as  ancient  in  North  Africa 
as  the  Egyptian  monuments  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  and  perhaps  older.  They  survive 
today  mostly  in  the  mountains  of  the  Rif,  but  others  are  found  in  the  Canary  Islands, 
and  the  Djurdjura  and  Aures  mountains  of  Algeria. 

FIG.  6  (1  view).  A  Kabyle  from  northern  Algeria,  a  smaller-headed  North  African 
Nordic. 


FIG.  1 


FIG.  2 


FIG.  3 


FIG,  4 


Plate  31 
NEO-DANUBIANS 

The  term  Neo-Danubian  has  been  used  in  this  work  to  designate  a  general  class  of 
central  and  eastern  European  blond  or  partially  blond  brachycephals  who  seem  to  be 
derived  in  a  racial  sense  from  a  de-Corded  Nordic  (and  hence  Danubian)  prototype 
brachycephalized  by  Ladogan  admixture.  This  type  is  very  prevalent  among  modern 
Slavs  of  Poland  and  Russia,  and  also  among  some  eastern  Germans  and  Austrians. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).   A  White  Russian  from  the  Minsk  Government. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  An  Ukrainian  from  the  Volhyn,  where  this  type  is  especially  com- 
mon. The  form  of  the  nasal  tip  and  the  upper  lip  are  derived  from  the  Ladogan  proto- 
type. These  features  come  out  as  a  rule  more  strongly  among  women  than  among 
the  men. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  German  from  Saxony,  where  the  Neo-Danubian  type  is  more 
prevalent  than  elsewhere  in  Germany.  Note  the  exceptional  narrowness  of  the  inter- 
orbital  distance,  combined  with  the  lowness  of  the  nasal  root  and  bridge,  and  the  ex- 
treme brachycephaly.  The  type  represented  by  this  individual  is  not  an  intermediate 
Danubian-Ladogan  form,  but  a  recombination. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  brachycephalic  Austrian  from  the  neighborhood  of  Linz,  Upper 
Austria.  Although  definitely  less  Ladogan-looking  than  the  other  individuals  on  this 
plate,  this  Austrian  is  seen,  upon  examination,  to  possess  the  Neo-Danubian  combina- 
tion of  a  nearly  globular  head  form,  a  low  nasal  skeleton,  a  broad,  elevated  nasal  tip,  a 
long,  convex  upper  lip,  strong  cheek  furrows,  and  blondism.  As  this  and  the  other  in- 
dividuals on  this  plate  demonstrate,  the  Neo-Danubian  is  a  variable  racial  type  derived 
from  a  blending  of  the  Danubian  element  in  the  Nordic  combination  with  eastern 
European  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors. 


FIG,  1 


FIG.  3 


FIG.  4 


Plate  32 

NORDICS  ALTERED  BY  NORTHWESTERN 
EUROPEAN  UPPER   PALAEOLITHIC  MIXTURE:    I 

Throughout  the  northwestern  European  area,  from  the  British  Isles  to  the  Baltic 
States,  and  as  far  south  as  southern  Belgium,  south-central  Germany,  and  the  Carpa- 
thians, the  Nordic  race  has  combined  and  blended  profusely  with  various  types  of  unre- 
duced Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors.  Examples  of  such  blendings  will  be  seen  on  this 
and  the  next  two  plates. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Norwegian  from  Bergen;  metrically  for  the  most  part  Nordic,  but 
with  a  high  mesocephalic  head  form,  a  high  cranial  vault,  and  Briinn  or  Borreby-like 
suggestions  in  the  formation  of  the  nose  and  mouth.  This  is  the  type  called  Tronder 
by  the  Norwegian  anthropologists,  owing  to  its  concentration  in  North  and  South  Tron- 
delagen,  on  the  central  Norwegian  coast.  An  "Irish"  look  is  often  a  feature  of  this  type, 
showing  its  relationship  to  the  Palaeolithic  element  in  Ireland. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Bergen  sea  captain,  of  the  same  general  type,  brachycephalic  ow- 
ing to  an  increase  in  head  breadth  unaccompanied  by  length  reduction.  The  Tronder 
type  is  usually  higher-headed,  longer-faced,  less  dolichocephalic,  and  heavier  in  body 
build  and  in  facial  features  than  the  Eastern  Valley  or  Hallstatt  Iron  Age  Nordic  type. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  Trondelag-like  types  are  by  no  means  confined  to  Norway.  This 
individual  is  a  Lett  from  Kurland  of  predominantly  Nordic  affiliation,  but  broader- 
headed  and  less  delicate  of  facial  features  than  the  classic  Iron  Age  type.  Nordics  of 
this  general  class  are  common  in  the  Baltic  Republics. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Highland  Scot  from  Morayshire;  tall,  large-headed,  brown- 
haired,  with  an  extremely  long  face  and  a  high  cranial  vault,  he  represents  a  local 
North  British  Trondelag  approximation,  either  through  the  absorption  of  indigenous 
Upper  Palaeolithic  elements,  or  through  importation  from  Ireland  with  the  Gaelic  in- 
vasions, or  from  Scandinavia. 


Plate  33 

NORDICS  ALTERED  BY  NORTHWESTERN 
EUROPEAN  UPPER  PALAEOLITHIC  MIXTURE:    II 

FIG.  1  (3  views),  A  Netherlander  from  Gelderland  in  the  northern  Netherlands. 
Gelderland  and  Friesland  are  the  home  of  overgrown  Nordics  with  long  faces  and  high 
heads;  showing  both  Corded  and  Briinn  or  Borreby  tendencies.  This  individual  is  abso- 
lutely long-headed  for  a  mesocephalic  index,  and  beak-nosed,  in  accordance  with  the 
local  type  under  discussion.  He  is,  however,  a  relatively  little  altered  Nordic. 

FIG.  2  (3  views),  A  Schleswig-Holsteiner  from  Elmshorn,  on  the  Danish  border.  He 
is  a  very  blond,  golden-haired  Nordic  of  relatively  great  body  size,  with  all  lateral  di- 
mensions of  head  and  face  broadened  by  Borreby  mixture;  the  morphological  features 
of  the  head  and  face,  however,  remain  essentially  Nordic. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  An  equally  blond  specimen  of  the  same  type  from  Hannover,  made 
much  more  brachycephalic  through  a  reduction  in  head  length.  Nordics,  brachyceph- 
alized  in  head  form  and  made  larger  and  more  lateral  in  bodily  proportions  through 
Borreby  admixture,  form  the  major  element  in  the  population  of  northern  and  central 
Germany. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  heavily  built  Galician  Pole,  light  red  haired,  and  brachycephalic; 
a  Slavic  counterpart  of  the  North  German  type  depicted  above.  He  is  basically  similar 
to  the  Ruthenian  mountaineer  shown  on  Plate  8,  Fig.  1,  but  shows  a  more  strongly 
Nordic  racial  character. 


Fio.  1 


Fro.  3 


Plate  34 

NORDICS  ALTERED  BY  MIXTURE  WITH   SOUTH- 
WESTERN BORREBY  AND  ALPINE  ELEMENTS 

In  southern  Netherlands  and  in  Belgium,  as  well  as  in  northern  France,  there  is  a 
large-headed  brachycephalic  element  transitional  between  the  Borreby  and  Alpine 
forms.  (See  Plate  13,  Fig.  4.)  In  mixture  with  Nordics  this  produces  a  large-headed 
brachycephalic  or  sub-brachycephalic  type  of  only  moderate  blondism  and  medium 
stature. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  Southern  Netherlander  from  North  Brabant.  An  excellent  exam- 
ple of  this  altered  Nordic  type. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Fleming  from  West  Flanders,  Belgium;  a  light  haired  and  equally 
representative  example.  The  Flemish  people  incline  more  to  the  Nordic  type  in  east- 
ern Flanders,  more  to  the  brachycephalized  variety  in  the  west. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  German  Swiss  from  Bern;  like  many  of  the  Swiss  of  the  Rhine 
drainage,  he  is  largely  Nordic  slightly  brachycephalized  by  Borreby  or  Alpine  admix- 
ture, or  both.  These  Swiss  are  more  Nordic,  as  a  whole,  than  the  South  Germans. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  northern  Frenchman,  whose  father  came  from  the  Vosges  moun- 
tains, and  mother  from  the  Department  of  Indre.  Blond,  highly  brachycephalic,  and 
Nordic  in  most  facial  features,  this  man  represents  a  major  element  in  the  population  of 
northern  France.  This  is  the  type  which  some  French  authors  call  "Galatian."  Histori- 
cally the  Nordic  element  is  mainly  of  Keltic  introduction. 


Fio,  1 


fte,  4 


Plate  35 
THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  DINARICIZATION 

From  France  to  Macedonia,  and  from  Istanbul  to  Samarakand,  are  found  popula- 
tions in  which  the  majority  of  persons  present  a  characteristic  morphology  of  the  head 
and  face;  with  a  brachycephalic  skull,  often  flattish  in  the  occipital  region,  the  foramen 
magnum  and  auricular  passages  set  disproportionately  far  to  the  rear,  the  forehead  often 
sloping,  the  face  frequently  elongated,  and  the  nose  salient  and  frequently  convex. 
People  who  possess  these  characteristics  have  been  lumped  together  into  one  or  more 
races;  the  Dinaric  in  Europe,  the  Arrncnoid  in  Asia,  and  the  Noric  to  include  the  blond 
varieties.  It  is  biologically  unsound,  however,  to  postulate  any  historic  unity  for  indi- 
viduals of  these  so-called  races,  since  they  are  products  not  of  an  historical  association 
but  of  a  biological  principle.  That  principle  is  as  follows:  A  mixture  of  a  Mediterranean 
stock  with  a  33  per  cent,  more  or  less,  solution  of  Alpine  may  bring  about  a  differential 
inheritance  in  the  majority  of  the  offspring;  from  the  Alpine  side  is  inherited  brachy- 
ccphaly,  often  greater  than  that  of  the  Alpine  ancestral  factor;  the  dimensions  of  the 
pre-auricular  part  of  the  head  are  derived  from  the  long-headed  strain,  hence  the 
posterior  position  of  the  ear;  the  breadths  of  the  median  sagittal  sector  of  the  face  are 
inherited  from  the  narrower-faced  ancestor,  often  in  exaggerated  degree,  and  this  ap- 
plies especially  to  the  width  of  the  upper  segment  of  the  nose  and  to  the  interorbital  dis- 
tance; meanwhile  the  face  often  becomes  longer  than  in  either  parent  stock,  and  the 
nose,  in  response  to  the  shortening  of  the  antero-posterior  length  of  the  entire  head,  be- 
comes salient.  This  process  occurs  in  varying  degrees  with  individuals  and  with  local 
racial  entities  of  different  origin.  If  the  solution  is  saturated  either  with  Alpines  or  with 
Mediterraneans,  phenotypically  pure  members  of  whichever  stock  is  predominant  ap- 
pear in  considerable  numbers.  If  the  solution  is  correct,  such  apparently  pure  indi- 
viduals still  occur,  but  with  relative  infrequence.  This  principle,  studied  in  this  work 
in  reference  to  whites,  applies  to  hybrids  of  other  races  as  well. 

It  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  Binaries,  Norics,  and  Armenoids  have  no  ethnic  or 
historic  unity,  but  are  for  the  most  part  parallel  results  of  the  same  process  repeated 
with  similar  materials  in  different  places.  They  are  related  only  insofar  as  the  parent 
stocks  are  related.  There  is  one  important  exception  to  this  rule,  however;  during  the 
Bronze  Age  Dinaricized  Mediterraneans  spread  with  the  knowledge  of  metal  from  an 
eastern  Mediterranean  source  to  the  western  Mediterranean  Countries,  to  central 
Europe,  and  to  the  British  Isles.  In  this  instance  Dinarics  of  a  Near  Eastern  variety  did 
actually  invade  Europe,  and  their  descendants  may  be  distinguished  today  in  countries 
like  England  where,  owing  to  the  absence  of  an  Alpine  substratum,  the  process  of 
Dinaricization  has  not  been  locally  at  play. 

In  this  and  the  following  plates,  an  attempt  will  be  made  to  illustrate  degrees  and 
types  of  Dinaricization  throughout  the  white  racial  area  of  the  Old  World. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Dinaricized  German  from  Heidelberg;  although  his  face  shows  in 
exaggerated  degree  ail  of  the  criteria  of  Dinaricization,  the  great  size  of  his  cranial  vault 
is  unusual  for  Dinarics  and  implies  the  presence  of  unreduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  fac- 
tors. This  individual  might  be  called  a  Noric,  since  the  Mediterranean  element  con- 
cerned is  unquestionably  Nordic,  and  probably  Nordic  of  the  Corded  variety. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Noric  from  Berlin;  the  shallow  nasion  depression,  and  the  great 
height  and  salience  of  the  nose  are  especially  noticeable  here.  Norics  are  extremely 
common  in  eastern  Germany. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Noric  Pole  from  Galicia.  This  type  is  characteristic  of  many  of 
the  southern  and  western  Poles. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Komi  or  Zyrian,  member  of  the  northernmost  of  the  East  Russian 
Finnish  tribes.  This  individual  illustrates  the  essential  Nordic  character  of  the  Finns, 
brachycephalized  by  some  unknown  agency. 


FIG,  2 


FIG.  4 


Plate  36 
EUROPEAN   DINARICS:    I 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  An  Englishman  from  Yorkshire;  an  excellent  example  of  the  Dinaric 
seafarers  who  invaded  Britain  in  the  Early  Bronze  Age.  This  man  may  be  considered  a 
type  specimen  of  Bell  Beaker  brachycephal. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).    A  less  completely  Dinaricized  Netherlander  from  North  Brabant. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Frenchman  from  Lyon;  typical  of  the  local  Mediterranean- 
Alpine  product  in  much  of  France,  especially  in  the  northeastern  half  of  the  Republic. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Slovak  from  Tfsoka,  Czechoslovakia.  Although  the  Czechs 
themselves  are  predominantly  Alpine,  the  Moravians  and  Slovaks  are  frequently 
Dinaric.  This  man  could  easily  pass  for  a  Frenchman. 


1 


FIG.  2 


Plate  37 
EUROPEAN  DINARICS:    II 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  Another  Dinaric  Slovak,  in  this  case  exceptionally  long-faced,  in  a 
more  exaggeratedly  Dinaric  manner. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  An  Italian  from  the  province  of  Ancona,  northern  Italy;  a  Dinari- 
cized  Alpine-Mediterranean  combination  is  characteristic  of  most  North  and  many 
central  Italians. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  similar  example  from  the  province  of  Prozioni,  central  Italy. 
These  Dinaricized  Italians  are  frequently  thick-set  and  stocky. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Magyar  from  O§i,  Hungary.  This  Dinaricized  Alpine  is  more  typ- 
ical of  the  Magyar  people  than  the  Ladogan  prototype  shown  on  Plate  2,  or  the  Alpine 
on  Plate  14. 


Fia.  1 


Fro*  3 


Plate  38 
EUROPEAN  DINARICS:   III 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Russian  nobleman  of  Polish  and  Russian  descent;  although  highly 
Dinaricized,  this  individual  possesses  a  mandible  of  exceptional  width. 

FIG.  2  (3  views,  photo  F.  I.  Rainer;  from  Rainer,  F.  I.,  Enquetes  Anthropologiques  dans 
Trots  Villages  Roumams  des  Carpathes,  Plate  V-3,  Fundul  Moldavii  #65).  A  Rumanian 
from  the  Carpathian  mountain  village  of  Fundul  Moldavii  in  the  Bukovina.  A  classic 
example  of  an  European  Dinaric. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Croatian  from  Istria.  Aside  from  the  Carpathians,  the  greatest 
concentration  point  of  Binaries  proper  in  Europe  is  the  mountain  zone  from  the  Tyrol 
to  Albania.  This  predominantly  blond  Croat  is  an  excellent  example  of  the  Dinaric 
population  in  northwestern  Yugoslavia. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Montenegrin  Dinaric.  Many  of  the  Montenegrins  are  very  large- 
headed  and  show  evidences  of  unreduced  Palaeolithic  admixture.  (See  Plate  8.)  The 
present  individual  is  typical  of  the  more  strictly  Dinaric  element  in  Montenegro;  brunet, 
like  most  Serbs;  and  shorter-faced  than  other  Dinarics  as,  for  example,  in  Albania. 


FIG,  1 


FIG,  2 


FIG.  3 


Fto,  4 


Plate  39 
EUROPEAN   DINARICS:    IV 

FIG.  1  (2  views).  A  Moslem  Serb  from  Dibra,  in  Old  Serbia.  This  Serb,  like  most  of  his 
countrymen,  is  tall,  brunet,  rather  small-headed,  and  brachycephalic.  It  would  appear 
that  a  brachycephalization  of  the  "Pontic"  Mediterranean  type,  shown  on  Plate  26,  is 
involved. 

FIG.  2  (2  views).  An  Albanian  gendarme  from  Puka,  in  the  center  of  the  Gheg  coun- 
try. This  individual,  like  many  Albanians  when  dressed  and  coiffurcd  in  western  Euro- 
pean style,  looks  like  a  Frenchman. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  An  exaggeratedly  tall,  lean,  and  long-faced  Dinaric  from  Klementi, 
the  northernmost  bairak  of  the  tribe  of  Malsia  e  Mad  he.  Northern  Albania  is  probably 
the  most  highly  Dinaricized  country  in  Europe. 

FIG.  4  (2  views).    A  blond  Gheg  from  Zadrima;  a  classic  Noric. 

FIG.  5  (2  views).  An  extremely  Dinaricized  Zadrima  Gheg;  this  individual  may  be 
considered  an  example  of  the  ultimate  in  Dinaricization. 

FIG.  6  (2  views).  A  Dinaric  Greek  of  Epirote  stock,  from  Gjinokaster  in  what  is  now 
Albania.  Many  Greeks,  especially  Epirotes,  are  Dinarics. 


Plate  40 
DINARICS   IN  WESTERN  ASIA:  I 

In  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Armenia,  the  Caucasus,  and  Turkestan  the  reemergence  of  a 
basic  Alpine  population  has  Dinaricized  the  local  brunct  Mediterranean  types  shown 
on  Plates  17  and  18.  These  Asiatic  Binaries  arc  usually  called  Armenoids,  although  the 
distinction  is  arbitrary,  and  in  the  strict  sense  only  the  Armenians  themselves  and  others 
who  live  in  the  east  deserve  that  name. 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Turk  from  Istanbul.  Small-headed,  hyperbrachycephalic,  this 
individual  is  an  extreme  type  of  Dinaricized  Anatolian  Turk.  The  Turks  are  (a)  Medi- 
terraneans of  local  Cappadocian  origin,  and  (b)  intrusive  Irano-Afghans,  the  invading 
Turkish  element  proper,  Dinaricized  by  a  local  Alpine  reemergence.  The  westernmost 
Turks  are  fair  to  brunet-white  in  skin  color,  the  eastern  Turks  grow  progressively  darker 
as  one  approaches  Kurdish  and  Armenian  territory. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  An  equally  brachycephalic  Turk  from  Khozat,  Anatolia,  with  a 
strong  trace  of  eye  blondism. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  dark-skinned  Turk  from  Kharput,  eastern  Anatolia.  Kharput  is 
also  the  home  of  many  Armenians. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  An  Assyrian  from  the  mountains  south  of  Armenia;  the  Assyrians 
are  Christians  who  moved  into  the  mountains  from  Iraq  some  600  years  ago,  and  who 
are  now  as  brachycephalic  as  Armenians.  Their  exact  ethnic  origin  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine. 


FIG.  1 


FIG.  3 


FIG.  4 


Plate  41 
DINARICS   IN  WESTERN  ASIA:   II 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Syrian  from  Damascus;  a  perfect  example  of  a  Syrian  Dinaric. 
The  Syrians,  who  are,  as  a  whole,  highly  Dinaricized,  contain  Mediterranean  elements 
of  Arabian  origin  as  well  as  the  long-faced  elements  shown  in  Plates  17  and  18. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  A  Lebanese  from  Baalbek,  Lebanese  Republic.  The  Lebanese  on 
the  whole  are  more  brachycephalic  than  the  Damascenes;  this  individual  is  longer- 
headed  than  most,  and  inclines  facially  toward  the  Alpine  prototype. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  Syrian  from  the  district  of  Bekara,  with  a  cephalic  index  of  almost 
100.  His  extraordinary  shortness  of  the  cranial  vault  must  be  partly  due  to  cradling, 
a  practice  which  has  affected  the  head  form  of  many  Syrians,  Armenians,  and  also 
probably  some  Albanians.  Cradling,  however,  is  not  the  cause  of  Dinaricization,  but 
merely  a  factor  which  may  intensify  it. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Druze  from  the  Shuf  district;  facially  this  individual  actually  re- 
sembles the  Yemenis  from  whom  the  Druzes  as  a  whole  claim  descent.  His  extreme 
brachycephaly  may  be  partly  the  result  of  cradling. 


FIG,  2 


i;irtkM  -„•• 

Fio.  3 


*  4 


Plate  42 
ARMENOID  ARMENIANS 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  An  Armenian  from  Istanbul,  facially  a  classic  Armenoid  type.  Like 
many  Armenians,  he  is  dark-skinned. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  An  Armenian  from  Kharput.  Note  the  extreme  face  length,  a 
measurement  which  differentiates  Armenians  as  a  group  from  the  shorter-faced  Turks. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  A  tall,  slender  Armenian  from  Van;  typical  of  the  eastern 
Armenians,  who  are  lighter-skinned,  taller,  and  longer  in  all  sagittal  dimensions  of  the 
body,  head  and  face  than  the  western  Armenians. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  A  Van  Armenian  with  pinkish- white  skin  color,  blue  eyes,  and  me- 
dium brown  hair;  although  hyperbrachycephalic,  this  individual  shows  evidence  of  the 
Nordic  element  which  gave  the  Armenians  their  Indo-European  language. 


FIG,   I 


FIG.  3 


.  4 


Plate  43 

DINARICIZED  FORMS   FROM  ARABIA  AND 
CENTRAL  ASIA 

f 

FIG.  1  (2  views).  A  highly  Dinaricized  Arab  from  Jidda,  the  pilgrim  port  of  Mekka. 
Typical  of  the  sailor  population  found  in  maritime  settlements  on  all  Arabian  coasts. 

FIG.  2  (2  views).   An  example  of  the  same  type  found  along  the  Yemen  coast. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  A  Dinaricized  Hadhramauti;  partially  blond.  The  Mediterranean 
element  in  the  Hadhramaut  is  often  Dinaricized  by  mixture  with  the  coarse,  Veddoid- 
influenced  type  seen  on  Plate  19. 

FIG.  4  (2  views).  An  extreme  example  of  the  maritime  Arab  brachycephal;  from 
Lenja,  opposite  Muscat,  on  the  Persian  side  of  the  Persian  Gulf.  This  type  probably 
originated  in  the  general  Persian  Gulf  neighborhood,  but  this  is  by  no  means  certain. 

FIG.  5  (2  views).  An  Iranian-speaking  native  of  Russian  Turkestan,  showing  a 
Dinaricized  form  of  the  usual  Irano-Afghan  type  found  in  Iranian  territory. 

FIG.  6  (2  views.  It  is  possible  but  unlikely  that  these  two  views  represent  two  sepa- 
rate individuals).  A  lowland  Tajik  from  Samarkand,  racially  a  Dinaricized  Irano- 
Afghan.  The  early  oasis  population  was  probably  of  Mediterranean  type,  the  brachy- 
cephalizing  agent  being  Alpine,  from  the  Pamirs. 


Plate  44 
THE  JEWS:    I 

The  Jews  have  been  left  to  the  end  because  they  do  not  as  a  whole  fit  into  any  single 
racial  classification  heretofore  outlined.  Historically  the  Jews  of  the  Biblical  period  in 
Palestine  were  a  Semitic-speaking  people  composed  of  various  Mediterranean  strains 
which  had  blended  together  at  the  time  of  the  formation  of  the  Jewish  nation.  These 
Mediterranean  strains  must  have  included  a  small  Mediterranean  type  comparable  to 
the  present  Yemeni  Arabs;  a  taller,  longer-faced  strain  with  a  tendency  to  nasal  con- 
vexity, as  is  found  among  I rano- Afghan  peoples  today;  and  a  straight-nosed,  presum- 
ably Atlanto-Mediterranean  element  contributed  by  the  Philistines. 

The  Jews  began  their  expansion  from  Palestine  as  early  as  the  time  of  the  Babylonian 
Captivity;  at  this  time  they  settled  Mesopotamia  in  large  numbers,  and  from  there 
began  an  expansion  into  central  Asia  of  which  colonies  still  remain.  In  the  Hellenistic 
period  they  migrated  into  Asia  Minor  and  the  Black  Sea  region,  as  well  as  into  Egypt; 
these  emigrants  became  Hellenistic  Jews.  Under  the  Romans  they  settled  in  Italy, 
France,  and  Spain,  with  especial  concentrations  in  Spain  and  in  the  cities  of  the  Rhine- 
land.  The  Jews  expelled  from  Spain  in  1492  and  during  previous  expulsions  became 
the  Sephardim,  whose  descendants  are  to  be  found  in  various  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  especially  Morocco,  the  Salonika  region  of  what  is  now  Greece,  and 
Turkey.  The  Rhineland  Jews,  persecuted  at  the  time  of  the  First  Crusade,  moved  east- 
ward into  Poland,  the  Ukraine,  and  other  central  European  countries,  and  met  there 
and  absorbed  a  group  of  Hellenistic  Jews  moving  westward,  among  whom  were  some 
who  had  lived  among  the  Turkish  Khazars  in  the  Crimea  and  elsewhere.  The  two 
groups  blended,  and  the  Germanic  speech  of  the  more  numerous  western  element  pre- 
vailed. The  modern  Yiddish-speaking  Ashkenazim  are  the  descendants  of  this  amalga- 
mated body.  Racially  they  preserve  to  a  large  measure  their  Mediterranean  character, 
altered  partly  by  Alpine  admixture  which  has  in  many  cases  produced  Dinaricization. 
This  Alpine,  as  well  as  some  Nordic,  admixture  was  probably  obtained  largely  in  France 
and  Germany  before  their  departure  eastward.  The  most  persistent  Palestinian  Mediter- 
ranean traits  which  the  Jews  preserve  is  a  narrowness  of  the  face.  The  Jewish  facial 
expression,  by  which  many  Jews  may  be  distinguished,  is  a  cultural  and  not  a  genetic 
character. 

FIG.  1  (1  view,  photo  W.  E.  Forbes).  A  group  of  Yemcnitic  Jews  photographed  in 
Sana'a,  the  Capital  of  Yemen.  These  Jews  are  derived  from  more  than  one  early  Jewish 
source,  but  the  bulk  of  their  ancestors  left  Palestine  for  Arabia  very  early.  Their  purely 
Mediterranean  and  essentially  Jewish  facial  and  cranial  character  may  be  easily  ob- 
served. They  probably  come  as  close  to  the  original  Jewish  prototype  as  do  any  living 
Jews. 

FIG.  2  (1  view).  The  Sheikh  of  the  Jewish  village  of  Zerekten,  Glawa  tribe,  Atlas 
Mountains,  Morocco.  These  Berber-speaking  mountain  Jews  have  lived  in  Morocco 
since  not  only  pre-Islamic  but  probably  also  pre-Christian  times;  nevertheless  they  are 
easily  distinguishable  from  the  Berbers  with  whom  they  live.  The  sheikh  here  repre- 
sented is  aberrantly  brachycephalic. 

FIG.  3  (1  view).    A  much  more  typical  mountain  Jew  from  the  same  colony. 

FIG.  4  (1  view).  A  group  of  Berber-speaking  Jews.  The  man  on  the  left  has  a  concave 
nasal  profile;  he  belongs  to  a  coarser  Mediterranean  type  than  does  the  man  in  Fig.  3, 
or  the  tall  Yemeni  tic  Jew  in  Fig.  1 . 


FIG.   1 


FIG,   2 


FIG.    3 


Plate  45 
THE  JEWS:   II 

FIG.  1  (3  views).  A  Sephardic  Jew  from  Alexandretta,  Asia  Minor.  Facially  this 
Spanish-speaking  Jew  is  a  good  example  of  the  Sephardic  Mediterranean  type;  his 
cephalic  index,  however,  is  extremely  high,  owing  to  an  absolute  shortness  of  the  cranial 
vault.  The  interorbital  distance  is  very  narrow,  as  are  all  facial  widths. 

FIG.  2  (3  views).  An  American  Ashkenazic  Jew  (Massachusetts)  whose  parents  were 
born  in  the  Ukraine.  Brown-haired  and  blue-eyed,  and  slightly  brachycephalic,  he  still 
preserves  the  facial  features  of  a  Palestinian  Mediterranean  racial  element  dating  back 
at  least  to  the  time  of  the  Amorites. 

FIG.  3  (3  views).  The  American-born  (Massachusetts)  son  of  a  rabbi  from  Memel, 
and  a  mother  born  in  Riga.  This  individual,  despite  his  cephalic  index  of  81,  is  other- 
wise a  good  example  of  the  straight-nosed  Mediterranean  type  which  is  as  numerous 
among  the  unmixed  Jews  as  the  convex-nosed  variety. 

FIG.  4  (3  views).  An  American  Jew  (New  York)  whose  ancestors  without  exception 
have  lived  in  the  Rhinelands  for  several  centuries  and  who  probably  first  settled  there  in 
Roman  times.  Racially  this  individual  is  Nordic;  he  shows  little  or  no  physical  evidence 
of  Jewish  ancestry. 


FIG.  2 


f  10,  4 


Plate  46 
THE  JEWS:    III 

FIG.  1  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  A  tall,  blond,  dolichocephalic  Jew  from 
Illinois,  whose  parents  were  born  in  Russia.  Metrically  Nordic,  only  the  morphology  of 
the  nasal  tip  suggests  non-Nordic  ancestry.  Like  many  American  Jews,  this  young  man 
has  not  acquired  the  "Jewish"  facial  expression  more  common  among  the  generation 
born  in  Europe. 

FIG.  2  (2  views,  photo  C.  W.  Dupertuis).  An  extremely  tall,  large-headed  Jew,  also 
from  Illinois,  whose  father  was  born  in  Poland  and  whose  mother  was  American  born. 
Brunet,  brachycephalic,  and  morphologically  within  the  Jewish  range,  this  individual 
does  not  look  Jewish  in  the  popular  sense  for  the  same  reason  as  in  the  case  of  the  Nordic 
Jew  shown  above. 

FIG.  3  (2  views).  A  Jew  from  New  Jersey,  parents  from  Lithuania  and  Russia;  metri- 
cally and  morphologically  close  to  the  Ashkenazic  mean;  a  central  Jewish  type. 

FIG.  4  (2  views).  A  Jew  from  Illinois,  both  parents  from  Russia.  Although  metrically 
mesocephalic,  this  individual  is  morphologically  close  to  the  prototype  of  the  Alpine 
element  acquired  by  the  Jews  in  western  Europe  before  their  march  eastward. 

FIG.  5  (1  view).  A  Massachusetts  Jew  of  Lithuanian  Jewish  parentage.  Racially  he 
is  completely  Alpine. 

FIG.  6  (1  view).  A  central  Asiatic  Jew,  from  Bokhara;  a  member  of  an  ancient  and 
isolated  Jewish  colony.  This  individual  shows  unmistakable  Alpine  characters,  no  doubt 
acquired  from  early  Tajik  admixture.  Few  if  any  of  the  Bokharan  Jews  are  mongoloid. 

FIG.  7  (2  views).  Another  Bokharan  Jew,  clearly  Dinaricized.  The  old  Mediterranean 
Jewish  element  in  central  Asia  has  been  altered  by  Alpine  accretion.  Yet  the  Bok- 
haran Jews,  if  appropriately  dressed,  could  easily  pass  in  most  cases  for  central  Euro- 
pean Jews,  which  shows  not  only  the  extraordinary  racial  continuity  of  the  Jews  in 
widely  separated  regions,  but  also  their  tendency  to  mix  with  similar  elements  in  differ- 
ent places.  All  or  nearly  all  racial  types  found  among  whites  anywhere  may  be  isolated 
among  the  Jews;  the  majority,  however,  preserve  some  inheritable  physical  evidence  of 
their  Palestinian  origin. 


TABLES   ACCOMPANYING   PHOTOGRAPHIC 
SUPPLEMENT 

These  tables  give  the  principal  anthropometric  specifications  of  most  of  the  subjects 
shown  in  the  preceding  plates.  In  a  few  instances,  especially  when  photographs  taken 
from  outside  sources  have  been  used,  such  data  are  unavailable.  Stature  is  in  centi- 
meters, weight  in  pounds,  and  head  and  face  measurements  in  millimeters.  In  the  eye 
color,  the  use  of  plus  signs  (  +  +,  +  +  40  over  one  of  the  component  elements  in  a 
mixed  iris  indicates  the  relative  importance  of  the  elements  in  the  eye  in  question. 

4-4-4-  4-4- 

Thus  Blue-Brown  indicates  an  iris  which  is  almost  entirely  blue;  Green-Brown  one 
which  is  visibly  more  brown  than  green. 


Plate  2 

Plate  3  * 

Fro.  1 

FIG.  3 

Age 

61 

Stature 

175  cm. 

159  cm. 

Weight 

165  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

192  mm. 

187  mm. 

Head  Br. 

167 

151 

Min.  Fr. 

118 

Bizyg. 

148 

154 

Bigon. 

122 

T.  F.  Ht. 

130 

127 

U.  F.  Ht. 

83 

N.  Ht. 

61 

55 

N.  Br. 

38 

36 

Biorb. 

94 

Interorb. 

41 

C.  I. 

87.0 

80.8 

F.  I. 

87,8 

82.5 

U.  F.  I. 

56.1 

N.  I. 

62.3 

65.5 

Skin 

#11 

Hair 

Light-Brown 

#4  Dark-Brown 

Beard 

Eyes 

B1/yellow\ 
V  spot  / 

#6  Light-Brown 

1  The  sign  #,  used  in  reference  with  skin  color,  refers  to  the 
numbers  on  the  standard  von  Luschan  Hautfarbentafel  (Skin 
Color  Chart) ;  when  used  with  hair  color  5  to  the  standard  Fischer 
Haarfarbentafel  (Hair  Color  Chart). 


Plate  4 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 
Stature 

51 
181  cm. 

47 
175  cm. 

44 

180  cm. 

49 
180  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

204  Ibs. 
212  mm. 

213  Ibs. 
207  mm. 

208  mm. 

202  Ibs. 
212  mm. 

Head  Br. 

152 

154 

151 

160 

Min.  Fr. 

114 

108 

108 

118 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

150 
130 
134 

150 
120 
134 

141 
103 
134 

148 
111 
146 

U.  F.  Ht. 

80 

78 

87 

N.  Ht. 

60 

65 

56 

65 

N.  Br. 

43 

48 

34 

39 

Biorb. 

108 

96 

94 

Interorb. 

40 

34 

41 

C.I. 

71.2 

74.4 

72.5 

75.5 

F.  I. 

89 

87 

95 

99 

U.  F.  L 

53 

52 

60 

N.  I. 

72 

74 

60.5 

60 

Skin 

Hair 
Beard 

#8  Brown 

#5  Dk.-Br. 

#25  Ash-Blond 

#13  Golden 

Eyes 

Blue 

Green-Br. 

#14  Blue-Br. 

Blue 

Plate  5 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  5 

Age 
Stature 

58 
184  cm. 

54 
179  cm. 

177  cm. 

30 
172  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

210  Ibs. 
210  mm. 

200  Ibs. 
197  mm. 

199  mm. 

190  Ibs. 
191  mm. 

Head  Br. 

169 

166 

158 

165 

Min.  Fr. 

128 

114 

110 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

155 
121 
128 

148 
123 
132 

147 
109 
118 

157 
127 
123 

U.  F.  Ht. 

75 

80 

73 

N.  Ht. 

62 

65 

54 

N.  Br. 

45 

36 

38 

Biorb. 

106 

94 

102 

Interorb. 

44 

32 

36 

C.  I. 

80.5 

84.3 

79.4 

86.4 

F.  I. 

82.6 

89.2 

80.2 

78.3 

U.  F.  I. 

49 

54.1 

53.8 

N.I. 

72.6 

55.4 

< 

70.4 

Skin 

Hair 
Beard 
Eyes 

Golden 

+++ 
Blue-Br. 

#12  Golden 
Blue 

#25  Ash-Blond 
#11  Blue-Br. 

#13  Golden 

4-4-4. 

Blue-Br. 

Plate  6 


FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  4 

FIG.  5 

Age 
Stature 

33 
172  cm. 

31 
177cm. 

55 
167  cm. 

54 
178  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

154  Ibs. 
203  mm. 

166  Ibs. 
203  mm. 

210  Ibs. 
204  mm. 

190  Ibs. 
201  mm. 

Head  Br. 

175 

166 

166 

165 

Min.  Fr. 

119 

117 

115 

112 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

158 
108 
120 

151 
123 
123 

153 
121 
141 

154 
120 
128 

U.  F.  Ht. 

64 

75 

78 

71 

N.  Ht. 

54 

55 

62 

55 

N.  Br. 

37 

38 

46 

45 

Biorb. 

103 

97 

103 

Interorb. 

37 

35 

43 

C.  I. 

86 

81.8 

81.4 

82.1 

F.  I. 

76 

81.5 

92.2 

83.1 

U.  F.  I. 

40 

49.7 

51.0 

46.1 

N.  I. 

68 

69.1 

74.2 

81.8 

Skin 

Hair 
Beard 

Light-Br. 

#9  Reddish-Br. 

Golden 

Black 

Eyes 

Blue-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Blue 

Green-Br. 

Plate  7 


FIG.  3 

Fio.  4 

FIG.  5 

Age 

40 

54 

57 

Stature 

164cm. 

162  cm. 

167  cm. 

Weight 

140  Ibs. 

175  Ibs. 

158  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

200  mm. 

181  mm. 

188  mm. 

Head  Br. 

162 

154 

154 

Min.  Fr. 

119 

108 

109 

Bizyg. 

148 

144 

143 

Bigon. 

104 

124 

111 

T.  F.  Ht. 

124 

121 

129 

U.  F.  Ht. 

69 

74 

80 

N.  Ht. 

51 

54 

59 

N.  Br. 

33 

38 

38 

Biorb. 

98 

87 

85 

Interorb. 

37 

32 

35 

C.  I. 

81.0 

85 

81.9 

F.  L 

83.8 

84 

90.2 

U.  F.  I. 

46.6 

51.4 

55.9 

N.  I. 

64.7 

70.4 

64.4 

Skin 

Hair 

#7  Brown 

#5  Dk.-Brown 

Golden 

Beard 

•H-+ 

Eyes 

Blue 

Blue-Br. 

Blue 

Plate  8 


FIG.  1 

Fio.  2 

FIG  4 

FIG.  5 

Age 

49 

45 

22 

48 

Stature 

182  cm. 

184  cm. 

171  cm. 

190  cm. 

Weight 

180  Ibs. 

196  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

184  mm. 

195  mm. 

191  mm. 

186  mm. 

Head  Br. 

162 

164 

156 

165 

Min.  Fr. 

107 

118 

111 

112 

Bizyg. 

144 

151 

143 

146 

Bigon. 

112 

124 

111 

115 

T.  F.  Ht. 

134 

134 

114 

114 

U.  F.  Ht. 

77 

78 

71 

67 

N.  Ht. 

55 

66 

53 

52 

N.  Br. 

39 

35 

35 

35 

Biorb. 

87 

96 

Interorb, 

32 

33 

C.  I. 

88.0 

83.7 

82 

90 

F.  I. 

93.0 

88.7 

80 

78 

U.  F.  I. 

53.5 

51.7 

50 

46 

N.  I. 

70.9 

53.0 

66 

67 

Skin 

Hair 

Light-Br. 

Black 

Light-Br. 

Golden 

Beard 

-H- 

4  + 

++ 

Eyes 

Blue-Br. 

Brown 

Green-Br. 

Green-Br. 

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Plate  11 


Fio.  1 

FIG.  2 

Fio.  3 

Fio,  4 

Age 
Stature 

48 
162  cm. 

36 
182  cm. 

34 
170  cm. 

37 
172  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

154  Ibs. 
186  mm. 

235  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

174  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

181  Ibs. 
189  mm. 

Head  Br. 

159 

158 

169 

153 

Min.  Fr. 

104 

111 

111 

108 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

134 
111 
124 

144 
119 
125 

151 
111 

127 

143 
110 
124 

U.  F.  Ht. 

71 

68 

75 

75 

N.  Ht. 

50 

53 

60 

55 

N.  Br. 

32 

34 

39 

34 

Biorb. 

91 

94 

98 

89 

Interorb. 

31 

33 

37 

28 

C.  I. 

85.5 

84.0 

89.9 

81 

F.  I. 

93 

86.8 

84 

87 

U.  F.  I. 

53 

47.2 

50 

52 

N.  I. 

64 

64.2 

65 

65 

Skin 

++ 

Hair 

Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

#5  Med.-Br. 

Beard 

++++ 

+++ 

++ 

+++ 

Eyes 

Green-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Plate  12 


FIG    1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

Fio.  4 

Age 
Stature 

44 
173  cm. 

41 
163  cm. 

46 
167  cm. 

54 
159cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

190  Ibs. 
192  mm. 

138  Ibs. 
190  mm. 

160  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

140  Ibs. 
193  mm. 

Head  Br. 

154 

161 

161 

158 

Min.  Fr. 

106 

106 

112 

110 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

138 
118 
120 

140 
114 
115 

146 
100 

127 

137 
101 
124 

U.  F.  Ht. 

78 

72 

74 

70 

N,  Ht. 

59 

60 

63» 

54 

N.  Br. 

37 

37 

38 

35 

Biorb. 

90 

87 

91 

91 

Interorb. 

29 

33 

34 

31 

C.  I. 

80.2 

89.9 

85.6 

81.9 

F.  I. 

87 

82.1 

87 

90.5 

U.  F.  I. 

56.5 

51.4 

50.7 

51.4 

N.  I.     ' 

62.7 

61.7 

60.3 

64.8 

Skin 

Hair 
Beard 

#8  Med.-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Black 

Med.-Br. 

Eyes 

Blue 

Green-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Plate  13 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 
Stature 

42 
169  cm. 

42 
170  cm. 

57 
168  cm. 

56 
166  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

155  Ibs. 
187  mm. 

175  Ibs. 
190  mm. 

175  Ibs. 
195  mm. 

170  Ibs. 
194  mm. 

Head  Br. 

156 

165 

167 

158 

Min.  Fr. 

114 

110 

116 

108 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

147 
107 
133 

150 
117 
130 

152 
112 
121 

148 
114 
126 

U.  F.  Ht. 

76 

76 

66 

77 

N.  Ht. 

58 

63 

53 

60 

N.  Br. 

34 

36 

38 

35 

Biorb. 

87 

96 

94 

91 

Interorb. 

30 

34 

33 

38 

C.  I. 

83.4 

86.8 

85.6 

81.4 

F.  I. 

90.5 

86.7 

79.6 

85.1 

U.  F.  I. 

51.7 

50.7 

43.4 

52 

N.  I. 

58.6 

57.1 

71.7 

58.3 

Skin 

Hair 

Dark-Brown 

Med.-Br. 

Dk.  -Brown 

Black 

Beard 

++ 

+++ 

Eyes 

Blue 

Green-Br. 

Blue-Brown 

Dk.  -Brown 

Plate  14 


Fio    1 

Fio    2 

FIG.  3 

FIG    4 

FIG.  5 

Age 

51 

41 

60 

50 

Stature 

178  cm. 

172  cm. 

165  cm. 

172  cm. 

177  cm. 

Weight 

179  Ibs. 

195  Ibs. 

215  Ibs. 

195  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

188  mm. 

193  mm. 

177  mm. 

190  mm. 

197  mm. 

Head  Br. 

163 

158 

162 

164 

163 

Min.  Fr. 

109 

103 

109 

114 

113 

Bizyg. 

146 

144 

146 

148 

155 

Bigon. 

114 

112 

109 

126 

122 

T.  F.  Ht. 

123 

128 

121 

131 

130 

U.  F.  Ht. 

70 

71 

69 

72 

77 

N.Ht. 

58 

*    56 

54 

54 

58 

N.  Br. 

34 

37 

37 

39 

38 

Biorb. 

90 

87 

98 

100 

Interorb. 

33 

29 

36 

30 

C.  I. 

86.7 

81  9 

91.5 

86.3 

82.7 

F.  I. 

84 

88.9 

829 

88.5 

83.9 

U.  F.  L 

48 

49.3 

47.3 

48 

49.7 

N.  I. 

59 

66.1 

68.5 

72.2 

65.5 

Skin 

#3  Pink-  White 

Hair 

Dark-Br. 

#4    Dk.-Br. 

#9  Med.-Br. 

Black 

Dark-Br. 

Beard 

Reddish 

//10Red-Br 

Eyes 

Bl.-Gr.-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Gray-Br. 

Light-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Plate  15 


Fio.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

Age 
Stature 

33 
173  cm. 

43 
164  cm. 

46 
172  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

207  Ibs. 
183  mm. 

175  Ibs. 
189  mm. 

152  Ibs. 
191  mm. 

Head  Br. 

160 

166 

163 

Min.  Fr. 

111 

115 

116 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

143 
113 
133 

153 
120 
121 

150 
H7 
127 

U.  F.  Ht. 

76 

65 

74 

N.  Ht. 

58 

51 

59 

N.  Br. 

36 

36 

40 

Biorb. 

91 

100 

92 

Interorb. 

35 

36 

35 

C.  I. 

87.4 

87.8 

85.3 

F.  I. 

93 

79 

84.7 

U.  F.  I. 

53.1 

42.5 

49.7 

N.  I. 

62.1 

70.6 

67.8 

Skin 

Hair 

Dark-Brown 

Med.  -Brown 

Med.  -Brown 

Beard 
Eyes 

Med.  -Brown 

Blue 

4-4- 

Gray-Brown 

Plate  16 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  6 

Age 
Stature 

18 
169  cm. 

30 
163  cm. 

36 

166.7  cm. 

21 
180  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

183  mm. 

202  mm. 

195  mm. 

180  mm. 

Head  Br. 

143 

142 

147 

135 

Min.  Fr. 

100 

103 

111 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

129 
101 
125 

132 
100 
128 

136 
109 
131 

128 
111 
123 

U.  F.  Ht. 

77 

79     , 

75 

77 

N.  Ht. 

59 

58 

58 

60 

N.  Br. 

31 

36 

33 

37 

Biorb. 

83 

83 

91 

Interorb. 

30 

31 

31 

G.  I. 

78 

70 

75 

75 

F.  I. 

97 

97 

96 

96 

U.  F.  I. 

60 

60 

55 

60 

N.  I. 

52 

62 

57 

62 

Skin 

#10 

#10 

#10 

Hair 

Black 

44 

Dark-Brown 

Black 

Beard 

Eyes 

Dark-Brown 

4-4-+ 

Gray-Brown 

Light-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Plate  17 

Plate  18 

FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

Fio.  7 

Age 
Stature 

43 
169  cm. 

48 

167  cm. 

42 
176  cm. 

48 
174cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

192  Ibs. 
201  mm. 

144  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

130  Ibs. 
197  mm. 

Head  Br. 

148 

151 

153 

Min.  Fr. 

106 

109 

113 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

142 
112 
125 

143 
113 
141 

144 
110 
132 

U.  F.  Ht, 

81 

83 

77 

N.  Ht. 

67 

69 

61 

N.  Br. 

37 

35 

38 

Biorb. 

91 

90 

96 

Interorb. 

31 

31 

33 

C.  I. 

73.6 

80.3 

77.7 

70 

F.  I. 

88 

98.6 

91.7 

92 

U.  F.  I. 

57 

58.0 

53.5 

N.  I. 

55.2 

51.5 

62.3 

52 

Skin 

Hair 

Black 

Dark-Br. 

Black 

Black 

Beard 

Black  &  Red 

Eyes 

Dark-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

#8  Black-Br. 

Plate  19 


Fio.  1 

Fio.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG    4 

FIG    5 

Age 
Stature 

39 
166  cm. 

167  cm. 

20 
157.8  cm. 

26 
153.  3  cm. 

26 

158.2  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

187  mm. 

181  mm. 

191  mm. 

187  mm. 

Head  Br. 

150 

142 

153 

147 

Min.  Fr. 

101 

103 

108 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

140 
100 
115 

127 
131 

121 
86 
117 

129 
97 
120 

U.  F.  Ht. 

62 

77 

68 

71 

N.  Ht. 

52 

56 

48 

59 

N.  Br. 

32 

37 

79 

35 

Biorb. 

92 

93 

91 

Interorb. 

34 

29 

33 

C.  I. 

80.2 

78 

80 

83 

F.  I. 

82 

103 

97 

79 

U.  F.  I. 

50.4 

61 

55 

55 

N.  I. 

61.5 

66 

75 

69 

Skin 
Hair 

Br.  Sallow 
Coarse  Bl. 

#15 
Black 

Dark-Br. 

#10 
Black 

Beard 

+++ 

Eyes 

Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Gr.-Br. 

Plate  20 


FIG.  1 

Fio.  2 

Fio.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 

Stature 

42 
171  cm. 

50 
152  cm. 

39 
181  cm. 

28 
168  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

192  mm. 

102  Ibs. 
196  mm. 

130  Ibs. 
194  mm. 

130  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

Head  Br. 

136 

154 

151 

148 

Min.  Fr. 

104 

109 

107 

100 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

127 
101 
130 

134 
102 
115 

129 
101 
119 

134 
103 
125 

U.  F.  Ht. 

73 

70 

71 

73 

N.  Ht. 

61 

60 

54 

53 

N.  Br. 

37 

35 

31 

36 

Biorb. 

91 

87 

93 

91 

Interorb. 

31 

32 

35 

33 

C.  I. 

71 

78.6 

78 

79 

F.  I. 

102 

86 

92 

93 

U.  F.  I. 

57 

52 

55 

54 

N.  I. 

61 

58 

57 

68 

Skin 
Hair 

#29 
Black 

#23 

#18 
Black 

#22 

Beard 

Eyes 

Dark-Br. 

Dark-Lt.-Br. 

Light-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Plate  21 


FIG.  2 

FIG.  4 

FIG.  5 

FIG.  6 

Age 
Stature 

34 
183  cm. 

26 
171  cm. 

160  cm. 

28 
167.4  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

197  mm. 

137  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

133  Ibs. 
182  mm. 

189  mm. 

Head  Br. 

146 

144 

137 

142 

Min.  Fr. 

105 

103 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

134 
119 

132 
103 

129    . 

127 
95 
122 

137 
112 
126 

U.  F.  Ht. 

75 

75 

80 

N.  Ht. 

59 

56 

55 

59 

N.  Br. 

30 

37 

32 

36 

Biorb. 

Interorb. 

G.  I. 

74.1 

76.6 

75.3 

75.1 

F.  I. 

89 

98 

96.1 

92 

U.  F.  I. 

57 

59.1 

58 

N.  I. 

51 

66 

58.2 

61 

Skin 
Hair 

#15-#17 
Black 

Dark-Br. 

#7 
Black 

Black 

Beard 

Black 

Eyes 

#4 

Light-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Light-Br. 

Plate  22 


Fio.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

Fio.  4 

Age 

38 

17 

32 

24 

Stature 

162  cm. 

159  cm. 

167  cm. 

168  cm. 

Weight 

140  Ibs. 

120  Ibs. 

138  Ibs. 

140  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

190  mm. 

187  mm. 

193  mm. 

196  mm. 

Head  Br. 

150 

142 

149 

156 

Min.  Fr. 

106 

106 

111 

106 

Bizyg. 

132 

128 

134 

141 

Bigon. 

99 

102 

99 

103 

T.  F.  Ht. 

120 

125 

114 

132 

U.  F.  Ht. 

74 

73 

69 

76 

N.  Ht. 

57 

56 

56 

53 

N.  Br. 

35 

35 

37 

35 

Biorb. 

90 

96 

89 

98 

Interorb. 

33 

34 

35 

36 

C.  I. 

79 

75.9 

77.2 

79.6 

F.  I. 

90.9 

97.7 

85.1 

93.6 

U.  F.  I. 

52.6 

57 

51.5 

53.9 

N.  I. 

61.4 

64.3 

66.1 

66 

Skin 

Hair 

Black 

Dark-Br. 

Black 

Black 

Beard 

Eyes 

Light-Br. 

Blue 

Dark-Br. 

Light-Br. 

Plate  23 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 
Stature 

21 
175cm. 

41 
172cm. 

24 
178cm. 

24 
169  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

142  Ibs. 
199  mm. 

158  Ibs. 
192  mm. 

150  Ibs. 
203  mm. 

141  Ibs. 
200  mm. 

Head  Br. 

151 

149 

150 

154 

Min.  Fr. 

106 

109 

106 

104 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

142 
108 
127 

133 
101 
130 

136 
101 
125 

134 
102 
119 

U.  F.  Ht. 

73 

75 

75 

75 

N.  Ht. 

58 

60 

56 

61 

N.  Br. 

35 

29 

36 

34 

Biorb. 

94 

92 

94 

86 

Interorb. 

36 

30 

36 

27 

C.  I. 

75.9 

77.6 

73.9 

77 

F.  I. 

89.4 

97.7 

91.9 

88.8 

U.  F.  I. 

51.4 

56.4 

55.1 

56 

N.I. 

60.3 

48.3 

64.3 

55.7 

Skin 

Hair 
Beard 

#6 

Dark-Br. 

Black 

#5 

Eyes 

Green-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Blue 

Plate  24 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

Fio.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 
Stature 

42 
170  cm. 

37 
170  cm. 

35 
170  cm. 

47 
174  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

190  Ibs. 
204  mm. 

140  Ibs. 
203  mm. 

156  Ibs. 
206  mm. 

168  Ibs. 
207  mm. 

Head  Br. 

156 

152 

163 

150 

Min.  Fr. 

118 

108 

107 

113 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

148 
120 
132 

130 
108 
121 

138 
103 
123 

142 
115 
124 

U.  F.  Ht. 

78 

69 

74 

77 

N.  Ht. 

63 

56 

60 

63 

N.  Br. 

35 

33 

32 

33 

Biorb. 

94 

90 

94 

94 

Interorb. 

33 

30 

33 

36 

C.  I. 

76.5 

74.9 

79.1 

72.5 

F.  I. 

89.2 

93.1 

89.1 

87 

U.  F.  I. 

52.7 

53.1 

53.6 

51 

N.  I. 

55.6 

58.9 

53.3 

52 

Skin 

Hair 

//4  Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Black 

Dark-Br. 

Beard 

Red 

Eyes 

Blue-Br. 

Blue 

Blue-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Plate  25 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

Fro.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 

61 

36 

31 

51 

Stature 

167  cm. 

170  cm. 

172  cm. 

169  cm. 

Weight 

135  Ibs. 

110  Ibs. 

170  Ibs. 

140  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

195  mm. 

193  mm. 

201  mm. 

194  rnm. 

Head  Br. 

151 

148 

153 

144 

Min.  Fr. 

104 

103 

104 

107 

Bizyg. 

134 

125 

144 

128 

Bigon. 

98 

94 

107 

94 

T.  F.  Ht. 

125 

120  - 

119 

120 

U.  F.  Ht. 

79 

72 

66 

70 

N.  Ht. 

65 

56 

54 

54 

N.  Br. 

30 

31 

37 

37 

Biorb. 

86 

86 

90 

89 

Interorb. 

31 

29 

33 

31 

C.  I. 

77.4 

76.7 

76.1 

74.2 

F.  I. 

93.3 

96 

82.6 

93.8 

U.  F.  I. 

59 

57.6 

45.8 

54.7 

N.  I. 

46.2 

55.4 

68.5 

68.5 

Skin 

Hair 

Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

#5  Dark-Br. 

Beard 

++ 

++ 

Eyes 

Blue-Br. 

Light-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Light-Br. 

Plate  26 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 

31 

47 

28 

33 

Stature 

167  cm. 

167.4  cm. 

176  cm. 

174  cm. 

Weight 

148  Ibs. 

141  Ibs. 

175  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

181  mm. 

199  mm. 

199  mm. 

197  mm. 

Head  Br. 

142 

153 

158 

154 

Min.  Fr. 

107 

106 

112 

Bizyg. 

132 

139 

148 

142 

Bigon. 

104 

102 

112 

114 

T.  F.  Ht. 

127 

125 

126 

116 

U.  F.  Ht. 

73 

76 

69 

N.  Ht. 

55 

60 

56 

N.  Br. 

31 

34 

37 

Biorb. 

90 

90 

99 

Interorb. 

32 

36 

36 

C.  I. 

78.4 

76  9 

79.4 

78.2 

F.  I. 

96.2 

89.9 

85.1 

81.7 

U.  F.  I. 

55.3 

51.3 

48.6 

N.  I. 

56.4 

51.7 

56.7 

66.1 

Skin 

Hair 

Black 

#4  Dark-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Black 

Beard 

4.4. 

Eyes 

Dark-Br. 

f6  Green-Br. 

Dark-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Plate  27 


FIG.   1 

Fio.  2 

FKJ    3 

FKJ.  4 

Age 

24 

37 

28 

34 

Stature 

170  cm. 

175  cm. 

181  cm. 

1  82  cm. 

Weight 

165  Ibs. 

165  Ibs. 

160  Ibs. 

170  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

204  mm. 

204  mm. 

200  mm. 

215  mm. 

Head  Br. 

143 

150 

152 

150 

Min.  Fr. 

103 

-103 

106 

110 

Bizyg. 

137 

134 

137 

135 

Bigon. 

104 

104 

96 

108 

T.  F.  Ht. 

130 

128 

140 

121 

U.  F.  Ht. 

77 

72 

84 

73 

N.  Ht. 

63 

53 

61 

60 

N.  Br. 

35 

36 

36 

33 

Biorb. 

95 

89 

95 

89 

Interorb. 

32 

31 

30 

32 

C.  I. 

70.1 

73.5 

76 

70 

F.  I. 

95 

95.5 

102 

90 

U.  F.  I. 

56 

53.7 

61 

60 

N.  I. 

56 

67.9 

59 

55 

Skin 

Hair 

Golden 

Light-Br. 

Golden 

Ash-Blond 

Beard 

4.4.4. 

Eyes 

Gray-Blue 

Blue 

Blue 

Blue-Br. 

Plate  28 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

Fio.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 
Stature 

47 
164  cm. 

38 
174cm. 

45 
164  cm. 

50 
167  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

120  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

153  Ibs. 
191  mm. 

145  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

169  Ibs. 
188  mm. 

Head  Br. 

148 

149 

152 

159 

Min.  Fr. 

98 

107 

109 

118 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

134 
109 
110 

132 
103 
118 

143 
106 
118 

145 
111 
117 

U.  F.  Ht. 

68 

71 

72 

68 

N.  Ht. 

55 

54 

55 

54 

N.  Br. 

37 

34 

34 

30 

Biorb. 

91 

89 

100 

87 

Intcrorb. 

28 

29 

37 

36 

C.I. 

78.7 

78 

80.9 

84.6 

F.  I. 

82 

89.4 

82.5 

80.7 

U.  F.  I. 

51 

53.8 

50.4 

46.9 

N.  I. 

67 

63 

61.8 

55.6 

Skin 

Hair 

Dark-Br. 

#5  Med.-Br. 

#6  Red-Br. 

#6  Med.-Br. 

Beard 

+  f+ 

+++ 

Eyes 

Bluc-Br. 

Blue 

Light-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

0 

£ 


13 

<U 


T-*(Ncoint-ivooocor- 

f\J     T-*     T-»     f<     t-1     T-" 


O  *H  O         ..fc 
oo  m  \o       PQ 


9) 
M 


II 


bo 


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Plate  30 


FIG.  1 

Fm.  4 

FIG.  5 

FIG.  6 

Age 

48 

17 

32 

24 

Stature 

172  cm. 

178  cm. 

175  cm. 

165  cm. 

Weight 

1901bs. 

1541bs. 

115  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

195  mm. 

210  mm. 

195  mm. 

188  mm. 

Head  Br. 

151 

148 

147 

146 

Min.  Fr. 

108 

103 

107 

Bizyg. 

138 

138 

133 

128 

Bigon. 

104 

101 

104 

99 

T.  F.  Ht. 

123 

134 

129 

126 

U.  F.  Ht. 

67 

79 

76 

78 

N.  Ht. 

57 

60 

57 

59 

N.  Br. 

36 

34 

35 

35 

Biorb. 

89 

95 

Interorb. 

30 

31 

C.  I. 

77.4 

70.5 

75,4 

77.7 

F.I. 

89 

97 

97 

98.4 

U.  F.  I. 

54.5 

57 

57 

60.9 

N.  I. 

63 

57 

61 

59.3 

Skin 

#3 

#13 

Hair 

Light-Br. 

#12  &  #6 

Golden 

#6  Red-Br. 

Beard 

Golden 

++ 

4.4.4. 

Eyes 

Blue-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Gray-Br. 

Plate  31 


FIG    1 

FIG.  2 

FIG    3 

FIG.  4 

Age 

41 

46 

33 

46 

Stature 

171  cm. 

164  cm. 

167  cm. 

167  cm. 

Weight 

1  52  Ibs. 

150  Ibs. 

148  Ibs. 

152  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

187  mm. 

184  mm. 

173  mm. 

189  mm. 

Head  Br. 

162 

161 

162 

161 

Min.  Fr. 

109 

113 

100 

113 

Bizyg. 

144 

147 

142 

148 

Bigon. 

108 

111 

113 

107 

T.  F.  Ht. 

126 

123     - 

115 

125 

U.  F.  Ht. 

74 

72 

65 

73 

N.  Ht. 

56 

55 

52 

56 

N.  Br. 

34 

36 

32 

35 

Biorb. 

93 

85 

78 

99 

Interorb. 

30 

31 

27 

37 

C.  I. 

86.8 

87.5 

93.4 

85.2 

F.  I. 

88 

84 

81 

84 

U.  F.  I. 

51 

49 

46 

49 

N.  I. 

61 

65 

62 

62 

Skin 

Hair 

Lt.-Gold.-Br. 

Lt.-Br. 

Golden 

Golden 

Beard 

444, 

4.44 

4.44. 

Eyes 

Blue-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Blue 

Plate  32 


FIG.  l 

FIG    2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 
Stature 

30 
167  cm. 

50 
172  cm. 

26 

177  cm. 

31 
178  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

140  Ibs. 
196  mm. 

160  Ibs. 
196  mm. 

172  Ibs. 
195  mm. 

165  Ibs. 
200  mm. 

Head  Br. 

155 

161 

157 

156 

Min.  Fr. 

104 

110 

106 

115 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

138 
102 
129 

142 
116 
131 

140 
112 
120 

143 
111 
138 

U.  F.  Ht. 

74 

77 

68 

77 

N.  Ht. 

54 

61 

54 

63 

N.  Br. 

36 

40 

36 

34 

Biorb. 

92 

94 

91 

90 

Interorb. 

36 

39 

34 

32 

C.  I. 

79.1 

82.1 

80.5 

78 

F.  I. 

94 

92 

86 

96 

U.  F.  I. 

54 

54 

56 

54 

N.  I. 

67 

66 

67 

54 

Skin 

Hair 

Golden 

#15  Golden 

#4  Dk.-Br. 

#7  Med.-Br. 

Beard 

++ 

Eyes 

Blue 

Blue 

Blue 

Blue-Br. 

Plate  33 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG    4 

Age 

68 

34 

26 

22 

Stature 

172  cm. 

182  cm. 

180  cm. 

172  cm. 

Weight 

207  Ibs. 

185  Ibs. 

188  Ibs. 

165  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

203  mm. 

197  mm. 

190  mm. 

191  mm. 

Head  Br. 

157 

160 

162 

163 

Min.  Fr. 

107 

113 

113 

117 

Bizyg. 

148 

152 

140 

144 

Bigon. 

109 

120 

110 

114 

T.  F.  Ht. 

126 

132 

122 

137 

U.  F.  Ht. 

75 

72 

73 

74 

N.  Ht. 

62 

60 

58 

57 

N.  Br. 

32 

35 

38 

36 

Biorb. 

97 

91 

92 

102 

Interorb. 

38 

33 

36 

41 

C.I. 

77.3 

81.2 

85.3 

85.3 

F,  I. 

85 

86.8 

87.1 

95.1 

U.  F.  I. 

51 

47.4 

52.1 

51.4 

N.I. 

51.6 

58.3 

65.5 

63.2 

Skin 

Hair 

#8  Med.-Br. 

Golden 

Golden 

Red 

Beard 

+++ 

Eyes 

Blue 

Blue-Br. 

Blue 

Blue 

Plate  34 


FIG.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

Fio.  4 

Age 

60 

64 

38 

38 

Stature 

164cm. 

167  cm. 

162cm. 

167  cm. 

Weight 

1561bs. 

160  Ibs. 

130  Ibs. 

130  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

200  mm. 

193  mm. 

192  mm. 

190  mm, 

Head  Br. 

164 

161 

154 

163 

Min.  Fr. 

116 

103 

109 

104 

Bizyg. 

145 

146 

136 

138 

Bigon. 

117 

112 

113 

104 

T.  F.  Ht. 

128 

118 

127 

129 

U.  F.  Ht. 

75 

72 

76 

76 

N.  Ht. 

56 

60 

57 

59 

N.  Br. 

31 

38 

34 

33 

Biorb. 

92 

87 

88 

87 

Interorb. 

33 

34 

32 

32 

C.  I. 

82 

83.4 

80.2 

85.8 

F.  I. 

88.3 

81 

93.4 

93.5 

U.  F.  I. 

51.7 

50 

57.4 

55.1 

N.  I. 

55.4 

63 

59.7 

55.9 

Skin 

Hair 

#4  Dk.-Br. 

#7  Med.-Br. 

#10  Lt.-Br. 

#10  Lt.-Br. 

Beard 

+4  + 

Eyes 

Blue 

Blue 

Blue-Br. 

Blue 

Plate  35 


FIG    1 

FIG    2 

FIG.  3 

Age 
Stature 

36 
180  cm. 

33 

172  cm. 

44 
180  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

166  Ibs. 
198  mm. 

149  Ibs. 
187  mm. 

168  Ibs. 
182  mm. 

Head  Br. 

168 

154 

154 

Min.  Fr. 

114 

111 

110 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

138 
106 
141 

138 
104 
125 

137 
110 
123 

U.  F.  Ht. 

82 

74 

74 

N.  Ht. 

65 

64 

53 

N.  Br. 

34 

33 

34 

Biorb. 

96 

96 

91 

Interorb. 

33 

32 

32 

G.  I. 

84.9 

82.4 

84.6 

F.  I. 

102.2 

90.6 

89.8 

U.  F.  I. 

59.4 

53.6 

54 

N.  I. 

52.3 

51.6 

64.2 

Skin 

Hair 
Beard 

#7  Med.-Br. 

#7  Med.-Br. 

4.4.4. 

#8  Brown 

Eyes 

Blue-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Blue  

Plate  36 


Fio.  1 

Fio.  2 

Fio.  3 

Fio.  4 

Age 
Stature 

35 
179  cm. 

32 
165  cm. 

38 
171  cm. 

50 

172  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

140  Ibs. 
193  mm. 

180  Ibs. 
189  mm. 

150  Ibs. 
183  mm. 

152  Ibs. 
190  mm. 

Head  Br. 

161 

154 

160 

154 

Min.  Fr. 

103 

109 

110 

111 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

137 
111 
123 

142 
113 
120 

151 
114 
123 

148 
108 
122 

U.  F.  Ht. 

73 

73 

73 

69 

N.  Ht. 

60 

61 

59 

53 

N.  Br. 

32 

35 

36 

32 

Biorb. 

94 

94 

96 

90 

Interorb. 

32 

36 

33 

36 

C.  I. 

83.4 

81.5 

87.4 

81 

F.  I. 

89.8 

84.5 

81.5 

82.4 

U.  F.  I. 

52.6 

54.9 

96.7 

46.6 

N.  I. 

53.3 

57.4 

61 

60.4 

Skin 

Hair 
Beard 
Eyes 

Red 
Lt.-Br. 

//4  Dk.-Br. 
Blue 

Med.-Br. 

+4 

Green-Br. 

#5  Dk.-Br. 
Green-Br. 

Plate  37 


Fio.  1 

FIG.  2 

FIG.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 

28 

23 

69 

53 

Stature 

170  cm. 

164  cm. 

169  cm. 

162  cm. 

Weight 

155  Ibs. 

180  Ibs. 

175  Ibs. 

149  Ibs. 

Head  L, 

181  mm. 

195  mm. 

189  mm. 

189  mm. 

Head  Br. 

159 

166 

162 

162 

Min.  Fr. 

111 

106 

108 

104 

Bizyg. 

140 

146 

143 

141 

Bigon. 

113 

104 

112 

110 

T.  F.  Ht. 

134 

124 

129 

118 

U.  F.  Ht. 

77 

77 

76 

69 

N.  Ht. 

63 

60 

58 

61 

N.  Br. 

37 

36 

37 

34 

Biorb. 

89 

92 

89 

92 

Interorb. 

29 

36 

37 

33 

C.  I. 

87.9 

85.1 

85.7 

85.7 

F.I. 

96.4 

84.9 

90.2 

83.7 

U.  F.  I. 

55 

52.7 

53.1 

48.9 

N.I. 

58.7 

60 

63.8 

55.7 

Skin 

Hair 

#4  Dk.-Br. 

#4  Dk.-Br. 

Med.-Br. 

Dk.-Br. 

Beard 

++ 

44 

444 

+++ 

Eyes 

Green-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Plate  38 


FIG.   1 

Fio.  2 

Fio.  3 

Fro.  4 

Age 

38 

27 

42 

48 

Stature 

171  cm. 

165  cm. 

180  cm. 

172cm. 

Weight 

165  Ibs. 

175  Ibs. 

152  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

185  mm. 

164  mm. 

179  mm. 

188  mm. 

Head  Bn 

165 

155 

158 

162 

Min.  Fr. 

114 

114 

103 

Bizyg. 

143 

148 

146 

147 

Bigon. 

120 

99 

110 

113 

T.  F.  Ht. 

123 

124 

133 

120 

U.  F.  Ht. 

77 

76 

75 

N.  Ht. 

60 

63 

61 

N.  Br. 

34 

37 

40 

Biorb. 

94 

91 

92 

Interorb. 

33 

34 

36 

C.  I. 

89.2 

93.9 

88.3 

86.2 

F.  I. 

86 

83.9 

91.1 

81.6 

U.  F.  I. 

53.8 

52 

51 

N.  L 

65 

51.7 

58.7 

65.6 

Skin 

Hair 

Med.-Br. 

#4-#5  Dk.-Br. 

#5  Med.-Br. 

Black 

Beard 

+++ 

Eyes 

Blue 

#5~#6  Lt.-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Lt.-Br. 

OOOLOvO 


oo^inu-> 


0> 

c^ 


rt 
S 


CQ 


-I 

+s 


P?! 

O' 


o 


S 
o.  i-~ 


I     I      I 

QQ 


o 


Plate  40 


FIG    1 

FIG.  2 

Fio.  3 

Fio.  4 

Age 

48 

46 

44 

25 

Stature 

159cm. 

164cm. 

178  cm. 

170  cm. 

Weight 

131  Ibs. 

146  Ibs. 

186  Ibs. 

144  Ibs. 

Head  L. 

174  mm. 

173  mm. 

186  mm. 

187  mm. 

Head  Br. 

158 

158 

152 

161 

Min.  Fr. 

99 

104 

113 

111 

Bizyg. 

143 

143 

141 

139 

Bigon. 

102 

113 

103 

108 

T.  F.  Ht. 

126 

128 

122 

128 

U.  F.  Ht. 

78 

78 

77 

75 

N.  Ht. 

61 

61 

62 

61 

N.  Br. 

30 

35 

39 

35 

Biorb. 

86 

92 

91 

97 

Interorb. 

30 

33 

36 

28 

C.  I. 

90.8 

91.3 

81.7 

86  1 

F.  I. 

88.1 

89.5 

86.5 

92 

U,  F.  I. 

54.5 

54.5 

54.6 

54 

N.  I. 

49.2 

57.4 

62.9 

57.4 

Skin 

Hair 

Black 

Black 

Black 

Dk,-Br. 

Beard 

Eyes 

Lt.-Br. 

Green-Br. 

Dk.-Br. 

Med.-Br. 

Plate  41 


FIG.  1 

FIG  2 

Fio.  3 

FIG.  4 

Age 
Stature 

47 
167  cm. 

55 
167  cm. 

39 
172  cm. 

43 
167  cm. 

Weight 
Head  L. 

172  Ibs. 
178  mm. 

160  Ibs. 
191  mm. 

162  Ibs. 
159  mm. 

134  Ibs. 
179  mm. 

Head  Br. 

163 

156 

153 

165 

Min.  Fr. 

104 

118 

103 

105 

Bizyg. 
Bigon. 
T.  F.  Ht. 

140 
113 
129 

143 
118 

128   . 

134 
113 
134 

131 
100 
121 

U.  F.  Ht. 

76 

72 

81 

74 

N.  Ht. 

63 

55 

63 

59 

N.  Br. 

34 

37 

37 

38 

Biorb. 

87 

95 

87 

87 

Interorb. 

30 

40 

34 

33 

C.  I. 

91.6 

81.7 

96.2 

92.2 

F.  I. 

92.1 

89.5 

100 

92.4 

U.  F.  I. 

54.3 

49.7 

60.5 

56.6 

N.  L 

54 

67.3 

58.7 

64.4 

Skin 

Hair 

Dk.-Br. 

Black 

Dk.-Br. 

Black 

Beard 

++ 

+++ 

Eyes 

Green-Br. 

Dk.-Br. 

Blue-Br. 

Med.-Br. 

Chapter  XI 
THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD 

(1)    INTRODUCTION 

In  the  first  two  chapters  of  our  survey  of  the  living  white  peoples,  we 
lave  covered  the  whole  northern  third  of  the  European  continent,  and 
lave  discussed  at  some  length  the  physical  characteristics  of  the  present  rep- 
•esentatives  of  the  Nordic  race,  and  of  the  East  Baltic  and  Neo-Danubian 
•acial  types,  as  exemplified  by  the  Finno-Ugrian  peoples  and  by  the 
peakers  of  the  Baltic  branch  of  Indo-European.  We  have,  furthermore, 
tudied  the  survival  and  reemergence  in  northwestern  Europe  of  unre- 
luced,  unmodified  Upper  Palaeolithic  types,  as  exemplified  especially  by 
he  Irish,  and  other  British,  and  by  the  Scandinavians  and  East  Baltic 
>eoples.  We  have  also  discussed  the  incipiently  mongoloid  Lapps,  and  the 
nongoloid  intrusions  on  European  soil  along  its  northern  borders. 

The  next  strip  to  follow,  in  a  geographical  sense,  would  be  the  whole 
tighland  belt  of  central  Europe  stretching  over  to  the  Balkans,  to  Asia 
^linor,  and  across  to  the  Caucasus  and  Turkestan.  This  second  zone, 
lowever,  is  one  of  immense  racial  complexity.  In  it  various  branches  of 
he  greater  Mediterranean  family,  of  Neolithic  date  and  later,  have  been 
Qodified  by  combining  in  various  proportions  with  each  other  and  with 
he  autochthonous  Alpine  race.  The  key  to  the  complexity  of  this  zone 
ies  in  the  genetic  action  of  this  last  entity,  which  is  apparently  a  reduced, 
amewhat  foetalized,  or  more  highly  evolved  branch  of  the  old  Palaeo- 
thic  stock  than  those  which  we  have  been  studying  in  the  north.  Since, 
.owever,  it  is  the  action  of  this  element  upon  the  Mediterranean  family 
fhich  is  important  here,  it  will  be  easier  to  study  this  zone  after  having 
urveyed  the  population  of  a  third  belt,  that  occupied  by  the  purest  living 
epresentatives  of  the  Mediterranean  race. 

This  third  racial  zone  stretches  from  Spain  across  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
3  Morocco,  and  thence  along  the  southern  Mediterranean  shores  into 
Arabia,  East  Africa,  Mesopotamia,  and  the  Persian  highlands;  and  across 
Afghanistan  into  India.  This  zone  is  one  of  comparative  racial  simplicity. 
Q  it  the  brunet  Mediterranean  race  lives  today  in  its  various  regional 
>rms  without,  in  most  cases,  the  complication  of  the  Palaeolithic  survivals 
nd  reemergences  which  have  so  confused  the  racial  picture  on  the  ground 
f  Europe  itself.  Only  in  the  mountains  of  Morocco  and  Algeria,  and  in 
ic  Canary  Islands,  is  such  a  survival  of  any  importance.  The  careful 

400 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN   WORLD  401 

study  of  living  populations  of  the  Mediterranean  race  in  its  early  home- 
lands will  do  much  to  simplify  the  task  which  lies  ahead. 

(2)  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RAGE  IN  ARABIA 

The  Mediterranean  racial  zone  stretches  unbroken  from  Spain  across 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Morocco,  and  thence  eastward  to  India.  A 
branch  of  it  extends  far  southward  on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea  into 
southern  Arabia,  the  Ethiopian  highlands,  and  the  Horn  of  Africa.  Of  the 
three  main  Mediterranean  sub-races  which  this  zone  contains,  the  most 
widespread,  the  most  central,  the  most  highly  evolved,  and  most  charac- 
teristically Mediterranean  is  the  central  Mediterranean  form,  as  best  ex- 
emplified skeletally  by  the  pre-dynastic  Egyptians.  Today  the  largest  uni- 
fied area  in  which  this  moderate-sized,  intermediate  Mediterranean  racial 
type  is  found  in  greatest  purity  is  the  Arabian  Peninsula. 

Arabia,  some  fifteen  hundred  miles  long  by  a  thousand  wide,  possesses 
a  huge  land  mass  but  a  small  population.  Owing  to  the  aridity  of  the 
great  Ruba*  el  Khali  desert  and  much  of  the  north,  the  entire  country 
can  support  no  more  than  six  million  people,  of  whom  at  least  a  half  live 
in  the  small,  fertile,  southwestern  corner,  the  kingdom  of  Yemen. 

The  study  of  the  prehistory  of  Arabia  has  hardly  begun.  It  is,  however, 
known  that  during  the  pluvial  periods  of  the  Pleistocene,  the  Empty  Quar- 
ter was  a  fertile  plateau,  through  which  large  streams  carved  wide  and 
deep  wadys;  and  that  it  has  been  inhabited  by  man  from  at  least  Acheu- 
lean  times  onward.  With  the  post-glacial  desiccation  of  this  part  of  the 
world,  Arabia  may  well  have  served  as  a  vagina  gentium,  sending  forth  into 
other  regions  great  numbers  of  inhabitants  whom  it  could  no  longer  sup- 
port. In  legendary  and  historic  times  this  role  has  been  continued;  the 
early  wanderings  of  the  Jews,  the  settlement  of  the  Ethiopian  highlands 
by  colonists  from  the  Hadhramaut,  the  great  expansion  of  the  Arabs  in 
early  Moslem  times,  all  serve  as  examples. 

Modern  Arabia  is  divided  into  several  kingdoms  each  of  which  occupies 
a  distinct  geographical  area.  The  largest,' Saudi  Arabia,  includes  the  Nejd, 
Hasa,  the  Hejaz,  and  Asir;  in  other  words,  all  of  the  regions  north  and  im- 
mediately west  of  the  Ruba*  el  Khali.  The  Nejd  is  occupied  by  a  mixed 
population  of  pastoral  nomads  and  agriculturists,  of  which  the  former  are 
by  far  the  more  numerous.  The  Nejdis  form  a  natural  unit  with  the  tribes- 
men of  Transjordania  and  of  the  Syrian  desert.  The  northern  frontier  of 
Arabia,  in  an  ethnic  sense,  is  not  its  present  political  boundary,  but  a  line 
skirting  the  southern  edge  of  the  so-called  Fertile  Crescent.  In  northern 
Arabia  should  be  included  such  tribes  as  the  Ruwalla,  the  Shammar,  and 
the  Howeitat.  The  Hejaz,  which  includes  the  holy  cities  of  Mekka  and 
Medina,  contains  a  sedentary  population,  which  lives  partly  by  agriculture 


402  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

and  partly  by  trade,  while  the  wealth  brought  in  by  the  annual  hordes 
of  pilgrims  from  the  entire  world  of  Islam  helps,  in  large  measure,  to  sup- 
port the  population  of  this  sacred  territory.  Asir,  the  southernmost  and 
most  recently  acquired  section  of  Saudi  Arabia,  is  a  mountainous  country 
occupied  for  the  most  part  by  farmers,  and  its  ethnic  relationships  are 
with  the  Yemen,  rather  than  with  the  north. 

The  kingdom  of  Yemen  is  bounded  on  the  north  by,  roughly,  the  seven- 
teenth parallel  of  north  latitude;  on  the  west  by  the  Red  Sea;  on  the  south 
by  the  British  Protectorate  of  Aden;  and  on  the  east  by  the  southwestern- 
most  extension  of  the  Empty  Quarter.  It  consists  of  two  main  parts,  the 
narrow  coastal  plain  and  the  plateau  country  which  slopes  gently  east- 
ward from  a  10,000  foot  escarpment.  This  plateau  is  extremely  fertile  and 
supports  a  large  agricultural  population.  On  its  northern  and  eastern 
borders  it  tapers  off  gradually  into  pastoral  country,  and  in  the  south 
merges  into  the  ethnic  unit  of  the  Hadhramaut.  The  eastern  part  of  this 
plateau  was  once  an  extremely  populous  region,  since  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
three  great  kingdoms  of  Ma'an,  Kataban,  and  Saba.  This  country  was 
supported  partly  by  agriculture,  based  on  extensive  irrigation  projects, 
and  partly  by  tolls  from  the  incense  caravans  which  passed  through  them 
on  their  way  northward. 

To  the  west  of  Yemen  lies  the  Wady  Hadhramaut,  a  narrow  strip  of 
fertile  valley,  separated  from  the  Gulf  of  Aden  by  a  forbidding  mass  of 
almost  vegetation-free  mountains.  To  the  east  of  the  Hadhramaut  lies 
Dhofar,  hemmed  in  by  the  Qara  Mountains;  and  this  small  semi-circle  of 
land  preserves  a  lush  vegetation  made  possible  by  the  steady  rainfall 
brought  by  the  southeast  monsoon.  It,  alone  of  all  of  southern  Arabia, 
retains  the  Pleistocene  climate  which  made  this  region,  in  former  times,  a 
land  of  great  fertility.  To  the  northeast  of  the  great  desert,  which  acts  as 
a  formidable  barrier  to  separate  these  kingdoms,  lies  Oman,  a  mountain- 
ous country  in  which  agriculture  is  practiced,  and  which  is  noted  for  its 
seafaring  activities  and  for  its  export  of  dates. 

The  inhabitants  of  Arabia  may  be  divided  into  two  general  groups: 
Arabs  proper,  and  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  Hadhramaut,  the  Dhofar 
country,  and  the  island  of  Socotra.  Those  who  belong  to  the  first  category 
are  almost  without  exception  of  Mediterranean  race,  and  it  is  with  this 
group  that  we  are  dealing  in  our  search  for  a  pure  Mediterranean  form. 
The  Hadhramaut,  on  the  other  hand,  contains  a  varied  population  with 
at  least  four  social  and  ethnic  elements.1  These  include  the  Bedawin,  who 
live  in  the  smaller  side  valleys  and  in  the  valleys  between  the  Hadhramaut 
proper  and  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  They  are  slender,  small-headed  men,  with 
ringlet  hair,  and  facial  features  which  relate  them  partly  to  the  great  Ved- 

1  Van  den  Berg,  L.  W.  C.,  Le  Hadhramout  et  les  Colonies  Arabes  dans  FArchipel  Indien. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  403 

doid  group  of  humanity.  Their  affiliation  to  the  white  racial  stock  is  of  a 
borderline  quality. 

The  second  group  is  composed  of  tribesmen  who  inhabit  the  Hadhra- 
maut  valley  proper,  and  who  trace  their  ancestry  to  the  Yemen  and  to 
other  parts  of  Arabia.  The  ancestors  of  these  tribesmen  seem  to  have  en- 
tered the  Hadhramaut  in  pre-Islamic  times.  In  addition  to  these  early 
immigrants,  there  is  a  class  of  artisans  who  claim  varied  ancestry  from 
different  parts  of  the  Arabic-speaking  world,  and,  as  an  upper  crust,  a 
group  of  Sayyids,  descendants  of  the  Prophet,  who  form  a  priestly  aristoc- 
racy. From  the  racial  standpoint,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Hadhramaut  in- 
clude both  Veddoid  and  Mediterranean  elements.  In  more  recent  times 
great  numbers  of  slaves  have  been  brought  from  Africa  to  increase  this 
racial  complexity. 

In  Mahra,  Dhofar,  and  the  island  of  Socotra,  pre-Arabic  Semitic  lan- 
guages survive.  These  are  Mahri,  spoken  by  the  Mahra  and  the  Socotrans, 
and  Shahari,  spoken  by  the  people  who  live  in  the  hills  behind  Dhofar.2 
Other  early  Semitic  dialects  seem  to  be  affiliated  with  these  two  language 
groups.  The  Mahra  and  the  people  immediately  behind  Dhofar  belong 
largely  to  the  same  general  racial  classification  as  the  Hadhramaut  Beda- 
win,  and  form  a  more  exaggerated  nucleus  of  the  same  physical  type. 

The  origin  of  these  non-Mediterranean,  partly  Veddoid  people  in 
southern  Arabia  is  obscure.  Culturally,  they  possess  many  primitive 
traits  which  would  relate  them,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the  food-gathering 
economy  of  such  people  as  the  Australians  and  Veddas;  and,  on  the  other, 
to  the  cattle  culture  of  the  Todas  in  India  and  of  the  Hamites  and  Bantu 
in  East  Africa. 

Let  us  first  consider  the  racial  characters  of  the  plateau  Yemenis,  who 
seem  to  form  the  purest  nucleus  of  the  Mediterranean  race  in  Arabia  which 
has  yet  been  studied.3  A  group  of  400  adult  males  from  the  central  plateau 
and  from  the  adjacent  escarpment  region  belongs,  with  few  exceptions,  to 
a  homogeneous  Mediterranean  type.  The  series  is  a  mature  one  with  a 
mean  age  of  33  years.  The  mean  stature  of  this  group,  164  cm.,  is  moder- 
ate and  is  typical  of  the  smaller  Mediterranean  race  as  defined  in  earlier 
chapters. 

The  bodies  of  these  Yemenis  are  slightly  built;  gross  observations  on 
constitutional  type  show  the  Yemenis  to  be  predominantly  leptosome  in 
60  per  cent  of  cases,  and  rarely  if  ever  pyknic.  The  relative  shoulder 
breadth  of  21.5  is  smaller  than  that  found  in  most  European  groups;  the 

2  Thomas,  Bertram,  Arabia  Felix, 

8  This  material  is  based  upon  a  series  of  1 500  men  measured  in  the  Yemen  and  Ha- 
dhramaut by  the  author  in  1933-34,  and  presented  here  for  the  first  time.  It  will  be 
published  in  proper  statistical  form  at  a  later  date. 


404  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

relative  span  of  102  resembles  that  of  the  pure  Nordic  groups  of  east 
Norway,  and  a  relative  sitting  height  of  51.3  is  less  than  that  found  among 
most  Europeans.  The  Yemenis,  although  short,  are  relatively  long  legged. 
Their  heads  are  of  moderate  dimensions,  with  a  mean  length  of  188  mm. 
and  a  mean  breadth  of  143  mm.,  giving  a  cephalic  index  of  76,  which  lies 
on  the  upper  border  of  dolichocephaly.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  while  the 
head  form  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Nordic  race,  the  length  and  breadth 
dimensions  are  considerably  smaller.  The  head  height  of  125  mm.  is 
moderately  high,  and  comparable  to  Nordic  dimensions.  The  facial 
diameters  are  consistently  narrow;  the  minimum  frontal  mean  is  102  mm., 
the  bizygornatic  132  mm.,  and  the  bigonial  101  mm.  These  dimensions 
are  narrower  than  any  that  we  have  heretofore  seen  in  Europe.  The  face 
height  of  121  mm.  is  moderate,  while  the  upper  face  height  of  72  mm.  must 
be  considered  great.  It  is,  in  fact,  greater  than  that  of  many  European 
groups  of  larger  cranial  and  facial  bulk.  The  nose  height  of  56  mm.  is  as 
great  as  that  of  most  Nordic  groups,  while  the  nose  breadth  of  33.5  mm.  is 
narrow.  The  facial  index  of  92  is  only  moderately  leptoprosopic,  while  the 
upper  facial  index  of  55  is  extremely  leptene.  Here  one  sees  a  disharmony 
between  the  total  face  height  and  the  great  upper  face  height,  which  indi- 
cates the  excessive  shallowness  and  fragility  of  the  Mediterranean  mandi- 
ble. A  nasal  index  of  61  is  extremely  leptorrhine.  The  dimensions  given 
above  may  serve  as  metrical  specifications  of  the  small  Mediterranean 
racial  variety  in  its  purest  form.  Observational  specifications  follow. 

Yemeni  highlanders,  in  exposed  skin  color  on  the  face,  hands,  and  legs, 
often  appear  to  be  brown,  and  the  characteristic  range  of  exposed  skin 
color  lies  between  von  Luschan's  #12  and  #18.  Over  50  per  cent  of  the 
series  have  exposed  skins  of  #15  and  darker.  Really  light  exposed  skin 
was  observed  in  but  one  individual,  who  was  a  man  seldom  out  under  the 
sun.  When  the  observer  inspects  the  skin  of  the  breast  or  inner  arm  in 
places  where  the  sun  seldom  penetrates,  he  sees  at  once  that  these  people 
are  much  lighter.  The  unexposed  skin  color,  in  83  per  cent  of  the  entire 
series,  is  a  swarthy  white,  fitting  into  the  von  Luschan  #10  and  #11. 
Lighter  shades  running  from  von  Luschan  #7  and  #9  occur  in  roughly 
5  per  cent,  while  the  rest  of  the  series  is  darker.  No  individual  meas- 
ured, who  came  from  the  Yemen  plateau,  was  darker  than  von  Luschan 
#18.  Vascularity  is  present  in  all  but  one-fifth  of  the  subjects,  but,  in  the 
majority  of  cases,  is  only  slightly  in  evidence.  Freckling  was  found  in  but 
1  per  cent  of  the  entire  group,  and  is  not  a  characteristic  of  the  unmixed 
Mediterranean  race. 

The  head  hair  of  the  Yemenis  is  straight  in  only  4  per  cent  of  the  series, 
and  low  waves  account  for  the  majority,  while  20  per  cent  have  hair  which 
may  be  classified  as  curly.  This  hair  form  consists  of  wide,  open  ringlets 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  405 

and  is  the  same  as  the  dominant  form  found  among  the  Veddoid  aborigines 
of  the  Hadhramaut.  Negroid  hair  does  not  occur  in  this  group.  The  hair 
is  of  medium  texture  in  80  per  cent  of  the  series  and  fine  in  the  rest.  It  is 
for  the  most  part  abundant  on  the  head,  and  baldness  is  rare.  Only  14  per 
cent  of  the  entire  group  showed  any  signs  of  baldness  other  than  patholog- 
ical favus.  The  beard  is  slight  in  over  50  per  cent  of  the  series  and  seldom 
covers  the  entire  lower  part  of  the  face.  There  are  usually  bare  patches 
between  the  ends  of  the  mustache  and  the  chin  beard.  Body  hair,  aside 
from  the  pubis  and  axis,  is  absent  in  one- third  of  the  entire  group  and,  on 
the  whole,  but  moderately  developed.  There  is  a  minority  of  10  per  cent 
which  shows  excessive  hairiness.  On  the  whole,  the  classic  Mediterranean 
racial  type  is  characterized  by  a  moderate  to  slight  amount  of  body  hair, 
but  one  must  not  conclude  that  excessive  hairiness  cannot  be  found  among 
individual  Mediterraneans. 

The  head  hair  is  black  in  90  per  cent  of  the  series;  except  for  one  example 
of  blondism  and  another  of  rufosity,  the  rest  of  the  group  is  dark  brown 
haired.  Beard  color,  however,  is  black  in  only  75  per  cent  of  the  group,  and 
the  remaining  one-fourth  of  the  series  is  divided  between  various  hues  of 
brown  and  red.  Beard  rufosity  occurs  in  6  per  cent  of  the  Yemeni  series, 
while  head  hair  rufosity  was  found  in  but  one  individual.  Twelve  men  out 
of  400  had  beards  which  contained  visible  increments  of  golden-brown 
hair.  Reddish-brown  beards  are  as  common  as  red  ones.  Since  there  is  no 
evidence  of  ash-blondism  in  either  the  head  or  beard  hair,  while  golden 
and  red  hues  account  for  all  of  the  existing  blondism,  it  is  apparent  that 
the  hair  of  the  basic  Mediterranean  stock,  as  exemplified  by  these  Yemenis, 
contains  a  considerable  amount  of  red  pigmentation. 

The  25  per  cent  of  brown  and  blond  beards  may  be  matched  by  25  per 
cent  of  light  and  mixed  eye  color.  Dark  brown,  however,  accounts  for 
nearly  half  of  the  entire  series,  and  black  and  light  brown  eyes  are  def- 
initely in  the  minority.  Of  the  mixed  eyes,  green-brown  is  the  most  fre- 
quent hue,  and  the  dark-mixed  outnumber  the  light-mixed.  Not  a  single 
case  of  pure  blue  or  pure  gray  eyes  was  encountered  in  the  Yemen;  the 
lightest  contained  a  few  flecks  of  superficial  brown  pigment. 

It  is  extremely  suggestive  that  the  percentage  of  beards  containing  evi- 
dence of  blondism  is  the  same  as  that  of  mixed  irises,  while  the  head  hair 
color  is  almost  exclusively  black.  Since  it  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  purer 
Mediterranean  racial  strain  than  this,  one  may  postulate  that  some  tend- 
ency towards  a  blond  mutation  is  present  in  roughly  one-fourth  of  this 
otherwise  brunet  branch  of  the  Mediterranean  race,  but  this  tendency 
rarely  expresses  itself  in  extreme  blondism.  For  historical  reasons  a  25 
per  cent  incidence  in  the  Yemen  is  too  high  to  be  explained  on  the  basis  of 
outside  mixture  alone. 


406  THE   RACES   OF   EUROPE 

Internal  eyefolds  are  wholly  absent.  Median  eyefolds  are  found  in  some 
1 0  per  cent  of  the  series,  while  external  eyefolds  account  for  another  1 5  per 
cent.  Thus  a  condition  which  is  usually  considered  Nordic  is  found  to 
exist  almost  equally  among  Mediterraneans.  In  1 5  per  cent  of  the  series  a 
slight  upward  obliquity  of  the  eyes  is  found,  and  the  opening  between  the 
lids  is  usually  moderate.  The  eyebrows  are  pronouncedly  thick  in  one- 
fourth  of  the  series,  and  moderately  so  to  medium  in  the  rest.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note  that  eyebrow  concurrency  is  present  in  all  but  15  per  cent 
of  the  group.  This  is  slight  in  most  cases,  but  moderately  pronounced  in 
40  per  cent  of  the  whole.  One  must,  therefore,  dismiss  the  idea  that  these 
Mediterraneans,  at  least,  have  no  eyebrow  concurrency.  A  moderate 
amount  of  it  is  apparently  a  Mediterranean  trait.  The  browridges  of  these 
Yemenis  are  slight  in  half  the  group  and  moderate  in  most  of  the  other 
half;  only  about  5  per  cent  have  pronounced  browridges  comparable  to 
those  so  frequently  found  in  northern  Europe. 

From  the  observational  standpoint,  the  forehead  is  of  moderate  to  great 
height;  the  slope  is  less  than  that  usually  found  among  Nordics.  Absent  or 
very  slight  slopes  are  found  in  nearly  half  of  the  group,  while  a  slope  com- 
parable to  that  of  Nordics  accounts  for  the  other  half. 

The  nasion  depression  is  usually  slight;  in  many  cases  nearly  absent. 
The  nasal  root  is  almost  always  high  and  narrow,  the  nasal  bridge  is  of 
greater  than  medium  height  in  60  per  cent  of  the  series,  while  its  breadth 
is  characteristically  narrow  to  medium.  The  nasal  profile  is  convex  in 
half  of  the  group.  Concave  profiles  are  limited  to  3  per  cent  of  the  whole, 
and  the  rest  are  straight.  The  concavo-convex  profile,  so  common  in  some 
types  of  Nordic,  is  absent  here.  The  nasal  tip  is  usually  narrow  to  medium. 
It  is  usually  horizontal  or  inclined  slightly  upwards;  downward  inclina- 
tion occurs  in  only  one-sixth  of  the  group.  The  nasal  wings  are  alternately 
medium  or  compressed,  and  flaring  in  but  2  per  cent  of  the  group.  The 
nostrils  usually  take  the  form  of  a  thin  oval  in  outline,  and  are  set  at  slightly 
oblique  axes. 

On  the  whole,  the  nasal  form  of  the  Yemenis  is  quite  constant  and  of 
little  variability.  The  Yemeni  nose  is  high-rooted,  high-bridged,  and  nar- 
row, with  a  convex  to  straight  profile,  and  a  narrow,  slightly  elevated  tip, 
compressed  to  moderate  wings,  and  narrow,  slightly  oblique  nostril  open- 
ings. The  amount  of  nasal  convexity  is  greater  among  Mediterraneans 
than  among  most  Nordics,  and  the  Mediterranean  group  as  exemplified 
by  this  series  is,  in  fact,  slightly  more  leptorrhine  than  all  but  the  most 
extreme  Nordic  groups. 

The  lips  of  the  Yemenis  are  of  moderate  integumental  thickness,  and 
their  membranous  thickness  is  usually  thin  to  medium.  The  lips  are  as  a 
rule  only  slightly  everted.  The  lip  seam  is  visible  in  the  entire  group. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN   WORLD  407 

Prognathism  is  rare;  9  per  cent  of  the  total  group  shows  a  slight  to  medium 
development  of  the  facial  variety,  while  the  alveolar  type  is  limited  to 
2  per  cent.  It  must  be  remembered  at  this  point  that  a  small  amount  of 
facial  prognathism  is  a  characteristic  white  and  particularly  Mediterra- 
nean trait,  while  alveolar  prognathism  is  more  of  a  negroid  character. 
This,  like  other  negroid  traits,  is  to  all  practical  purposes  absent  in  the 
Yemen  highlands. 

Despite  the  shallowness  and  narrowness  of  the  Yemenis  mandible,  chins 
are  of  moderate  European  prominence  in  70  per  cent  of  the  series. 
Markedly  prominent  chins  such  as  one  finds  in  northern  Europe  among 
Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors  are  lacking.  These  chins  are  median  in  three- 
fourths  of  the  entire  group,  while  the  remaining  fourth  possess  the  bi- 
lateral form  common  among  Europeans.  Only  one  man  out  of  five  has  the 
edge-to-edge  bite  so  frequently  found  among  mediaeval  and  earlier  Euro- 
pean skulls,  for  in  dentition  and  in  general  jaw  development,  the  Yemenis 
possess  the  same  features  already  noticed  in  the  skulls  of  Mesopotamia  as 
early  as  Sumerian  times. 

In  the  larger  features  of  the  face,  Yemenis  show  little  or  no  frontal  pro- 
jection of  the  malars,  while  a  moderate  lateral  projection  is  usual,  owing 
to  the  small  development  of  the  temporal  muscle  and  to  the  general  thin- 
ness of  the  soft  parts  of  the  face.  Gonial  angles  are  medium  or  slight  in  most 
cases.  The  occipital  protrusion  is  usually  considerable,  and  flattening  is 
absent  or  very  slight  in  three-fourths  of  the  series,  and  the  other  fourth  is 
as  pronounced  as  among  most  Nordics. 

Although  the  plateau  Yemenis  of  the  region  centered  about  Sana'a 
may  rightly  be  taken  to  represent  the  smaller  variety  of  the  Mediterranean 
race  in  its  purest  form,  this  is  not  equally  true  of  other  parts  of  the  Yemen. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  mountain  district,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
cities  of  Yerirn,  Ibb,  and  Taiz,  a  mixture  is  seen  between  this  Mediter- 
ranean strain  and  the  Veddoid  type  characteristic  of  the  Hadhramaut. 
Along  the  Yemen  coast,  furthermore,  since  the  climatic  conditions  are 
such  as  to  discourage  serious  physical  effort  among  white  men,  the  coun- 
tryside has  been  largely  taken  over  by  negroid  farmers  brought  in  as  agri- 
cultural serfs.  There  is,  however,  a  minority  of  white  agriculturalists,  and 
these  belong  partly  to  the  Mediterranean  type  described  above.  However, 
there  is  a  considerable  coastal  population  located  in  the  larger  towns  and 
maritime  villages,  which  belongs  to  an  entirely  different  physical  type. 

These  coastal  Yemenis  are  shorter  than  the  plateau  Mediterraneans, 
with  a  mean  stature  of  only  160  cm.  They  are  smaller-headed,  with  the 
extremely  short  mean  glabello-occipital  length  of  177  mm.,  a  vault  height 
of  only  122  mm.,  and  a  cephalic  index  mean  of  84. 4  Their  faces  are  broader 

4  The  common  misconception  that  the  Yemenis  as  a  whole  are  brachycephalic  is  due 


408  THE  RAGES   OF   EUROPE 

than  those  of  the  plateau  people,  and  very  short,  with  a  mean  total  face 
height  of  1 1 8  mm.  The  nasal  index  of  64  is  less  leptorrhine,  and  the  length 
of  eye-slit  opening  is  much  greater.  These  maritime  coastal  people  fre- 
quently have  coarse  and  straight  hair;  their  skin  color  tends  to  be  darker 
than  that  of  the  plateau  people,  their  faces  fuller,  and  their  ears  promi- 
nent and  slanting. 

These  brachycephalic  coastal  people  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  Ma- 
lays and  Indonesians,  in  a  number  of  metrical  characters,  and  there  is  a 
tradition  that  they  have  absorbed  Malay  blood  in  certain  families.  On  the 
other  hand,  from  the  morphological  standpoint,  most  of  them  look  Arme- 
noid,  since  thick-tipped  convex  noses  and  sloping  foreheads  are  frequent 
among  them.  In  any  case,  whatever  their  origin,  and  it  is  undoubtedly 
mixed,  they  represent  an  intrusive  people  borne  to  southern  Arabia  by 
the  sea,  and  have  no  connection  with  the  original  Mediterranean  group 
which  developed  in  the  highlands.  Evidence  of  their  racial  influence  may 
be  seen  among  the  agricultural  population  of  the  coast,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  in  the  southern  towns,  but  as  yet  they  seem  to  have  exerted  no  in- 
fluence whatever  on  the  plateau  country.  The  barrier  of  a  10,000  foot 
escarpment  and  of  a  complete  difference  in  climate  seems  to  have  sufficed 
to  keep  the  coastal  population  from  the  plateau,  while  the  plateau  people, 
at  the  same  time,  have  penetrated  the  unhealthy  lowlands  but  little. 

Within  the  Yemen  plateau  population  it  is  possible  for  the  careful  ob- 
server to  notice  a  differentiation  between  a  number  of  sub-types.  In  the 
cities  is  concentrated  a  specialized  and  exaggeratedly  Mediterranean 
population  with  shorter  stature,  narrower  and  lower  heads,  narrower 
faces  and  noses,  and  lighter  skin  color  than  the  rest  of  the  Yemenis.  This 
city  type  seems  to  have  been  largely  selected  on  an  occupational  basis, 
and  represents  the  quintessence  of  the  Mediterranean  race.  The  country 
people,  on  the  whole,  are  somewhat  larger,  somewhat  broader-shouldered, 
and  somewhat  wavier  or  curlier  in  hair  form. 

Among  the  tribal  and  village  sheikhs  and  the  officers  in  the  Imam's 
army  one  frequently  encounters  tall,  very  long-headed,  and  long-faced 
examples  of  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean  type,  which  seems  to  form  a 
socially  selected  variant  in  this  group.  The  Nordic-looking  people  are 
usually  confined  to  the  social  stratum  from  which  civil  officers  and  re- 
ligious men  are  drawn,  and  it  is  more  than  a  coincidence  that  the  ac- 

to  the  fact  that  Europeans  are  more  familiar  with  Yemeni  sailors  than  with  the  more 
numerous  highlanders.  Previous  anthropometric  series  of  Yemenis  include  mostly 
coastal  subjects. 

See  Cipriani,  L.,  AFA,  vols.  60-61,  1930-31,  pp.  138-163. 

Leys,  N.  M.,  and  Joyce,  T.  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  43,  1913,  pp.  195-267. 

Mochi,  A.,  APA,  vol.  37,  1907,  pp.  411-428. 

Seligman,  G.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  47,  1917,  pp.  211-237. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN   WORLD  409 

knowledged  descendants  of  the  Prophet  are  lighter-skinned  and  show 
greater  evidence  of  blondism  than  the  rest  of  the  population.  There  may 
perhaps  have  been  a  Nordic  strain  associated  with  the  holy  families  who 
entered  this  region  from  the  Hejaz  in  early  post- Islamic  times. 

We  have  no  data  whatever  from  Asir,  but  it  is  likely  that  the  inhabitants 
of  this  mountain  province  resemble  those  of  the  Yemen  highlands  in  large 
measure.  In  the  Hejaz,  there  is  almost  no  material,5  but  a  few  words 
may  be  said  on  the  basis  of  personal  observation.  Today  the  city  people 
who  derive  rich  profits  from  the  pilgrim  trade  and  who  inhabit  mostly 
Jidda,  Mekka,  Taif,  and  Medina  are  as  motley  and  heterogeneous  a 
group  as  one  would  find  in  Port  Said  or  Honolulu.  Thousands  of  Javanese, 
of  Chinese  Moslems,  of  Bokharis  from  Turkestan,  and  of  Indian  Moslems 
as  well  as  of  African  negroes,  have  been  attracted  to  the  holy  places  and 
have  remained  there.  The  permanent  population  of  these  cities  is  prob- 
ably less  than  half  Arab.  So  far  these  foreign  elements  have  not  greatly 
mixed  with  the  indigenous  people,  and  the  old  families  have  kept  them- 
selves aloof  from  these  foreign  strains,  but  the  importance  of  the  new- 
comers in  the  future  cannot  be  exaggerated.  The  Hejaz  will  eventually 
be  the  seat  of  a  greatly  mixed  and  blended  population,  drawn  from  the 
three  primary  racial  groups  of  white,  negroid,  and  mongoloid. 

Members  of  the  old  Hejaz  families  seem  to  fall,  in  many  cases,  into  a 
clearly  differentiated  type  which,  in  its  extreme  form,  may  be  described 
without  difficulty.  Its  members  are  men  of  medium  to  tall  stature;  they 
are  broad  shouldered,  long-bodied,  heavy  of  weight,  and  of  a  constitu- 
tional type  which  tends  to  an  excess  of  both  muscle  and  fat.  Their  heads 
are  large  and  mesocephalic  to  brachycephalic,  their  faces  are  both  broad 
and  long,  their  noses  frequently  large-tipped  and  fleshy.  The  chin  is 
prominent  and  the  mandible  strong.  Their  hair  is  dark  brown  to  black, 
the  beard  heavy,  and  the  eye  color  characteristically  brown,  although 
light  eyes  are  by  no  means  uncommon.  , 

Although  this  Alpine-looking  Hejaz  type  may  not  yet  be  established 
on  a  scientific  basis,6  its  existence  will  be  confirmed  by  readers  who  are 
acquainted  with  the  people  of  this  region.  It  seems  very  likely  that  men 
of  this  general  type  went  to  North  Africa  with  the  early  Moslem  invasions, 
for  this  type  is  frequent  among  the  aristocratic  families  in  North  African 
cities,  particularly  in  Fez,  in  contrast  with  the  rest  of  the  population  which 
is  almost  exclusively  dolichocephalic.  What  the  origin  of  this  hypotheti- 
cal type  may  be,  it  would  be  foolish  to  consider  without  some  metrical 

6  Mochi,  A.,  APA,  vol.  37,  1907,  pp.  411-428,  gives  raw  data  for  a  series  of  12  Arabs 
from  Jidda. 

6  Mochi's  series  of  12  Arabs  from  Jidda  has  a  mean  stature  of  168  cm.,  a  G.  I.  of  79.4, 
a  bizygomatic  of  132  mm,,  and  a  nose  breadth  of  37  mm. 


410  THE  RACES  OF   EUROPE 

evidence,  but  we  may  be  sure  that  it  is  not  of  pure  Mediterranean  origin. 
It  is  probably  confined  largely  to  the  city  people  and  to  the  older  of  the 
indigenous  families. 

Information  on  the  exact  physical  character  of  the  nomadic  peoples  of 
the  Nejd  is  likewise  lacking,  but  we  possess  a  body  of  information  upon  a 
number  of  the  tribes  which  pasture  their  camels  in  Transjordania  and  in 
the  desert  portions  of  Syria  and  Iraq.  Notable  among  these  is  the  Ruwalla 
tribe  made  famous  by  the  writings  of  Lawrence,  Musil,  Raswan,  and 
others.7  A  series  of  270  adult  male  Ruwalla  measured  by  Shanklin  8  is 
shorter  than  the  Yemenis,  with  a  mean  stature  of  162  cm.,  but  other 
Bedawin  tribes,  such  as  the  Shammar,9  are  taller,  and  as  one  enters 
sedentary  regions  in  the  north  the  Bedawin  stature  reaches  170  cm.10 
On  the  whole,  however,  the  northern  Arabs  must  be  considered  a  medium 
to  short  people.  A  relative  sitting  height  of  51,  among  the  Ruwalla,  agrees 
with  that  of  the  Yemenis,  and  is  a  standard  Mediterranean  character. 

The  heads  of  the  Ruwalla,  with  a  mean  length  of  192  mm.,  are  a  little 
longer  than  those  of  the  Yemenis,  and  the  cephalic  index  of  75  a  little 
lower.  The  faces  of  the  Ruwalla,  with  a  mean  bizygomatic  diameter  of 
130  mm.,  are  extremely  narrow.  Other  dimensions  resemble  those  fa- 
miliar to  us  in  the  Yemen.  The  skin  color  of  the  Ruwalla  seems  to  be 
on  the  whole  somewhat  darker  than  that  of  the  Yemenis.  The  hair  is 
usually  black  or  dark  brown,  and  no  instance  of  partial  blondism  is  re- 
corded by  Shanklin,  although  individuals  who  possess  it  have  been  no- 
ticed by  other  observers.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  25  per  cent  of 
incipient  blondism  noted  in  the  Yemen  is  not  present  in  this  tribe,  although 
Field  has  found  an  even  higher  ratio  among  the  Shammar.11 

There  are  two  easily  distinguished  types  among  the  Ruwalla:  a  grosser 
type,  with  a  broader  face  and  straight  and  medium  to  broad  nose,  which 
bears  certain  resemblances  to  the  aboriginal  population  of  the  Hadhra- 
maut  and  Dhofar;  and  what  may  be  described  as  a  finer  type,  to  which 
most  of  the  sheikhly  families  belong;  this  is  narrower-faced  and  narrower- 
nosed,  with  often  a  concave  or  beaked  nasal  profile.  This  hawk-faced 
type  of  Arabian  aristocrat  is  better  known  than  the  other  type,  but  is 
probably  the  less  numerous.  It  reaches  its  extreme  personification  in 
the-  old  warrior  Sheikh  'Auda  Abu  Tayy,  whose  lineaments  are  familiar 

7  Lawrence,  Col.  T.  E.,  The  Seven  Pillars  of  Wisdom. 
Musil,  A.,  The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ruwalla  Bedawin, 
Raswan,  C.,  Black  Tents  of  Arabia. 

8  Shanklin,  W.  M.,  JRAI,  vol.  65,  1935,  pp.  375-390. 

9  Unpublished  data,  courtesy  Dr.  Henry  Field. 

10  Shanklin,  W.  M.,  AJPA,  vol.  21,  #2,  1936,  pp.  217-252. 

Shanklin,  W.  M.,  and  Izzeddin,  N.,  AJPA,  vol.  22,  #3,  1937,  pp.  381-415. 

11  Unpublished  data.    Courtesy  Dr.  Henry  Field. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  411 

to  thousands  through  the  charcoal  portrait  published  in  Lawrence's 
Seven  Pillars  of  Wisdom. 

The  purest  Mediterranean  group  in  northern  Arabia  is  that  of  the 
Solubbies  or  Sleyb,  a  curious  outcast  people  who  wander  about  in  small 
family  units  from  camp  to  camp  acting  as  hunters,  leather  workers,  and 
tinkers  to  the  Bedawin.12  The  despised  position  of  the  Sleyb  may  be  de- 
duced from  their  ragged  clothing,  small  tents,  and  the  fact  that  they  have 
no  camels  and  are  not  allowed  to  ride  on  horses.  They  are,  however, 
regarded  as  true  natives  of  the  desert,  and  know  more  about  its  topog- 
raphy, and  can  survive  in  it  under  greater  hardships  than  any  other  people. 
Measurements  taken  by  Dr.  Henry  Field  on  a  series  of  these  scattered 
people13  show  them  to  fall  closely  to  the  Yemen  plateau  standard,  and 
they  appear  lighter  skinned  and  less  Dravidian  than  the  common  run 
of  Bedawin. 

The  origin  of  the  camel-herding  Bedawin,  with  their  long  genealogies 
and  their  complex  social  structure,  has  long  been  a  problem  to  ethnol- 
ogists. Although  there  is  no  space  here  for  a  lengthy  dissertation  upon 
this  subject,  it  is  the  author's  belief  that  the  camel-  and  mare-breeding 
complex  of  the  Bedawin  is  an  off-shoot  of  the  cattle  culture  of  southern 
Arabia,  which  is,  in  turn,  closely  related  to  the  cattle  complex  of  India 
and  East  Africa.  With  advancing  desiccation  and  the  collapse  of  the  early 
civilizations  of  southern  Arabia,  it  is  likely  that  one  or  more  tribes  and 
families  of  Yemenite  and  Veddoid  origin  moved  northward  from  the 
Nejran  into  the  Nejd  and  the  Syrian  desert,  transferring  the  economic 
aspects  of  their  cattle  culture  to  their  camels,  and  its  social  aspects  to 
their  mares.  According  to  this  hypothesis  the  Sleyb  and  the  socially  in- 
ferior non-Aneyze  tribesmen,  who  live  as  much  on  sheep  as  on  camels, 
represent  the  earlier  elements  in  the  population,  and  are  more  purely 
Mediterranean  than  the  Ruwalla. 

(3)    IRAQ  AND   THE   COASTAL   REGIONS   OF   THE 
PERSIAN   GULF 

The  physical  anthropology  of  the  Arabic-speaking  inhabitants  of  Meso- 
potamia has  been  extensively  studied;  u  and  we  have  adequate  series  to 
indicate  that  this  population  is  reasonably  homogeneous  throughout  the 
middle  and  lower  courses  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  The  stature  of 
these  modern  Mesopotamians  is  higher  than  that  of  the  Arabs  of  Arabia 

12  The  authority  on  this  people  is  Maj.  Glubb,  who  has  written  a  paper  on  them  soon 
to  be  published  by  Dr.  Henry  Field. 

13  Unpublished  data.    Courtesy  Dr.  Henry  Field. 

14  Field,  Henry,  Arabs  of  Central  Iraq;  further  publications  in  preparation. 

Ehrich,  Robert,  a  series  of  33  Mesopotamiah  Arabs  published  in  Coon,  C.  S., 
Tribes  of  the  Rif. 


412  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

proper,  with  means  ranging  from  168  cm.  in  the  Kish  area  south  of  Bag- 
dad to  171  cm.  in  the  region  of  Kirkuk.  The  Iraq  army,  which  is  a  se- 
lected group,  has  a  mean  stature  of  172.6  cm.  Like  the  Arabs,  however, 
the  Mesopotamians  are  long  legged,  and  their  body  build  is  predom- 
inantly linear.  The  cephalic  index  of  various  series  approximates  76, 
and  only  a  small  minority  is  brachycephalic. 

The  dimensions  of  the  head  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  Arabs,  but 
with  a  mean  length  of  approximately  190  and  a  mean  breadth  of  142  to 
146  mm.  in  various  series.  The  total  face  height  is  moderate,  except  in 
the  north,  where  it  rises  to  a  mean  of  128  mm.  The  upper  face  height  is 
in  all  regions  great,  and  the  bizygomatic  diameters  are  moderate,  with 
means  of  130  to  133  mm.  in  the  Kish  region  and  among  Iraqian  soldiers, 
but  run  as  high  as  138  mm.  in  the  Kirkuk  region.  Both  facial  and  upper 
facial  indices  of  the  Iraqians  show  leptoprosopic  tendencies,  but  the  accent 
is  upon  the  length  of  the  upper  face  and  not  on  the  total  face  height. 

Nasal  dimensions  are  somewhat  larger  than  in  Arabia;  the  noses  are 
both  longer  and  broader,  with  leptorrhine  nasal  indices.  The  bigonial 
breadth  of  102  mm.  is  comparable  to  that  of  most  Arabians.  From  the 
standpoint  of  regional  distribution,  the  most  important  anthropometric 
differentiation  in  the  Iraqian  area  is  the  increase  in  face  length  and  breadth 
found  in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley.  A  heavier,  deeper  jaw  and  a  broader 
face,  characteristic  of  the  people  of  northern  Iraq,  serves  as  a  transition  to 
the  facial  form  of  mountaineers  of  Armenia  and  Azerbaijan. 

The  hair  form  of  the  Mesopotamians  is  usually  low  waves,  and  it  is  on 
the  whole  straighter  than  that  of  Arabs.  It  is  prevailingly  dark  brown  or 
black,  with  a  small  minority  of  some  5  per  cent  with  blond  or  reddish 
hues.  The  head  hair  is  usually  thick,  while  the  beard  hair  is  very  strong 
and,  in  at  least  one-half  of  the  group,  it  is  much  heavier  than  the  beards 
in  Arabia.  The  body  hair  is  also  on  the  heavy  side,  and  50  per  cent  is 
recorded  as  excessive.  As  in  Arabia,  the  eye  color  is  prevailingly  dark 
brown,  and  one  finds  25  per  cent  of  mixed  light  hues.  The  eyebrows  are 
thick,  concurrent  in  all  but  12  per  cent  of  the  series,  and  extend  widely 
beyond  the  orbits  in  a  lateral  direction. 

In  the  morphology  of  the  nose  the  Mesopotamian  population  differs 
considerably  from  that  of  Arabia.  The  nasal  profile  is  usually  straight, 
but  convex  forms  are  more  numerous  than  concave.  The  tip  is  thick  in 
75  per  cent  of  the  group,  and  depressed  in  70  per  cent.  The  wings  are 
rarely  compressed,  usually  medium,  and  in  25  per  cent  flaring.  Photo- 
graphs of  Iraqians  shown  in  Dr.  Henry  Field's  monograph  show  that  the 
faces  are  larger,  the  noses  much  more  prominent  and  thicker- tipped,  the 
beards  much  heavier,  the  browridges  heavier  in  Iraq  than  among  either 
the  Yemeni  Arabs  or  the  pure  northern  Bedawin.  There  is  a  strong  Irano- 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  413 

Afghan  element  here  as  well  as  the  Atlan to-Mediterranean,  and  many  tran- 
sitional forms,  while  small,  fine-featured  Arab  Mediterranean  types  are  rare. 

The  Iraqian  population  is  without  doubt  much  the  same  today  as  it 
was  in  Sumerian  and  Babylonian  times;  the  post-Islamic  acquisition  of 
Arab  blood  has  made  very  little  difference  in  the  racial  constitution  of 
this  country,  while  the  infiltration  of  Armenoids  from  the  north  has  also 
been  negligible.  There  are,  however,  some  unabsorbed  tribes  of  northern 
Arabian  Bedawin,  living  in  the  heart  of  Mesopotamia,  as  a  study  of  the 
extremely  dolichocephalic  and  narrow-faced  Ba'ij  Bedawin,  who  pasture 
their  flocks  in  the  so-called  "island"  between  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
will  make  clear.15 

At  the  head  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  on  the  western  side  just  below  Basra, 
is  a  small,  independent  kingdom  called  Kuwait.  Kuwaitis  are  noted 
navigators,  and  sail  their  large  dhows  full  of  dates  down  the  Persian  Gulf 
past  Oman  and  around  to  Aden,  and  even  cross  over  to  Dar  es-Salaam 
and  Mombasa.  A  small  series  of  40  Kuwait  sailors  measured  in  Aden 
harbor,16  show  closer  relationships,  in  many  respects,  with  Mesopotamia 
than  with  the  rest  of  Arabia.  However,  the  stature  of  165  cm.  is  not 
great,  but  the  bodily  build  is  frequently  heavy  and  thick-set.  The  shoulders 
are  especially  broad,  the  sitting  height  great.  A  mean  relative  span  of 
106  far  exceeds  that  of  all  other  known  Arabs,  and  the  relative  sitting 
height  of  52.5  approaches  average  European  proportions. 

There  are  two  chief  differences  in  the  anthropometry  of  the  head  and 
face  between  the  Kuwaitis  and  the  normal  Mediterranean  Arab  type 
as  exemplified  by  the  Yemenis;  in  the  first  place,  the  Kuwaiti  head, 
while  about  the  same  size  as  that  of  the  Yemenis,  is  usually  both  shorter 
and  broader,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  79.6;  in  the  second  place,  the 
faces  and  noses  of  the  Kuwaitis  are  much  larger.  A  total  face  height  of 
128.2  mm.  is  as  long  as  any  in  Mesopotamia,  and  the  upper  face  height  of 
73.5  varies  accordingly.  This  excessive  length  does  not  apply  particu- 
larly to  the  nose,  which  has  a  mean  length  of  56  mm.  and  a  mean  breadth 
of  36  mm.  The  facial  index  of  the  Kuwaitis,  96.4,  is  extremely  lepto- 
prosopic,  and  the  upper  face  index  of  56  extremely  leptene.  A  nasal  index 
of  64.7,  while  still  leptorrhine,  is  higher  than  that  of  most  Arabs. 

The  exposed  skin  color  of  the  Kuwait  sailors  is  usually  darker  than 
that  of  Yemenis,  reaching  in  half  of  the  series  the  brow/i  shade  represented 
by  Fischer  #21  to  #25.  The  unexposed  skin  color  is  also  dark,  and  ranges, 
in  most  cases,  between-#10  and  #18  in  the  Fischer  chart.  Thus  the  skin 
color  of  these  people  is  characteristically  light  brown.  It  is,  at  the  same 
time,  however,  frequently  vascular. 

16  Field,  Henry,  Arabs  of  Central  Iraq,  pp.  448-456. 

16  This  is  part  of  the  hitherto  unpublished  Arabian  series  measured  by  the  author. 


414  THE   RACES   OF  EUROPE 

The  hair  is  straight  in  half  of  the  series,  and  in  the  rest  low-waved. 
It  is  thus  much  straighter  than  the  hair  of  the  normal  Mediterranean 
Arabs.  The  beard  and  head  hair  are  usually  heavy.  The  head  hair  is 
characteristically  black,  while  the  beard  shows  hues  ranging  from  brown 
to  gold  and  red  in  one-third  of  the  entire  series.  The  high  ratio  of  1 8  per 
cent  of  red  beards  was  found  in  this  small  group. 

The  usual  25  per  cent  of  mixed  eyes  occurs  here,  while  the  rest  are 
mostly  dark  brown.  The  eyebrows  are  in  all  cases  thick,  and  usually 
concurrent;  the  browridges  are  medium  to  heavy.  The  morphology  of 
the  nose  is  different  from  that  of  the  Yemenis,  for  the  nasion  depression 
is  frequently  great,  the  nasal  root  and  bridge  somewhat  broader  than 
among  most  Arabs,  and  the  profile  more  often  straight  than  convex.  The 
tip  is  medium  to  thick,  and  usually  horizontal  or  inclined  upwards.  The 
nasal  wings  are  medium  and  seldom  compressed.  The  nostrils  are  wider 
than  those  of  the  Yemenis,  and  set  at  a  more  oblique  axis.  The  lips  are, 
as  a  rule,  thicker  and  more  everted,  and  the  chin  more  frequently  strongly 
developed.  This  straighter-haired,  darker-skinned,  heavier-nosed,  and 
longer-faced  type  seems  at  variance  with  the  rest  of  Arabia,  and  has  its 
connections  rather  with  Mesopotamia  and  regions  to  the  east. 

We  know  little  about  the  population  of  Oman,  except  that  it  is  of  me- 
dium stature,  with  a  mean  of  164.8  cm.,  and  the  heads  are  of  moderate 
size,  with  a  mesocephalic  index  of  78. 17  The  Omanis,  the  greatest  sailors 
of  all  Arabia,  include  brachycephals  as  well  as  Mediterraneans,  and 
through  their  centuries  of  dominance  in  East  Africa  and  their  monopoly 
of  the  slave  trade,  have  acquired  much  African  blood.  Although  all 
Omanis  are  by  no  means  negroid,  there  is  a  large  negro  and  negroid 
population  in  the  farming  villages  and  date  groves  of  Oman,  as  there  is 
on  the  Yemen  coast. 

On  the  other  side  of  the  Persian  Gulf  colonies  of  seafaring  Arabs  have 
settled  at  various  points.  One  of  the  most  important  colonies  of  this  region 
is  at  Lenja.  A  small  series  of  sailors  from  this  port  was  also  measured  at 
Aden.18  These  Lenja  men  are  shorter  (161  cm.)  than  the  Omanis,  and 
built  like  the  Kuwaitis;  they  are,  for  the  most  part,  sub-brachycephalic, 
with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  81;  in  facial  dimensions  they  are  not 
unlike  Yemenis,  and  they  seem  to  bear  a  strain  of  the  same  brachycephalic 
maritime  element  f^und  along  the  Yemen  coast,  as  well  as  in  Oman. 

They  are  somewhat  lighter-skinned  than  the  Kuwaitis;  they  are  ex- 
clusively straight-haired,  tend  to  baldness  and  very  heavy  beards,  and  to 
have  black  hair  and  reddish-brown  beard  color.  The  eyes  are  dark  brown 
in  75  per  cent  of  the  series,  and  the  other  fourth  includes  some  pure  lights. 

17  Leys,  N.  M.,  and  Joyce,  T.  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  43,  1913,  pp.  195-267. 

M  Part  of  the  author's  unpublished  Arabian  series.  Only  21  Lenja  men  were  measured. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  415 

These  Lenja  people  seem  to  have  more  than  the  usual  fourth  of  partial 
blondism,  especially  in  reference  to  beard  color. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  in  three  ships'  crews  studied,  two  from  Kuwait 
and  one  from  Lenja,  in  each  ship  the  officers,  who  belonged  to  ship- 
owning  families,  were  partial  blonds,  the  crew  was  mostly  brunet,  and 
the  cook  was  a  negro. 

The  Lenja  sailors  have,  almost  without  exception,  extremely  thick 
concurrent  eyebrows  and  heavy  browridges.  Their  noses  are  character- 
ized by  considerable  nasion  depression,  a  much  lower  bridge  than  is 
usual  among  the  Arabs,  and  a  greater  bridge  breadth.  The  nasal  profile 
is  convex  in  43  per  cent  of  the  group,  straight  in  most  of  the  others.  The 
nasal  tip  is  of  moderate  thickness  and  usually  horizontal.  The  wings  are 
frequently  flaring,  the  lips  are  thicker  than  those  of  most  Arabs  in  the  in- 
tegumental  sense,  but  thin  membranously,  and  of  relatively  little  eversion. 
The  general  character  of  the  face  is  the  same  as  that  of  most  Arabs — com- 
pressed malars  and  only  moderate  gonial  angles.  As  is  usual  with  the 
coastal  brachycephalic  type,  the  ears  frequently  show  an  extreme  slant. 
Extreme  occipital  protrusion  is  not  found,  and  occipital  flattening  occurs 
in  one-fourth  of  the  series.  The  body  build  is  broad  and  stocky. 

On  the  whole  the  seafaring  Arabs  who  occupy  both  sides  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  conform  but  slightly  to  the  Mediterranean  Arab  prototype.  Meso- 
potamian  influence  is  apparent  particularly  in  Kuwait,  while  it  seems 
likely  that  the  coastal  maritime  brachycephalic  people,  who  are  found 
in  the  fishing  and  seafaring  villages  of  the  Hadhramaut  and  Yemen,  came 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  region.  Present  information  is  not  yet  sufficiently 
complete  to  permit  a  careful  analysis  of  this  maritime  Persian  Gulf  popu- 
lation, but  it  is  very  urgent  that  Bahrain  Island  and  Oman  in  particular 
should  be  carefully  studied  in  the  future. 

(4)   THE    IRANO-AFGHAN   RACE;    IRAN  AND   AFGHANISTAN 

In  the  previous  section  we  have  seen  that  the  Arabs  proper  belong  al- 
most without  exception  to  the  most  typical  and  most  highly  evolved  form 
of  the  Mediterranean  race.  The  Mesopotamians,  on  the  other  hand, 
represent  a  blend  or  a  transitional  form  between  the  taller  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  and  the  Irano-Afghan  race,  while  the  Arabic-speaking 
peoples  on  either  side  of  the  Persian  Gulf  contain  a  large  contingent  of  a 
short,  round-headed,  laterally  built,  maritime  populatibn  which  has  played 
a  considerable  part  in  the  history  of  Arabian  navigation.  The  Irano- 
Afghan  race,  prominent  since  Sumerian  times  in  Mesopotamia,  is  the  chief 
population  element  in  the  entire  highland  territory  from  the  western 
border  of  Iran  to  northern  India.  In  the  present  section  we  shall  deal 
primarily  with  the  peoples  of  this  mountain  area  who  speak  various  forms 


416 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


of  Iranian  and  allied  Indo-European  languages.  Map  12  shows  the  gen- 
eral distribution  of  these  Iranian-speaking  peoples,  and  of  their  neighbors.19 
The  languages  of  Iranian  type  spoken  in  this  part  of  the  world  may  be 
divided  into  three  sub-groups — (a)  western  Iranian  or  Persian;  (b)  eastern 
Iranian,  which  includes  Pushtu  and  Baluchi;  (c)  Dardic,  an  ill-defined 
group  of  Satem  dialects  closely  related  to  Iranian,  but  probably  not  to 


MAP  12 

THE  DISTRIBUTION  OF  IRANIAN  LANGUAGES 

The  Iranian  languages,  Persian,  Afghan  Pushtu,  Pathan  Pushtu,  Baluchi,  and  Tajik, 
as  well  as  the  closely  related  Dardic,  including  Kafiri,  have  been  left  unstippled.  One 
Iranian  language,  Ossetian,  which  is  spoken  in  the  Caucasus,  is  not  shown  here.  San- 
skrit derivatives  are  indicated  by  large  dots,  and  non- Indo-European  languages  by 
other  stipples.  The  linguistic  boundaries  are  not  exact,  since  the  purpose  of  the  map  is 
instruction  and  clarity  rather  than  technical  accuracy.  The  boundary  between  Persian 
and  Pushtu  is  actually  vague,  since  the  two  languages  overlap  widely. 

be  included  as  a  branch  of  the  general  Iranian  stock.    Its  relationship  is 
parallel  to  Iranian  rather  than  derivative. 

The  present  kingdom  of  Iran,  formerly  called  Persia,  is  for  the  most 
part  occupied  by  Persian-speaking  peoples.  In  the  northwest,  the  Azerbai- 
jani Turkish  speech  of  the  eastern  Caucasus  is  the  commonest  medium, 
while  groups  of  Indo-European-speaking  Armenians  and  Kurds  are  also 
found  in  this  part  of  Iranian  territory.  The  southern  shore  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  is  somewhat  of  a  linguistic  medley,  with  small  groups  of  Turkish 
speakers,  while  the  whole  northeastern  border  country  of  the  Iranian 
kingdom  stretching  east  of  the  Caspian  is  occupied  by  Turkomans,  who 

19 1  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Gordon  T.  Bowles  for  help  in  preparing  both  the  map  and 
this  summary. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN   WORLD  417 

continue  over  into  northern  Afghanistan.  The  valley  of  the  Oxus  River 
in  northwestern  Afghanistan  is  really  Afghan  Turkestan. 

In  the  eastern  part  of  the  Iranian  kingdom,  in  Khorassan,  one  finds 
not  only  Persians,  but  also  Pushtu-speaking  Afghans.  The  whole  south- 
eastern corner  of  Iran  is  occupied  by  Baluchis,  who  reach  nearly  as  far 
west  as  the  seaport  of  Bandar  Abbas,  which  lies  just  east  of  the  Arabic- 
speaking  town  of  Lenja.  This  southeastern  section  occupied  by  Baluchis 
is  called  Persian  Makran.  These  Baluchis  are  part  of  the  western  Baluchi 
group,  which  also  occupies  most  of  Baluchistan.  They  are  separated  from 
the  eastern  Baluchis  by  groups  of  Indian  speakers  and  by  the  non-Indo- 
European-speaking  Brahui. 

In  northern  Afghanistan,  immediately  south  of  the  Turki  area,  lies 
the  inaccessible  mountain  territory  of  the  Kafir,  a  curiously  primitive 
group  of  Dardic  speakers,  who  resisted  the  attempts  of  the  Afghans  to 
convert  them  to  Islam  until  early  in  the  present  century.  These  Kafirs 
arc  divided  into  strictly  segregated  social  classes,  representing  conquerors 
and  aborigines.  The  conquering  groups  speak  various  Dardic  dialects, 
while  it  is  said  that  some  of  the  aboriginal  peoples  belonging  to  socially 
inferior  clans  and  villages  speak  non-Indo-European  languages.  The 
exact  nature  of  these  languages,  however,  has  not  yet  been  determined. 
To  the  east  of  Kafiristan  is  the  Hunza  country,  north  of  Gilgit,  where  a 
number  of  languages  of  apparently  Gaucasic  affinity  are  spoken.  The 
best  known  of  these  is  Burushaski.20  Other  languages  spoken  in  the  Tibetan 
Himalayas  may  be  related  to  this  same  linguistic  family. 

The  Pathan  group  is  divided  into  two  main  sub-divisions.  One  is  that 
of  the  western  Pathans,  or  Afghans  proper,  who  live  in  the  country  which 
extends  from  beyond  the  Iranian  border  to  Jallalabad,  and  includes  the 
territory  of  Kabul  and  the  plains  of  Kandahar.  The  eastern  Pathans 
occupy  the  northeastern  part  of  Baluchistan,  including  the  Suleiman 
Mountain  range,  and  the  southern  two-thirds  of  the  Northwestern  Frontier 
Province  of  India.  These  eastern  Pathans  include  the  Pathans  proper, 
the  Afridis,  the  Mohmands,  and  the  Waziris. 

In  the  Hazara  Jat  of  central  Afghanistan,  southwest  of  Kabul  and  south- 
east of  Herat,  lives  an  isolated  body  of  Turkish-speaking  people  who  are 
historically  and  racially  of  Mongol  origin,  being  a  remnant  of  the  great 
Mongol  expansion  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries.  These  Hazara 
have  tended  to  be  endogamous,  and  have  had  little  influence  on  the 
physical  type  of  the  Iranian-speaking  peoples. 

Outside  of  the  area  which  we  shall  discuss  in  this  chapter,  but  included 
on  Map  12,  are  the  Tajiks,  sedentary  agricultural  peoples  of  Iranian 
speech  who  live  in  the  mountains  of  northwesternmost  Afghanistan 

20  See  p.  175, 


418  THE   RACES   OF   EUROPE 

and  adjoining  parts  of  Russian  Turkestan.  They  are  descended  from  an 
early  sedentary  population  of  the  Turkestan  plains  area,  which  was  driven 
into  the  mountains  by  the  inroads  of  Turkish-speaking  peoples,  who  now 
occupy  most  of  the  Turkestan  plain.  Racially,  the  Tajiks  are  predom- 
inantly Alpine,  and  therefore  will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter. 

Let  us  first  consider  the  racial  characters  of  the  Persians  themselves. 
Very  little  has  been  published  about  the  physical  anthropology  of  this 
people,  but,  with  the  help  of  unpublished  material,  it  is  possible  to  make  a 
number  of  reasonably  accurate  generalizations  about  their  physical  type.21 

In  the  first  place,  they  belong  as  a  group  to  the  Irano-Afghan  branch 
of  the  Mediterranean  race.  Their  stature  varies  regionally  from  about 
164  to  169  cm.,  and  thus  ranges  from  medium  to  moderately  tall.  The 
relative  sitting  height  is  in  most  groups  low,  indicating  that  the  long- 
legged,  short-bodied  condition  of  the  Mediterraneans  seen  in  Arabia 
is  also  prevalent  here.  The  cephalic  index  is  usually  low,  ranging  from 
73  to  76  in  different  groups,  although  one  mountain  tribe,  the  Bakhtiari, 
is  brachycephalic.22  The  actual  head  dimensions  are  slightly  greater  than 
those  among  Yemenis,  but  of  typically  Mediterranean  proportions.  The 
mean  head  lengths  range  about  the  1 90  mm.  mark,  and  the  head  breadths 
about  141  or  142  mm.  The  faces  are  similar  in  breadth  to  those  of  Arabs, 
but  the  bigonial  diameters  are  greater,  ranging  between  105  and  110  mm.; 
the  faces  are,  at  the  same  time,  variable  in  length,  but,  on  the  whole, 
longer  than  those  found  in  most  parts  of  Arabia.  Facial  indices  are 
leptoprosopic,  upper  facial  indices  leptene,  and  the  noses  are  markedly 
leptorrhine,  and  usually  convex  in  profile.  As  photographs  of  these  people 
show,  the  jaw  is  frequently  deeper  and  heavier  than  is  the  case  among  Arabs. 

Although  the  Persians  derive  their  language  from  Nordics  who  entered 
the  Iranian  plateau  from  the  plains  to  the  north,  there  is  little  evidence 
of  Nordic  blood  in  the  population  except  as  it  appears  rarely  among 
individuals.  Pigmentation  is  prevailingly  dark.  The  hair  color  is  usually 
black  or  dark  brown,  with  a  minority  of  reddish-brown  and  brown  tints 
among  certain  isolated  groups  such  as  the  Lurs  in  eastern  Iran.  Eye  color 
is  usually  dark  brown,  but  the  usual  minority  of  mixed  eyes  is  character- 
istic, and  is  especially  marked  among  the  Lurs. 

In  addition  to  the  Bakhtiari,  there  are  small  enclaves  of  brachycephalic 

21 1  am  deeply  indebted  to  Dr.  Henry  Field  for  permission  to  summarize  his  unpub- 
lished series  of  52  Lurs,  46  men  from  Yezd-i-Khast,  and  73  from  Kinareh.  Older  refer- 
ences include 

Chantre,  E.,  BSAP,  vol.  14,  1895,  pp.  26-29. 

Danilov,  N.  P.,  IILE,  vol.  88,  1894,  Cols.  1-147 

Houssay,  M.,  BSAL,  vol.  16,  1887,  pp.  101-148. 

KhanikofT,  N.,  Memoir e  sur  V  Ethnographie  de  la  Perse. 

22  Kappers,  A.  C.  U.,  The  Anthropology  of  the  Near  East. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  419 

peoples  in  Iran,  particularly  in  the  cities,  but  the  population  as  a  whole 
is  long-headed.  Persian  brachycephaly  may  have  been  derived  from  two 
sources,  from  the  Alpines  and  Armenoids  to  the  north,  and  from  the 
Baluchis  to  the  south.  The  Bakhtiari  say  that  their  ancestors  came  from 
the  Lebanon  country  in  Syria. 

The  published  information  upon  the  physical  type  of  the  Afghans  is 
even  scantier  than  that  from  Persia,  but  again  we  may  fortunately  draw 
upon  unpublished  information.23  These  Afghans  and  Pathans  are  in 
most  respects  as  similar  to  the  Persians  as  they  are  to  each  other.  The 
Afghans,  however,  are  shorter  than  the  Pathans,  since  the  former  have  a 
mean  stature  of  163  cm.  and  the  latter  of  170  cm.  The  body  build  of 
both  people  is  slight  to  intermediate.  A  relative  sitting  height  of  52.6 
found  among  Afghanis  is  close  to  that  of  Europeans,  while  most  of  the 
Pathans  fall  a  point  lower.  The  heads  of  these  people  range  in  length 
from  188  to  192  mm.  by  tribes,  and  in  breadth  from  141  to  145  mm.  The 
cephalic  indices  of  the  Afghanis  and  Pathans  vary  between  tribal  means 
of  72  and  75;  except  for  the  Khattak  and  Bangash,  who  live  in  proximity 
to  the  Baluchis,  and  who  have  a  mean  of  77.  The  vault  height  of  all  of 
these  peoples  is  quite  low,  with  means  of  121  to  123  mm.  Faces  are  usually 
long,  reaching  a  maximum  mean  of  129  mm.  among  the  Afridis,  and  are 
at  the  same  time  only  moderately  narrow,  with  bizygomatic  means  of 
135  to  137  mm.  Foreheads  and  jaws  are  of  moderate  dimensions;  104  rnm. 
is  the  usual  mean  for  the  minimum  frontal,  and  103  mm.  for  the  bigonial. 

In  the  total  face  height  and  the  three  facial  breadths,  these  Pathan 
speakers  cannot  be  distinguished  from  Nordics.  The  upper  face  height, 
however,  serves  as  a  means  of  differentiation,  since  it  is  extremely  long; 
and  the  noses,  at  the  same  time,  reach  the  extreme  length  of  61  mm. 
Their  mean  facial  index  of  94  and  upper  facial  index  of  56  place  these 
people  in  an  extremely  long-  and  narrow-faced  category,  while  the  nasal 
index  of  61  confirms  their  extreme  leptorrhiny. 

If  one  compares  these  measurements  with  those  from  the  Yemen  on 
the  one  hand  and  from  the  eastern  provinces  of  Norway  on  the  other, 
one  sees  that  the  Iranian-speakers  are  much  closer  to  the  Nordic  mean 
than  to  that  of  the  normal  Mediterraneans.  The  head  dimensions  of  the 
Afghans  and  Pathans  are  slightly  smaller  than  those  of  Nordics,  and  the 

23  Dr.  Gordon  T.  Bowles,  who  measured  some  6000  adult  males  in  the  country  run- 
ning between  eastern  Afghanistan  and  Burma,  all  of  whom  were  inhabitants  of  the 
Himalayan  foothills  and  valleys,  and  of  the  adjacent  Tibetan  plateau,  has  kindly  given 
me  his  permission  to  draw  upon  his  series  of  40  Afghanis  from  the  Jillalabad  plain,  40 
Afridis,  42  Mohmands,  and  40  Khattak  and  Bangash.  With  the  addition  of  6  Gilzais, 
this  makes  a  total  series  of  1 68  Pushtu  speakers  from  Afghanistan.  Published  data  from 
this  region  may  be  found  in  the  Ethnographic  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta,  1908.  (See  Anony- 
mous, Anthropometric  Data  from  Baluchistan. 


420  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

vault  height  is  lower,24  but  the  facial  dimensions  are  essentially  similar, 
except  that  the  upper  face  and  nose  heights  of  the  Afghans  and  Pathans 
are  greater. 

The  Afghans  and  Pathans,  like  the  Persians,  are  usually  brunet,  and 
at  the  same  time  show  a  persistent  minority  of  blondism,  which  in  this 
case  reflects  Nordic  admixture.  They  are  heavy- bearded,  and  possess 
heavy  body  hair.  Their  facial  features  show  a  maximum  of  bony  relief, 
and,  on  the  whole,  their  facial  skeletons  seem  much  heavier  and  much 
more  strongly  marked  than  those  of  the  more  delicate  Arabian  Mediter- 
raneans. They  possess,  in  common  with  the  Arabian  Mediterranean 
group,  a  sharpness  in  definition  of  feature  which  stands  in  contrast  to  the 
coarser  lineaments  of  the  average  Mesopotamian  countenance. 

In  respect  to  the  Dardic  group,  we  have  a  certain  amount  of  published 
and  unpublished  information  which  will  be  useful  here.25 

The  Kafirs  of  the  Kati  tribe,  who  live  in  the  easternmost  section  of 
Kafiristan,  are  taller  and  larger-headed  than  the  Pathans,  but  still  essen- 
tially dolichocephalic  and  leptorrhine.26  They  seem  also  to  possess  a 
high  ratio  of  blondism.  Like  the  Pathans,  their  commonest  skin  color  is 
a  medium  brunet  white,  von  Luschan  #9,  but  in  hair  and  eye  color  they 
seem  to  be  lighter  than  the  Pushtu-speaking  peoples.  Thirty-four  per  cent 
have  mixed  or  light  eyes,  as  opposed  to  20  per  cent  of  Pushtus.  Their 
hair  color,  according  to  Stein,  is  blond  or  light  brown  in  28  per  cent 
of  the  group.27 

It  would  seem  that  the  upper  class  of  the  Kafirs  contains  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  the  invading,  Indo-European-speaking  Nordic  type  than 
is  found  among  the  Persians  and  Afghans.  This  is  not  surprising,  since 
Kafiristan  is  essentially  a  refuge  area.  The  lower  classes  of  the  Kafiri 
population  seem  to  be  shorter  in  stature,  somewhat  smaller-headed,  and 
may  perhaps  be  broader-nosed.28 

Other  Dardic-speaking  peoples,  studied  by  Ujfalvy,  are  of  moderate 
stature,  with  means  between  163  and  166  cm.,  dolicho-  to  mesocephalic, 
with  mean  cephalic  indices  of  76,  and  moderately  leptorrhine,  with  a 

24  Early  Nordic  crania  from  Turkestan  and  from  Armenia  are  low-vaulted.  See 
pp.  169-170,  201. 

26  Dixon,  R.  B.,  a  series  of  92  Burushaskis  of  Hunza,  seriated  by  the  author  and  pub- 
lished by  B.  S.  Guha,  in  Census  of  India. 

Guha,  B.  S.,  Census  of  India. 

Joyce,  T.  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp.  450-484. 

Ujfalvy,  K.  E.  von,  Aus  dem  westihchen  Himalaja. 

Also  unpublished  materal  of  Dr.  Bowles. 

26  Guha's  data  on  the  Red  Kafirs  presented  in  his  1931  Census  of  India  volume  includes 
no  exact  figures,  aside  from  observation  percentages.    Guha,  op.  cit.,  p.  xviii. 

27  Stein,  Sir  Aurel,  Serindia,  Appendix  C,  vol.  3,  pp.  1387-1388. 

28  Joyce's  series  of  18  Kafirs  has  the  relatively  short  stature  mean  of  167  cm.,  a  cephalic 
index  of  76.9,   His  facial  measurements  appear  unreliable. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  421 

nasal  index  mean  of  64.  The  pigmentation  is  usually  brunet,  with  a 
minority  of  blondism,  the  beards  heavy,  and  the  hair  form  wavy.  On 
the  whole,  judging  from  present  material,  the  Dardic-speakers  seem  to 
be  essentially  the  same  as  the  Afghans  and  Pathans,  with  the  addition  of 
a  strong  Nordic  element  among  some  of  the  Kafirs,  and  a  smaller,  essen- 
tially Mediterranean  factor  among  the  lower  classes  of  the  same  population. 

The  non-Indo-European-speaking  Burushaski  of  Hunza,  measured  by 
Dixon,  may  be  compared  to  the  Bardic-speaking  peoples.  The  mean 
stature  of  92  Burushaski  is  168  cm.,  the  head  length  190  mm.,  its  breadth 
146  mm.,  and  the  cephalic  index  77.  Facially  the  Burushaski  seem  like- 
wise to  resemble  the  Dardic-speakers,29  and  both  are  essentially  Irano- 
Afghan  in  racial  type.  This  type  is  apparently  the  autochthonous  element 
in  the  southern  slopes  of  the  western  Himalayas,  as  well  as  in  the  plateau 
of  Iran  and  Afghanistan.  The  invasion  of  the  Iranian  ancestors,  who 
brought  Indo-European  speech  to  this  plateau  and  mountain  country, 
seems  to  have  had  little  lasting  racial  affect,  except  in  Kafiristan. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  Iranian-speaking  peoples  in  the  western 
Asiatic  highlands,  let  us  return  to  the  northwestern  end  of  this  area,  and 
consider  the  Kurds,  who  are  thought  to  be  the  descendants  of  the  Kar- 
duchoi  encountered  by  Xenophon  and  his  ten  thousand  in  their  march 
from  Persia  to  the  Black  Sea. 

The  present-day  Kurds  are  partial  or  complete  nomads  who  graze 
their  flocks  in  the  three  countries  of  Iraq,  Iran,  and  Turkey,  and  who, 
owing  to  their  warlike  activities,  have  been  periodically  ejected  from  each. 
They  are  tall  men,  with  a  mean  stature  which,  although  variable  by 
tribal  groups,  lies  usually  between  168  and  170  cm.30  The  mean  cephalic 
index  of  Kurdish  tribesmen  measured  in  Kurdistan  and  the  Caucasic 
region  is  consistently  77  or  78;  the  Kurds  have  preserved  their  dolicho- 
ccphaly  intact.  Their  pigmentation  is  for  the  most  part  brunet,  although 
there  is  a  distinct  blond  minority  which,  as  with  the  Riffians,  has  led 
travellers  to  describe  the  Kurds,  as  a  whole,  as  blond;  their  nasal  profiles 
are  usually  convex  or  straight,  and  their  total  metrical  character,  so  far 
as  it  is  known,  indicates  that  they  are  a  mixture  between  the  Irano- 
Afghan  racial  type  described  earlier  in  this  section  and  the  ancestral 
Iranian  Nordics,  with  a  larger  minority  of  the  latter  factor  than  is  usual  in 

29  The  low  facial  and  high  nasal  indices  given  by  Dixon  are  apparently  the  result  of  a 
mistake  in  locating  nasion. 

30  Chantrc,  E.,  Recherchfs  anthropology  ques  dans  I'Asie  Occidental*. 
Ehrich,  R.  W.,  unpublished  series  in  Peabody  Museum. 

Kappcrs,  C.  U.  A.,  and  Parr,  L.  W.,  An  Introduction  to  the  Anthropology  of  the  Near 
East. 

Nassonoff,  N.  W.,  IILE,  vol.  68,  1890,  pp.  400-401,  resumS  in  AFA,  vol.  24,  1896, 
pp.  646-647. 


422  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Iran.  Culturally  and  racially  they  have  conserved  the  ancestral  type  with 
more  fidelity  than  the  majority  of  their  linguistic  brethren.  It  is  particu- 
larly remarkable  that,  living  in  close  proximity  to  pronounced  brachy- 
cephals  in  Anatolia,  Armenia,  and  the  Caucasus,  the  majority  of  them 
have  preserved  their  ancient  dolichocephaly. 

All  groups  of  Kurds,  however,  have  not  fully  escaped  this  brachycepha- 
lization.  The  Bilikani  Kurds,  who  live  among  Armenians  near  Erivan, 
have  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  84;  others,  who  live  in  northeastern  Iraq 
and  who  are  fully  sedentary,  have  been  altered  to  a  lesser  extent  through 
admixture.  A  small  sample  measured  at  Kirkuk  has  a  cephalic  index  mean 
of  82,  and  a  mean  stature  of  170  cm.;  despite  the  change  in  head  form 
the  facial  dimensions  remain  both  long  and  narrow;  the  facial  index  of 
93  is  leptoprosopic,  the  nasal  index  of  60  on  the  lower  border  of  leptor- 
rhiny.  The  Kurdish  facial  features  are  more  persistent  than  the  Kurdish 
head  form. 

(5)   THE  TURKS   AS   MEDITERRANEANS 

In  most  of  the  Eurasiatic  land  mass,  the  brunet  Mediterranean  world 
is  blocked  from  direct  contact  with  mongoloids  by  intervening  populations 
of  other  kinds  of  white  men,  but  there  is  one  exception  to  this  rule.  The 
Turkomans  who  live  east  of  the  Caspian,  south  of  the  Aral,  west  of  the 
greater  oases  of  Russian  Turkestan,  and  north  of  the  Iranian  plateau, 
form  an  extension  of  the  Mediterranean  race  into  central  Asia,  where 
>  their  territory  borders  on  that  of  partially  or  fully  mongoloid  peoples  to 
whom  they  are  linguistically  related.  A  few  of  them  are  likewise  to  be 
found  in  small  colonies  in  the  northern  Caucasus. 

The  purer  tribes  of  Turkomans  are  as  a  rule  those  who  have  not  settled 
down,  but  who  still  maintain  their  pastoral  nomadic  existence.  As  an 
example  of  almost  wholly  unmixed  Turkomans  we  may  consider  the 
Yornuds  who  live  in  the  oasis  of  Khoresm,  in  Russian  Turkestan.31 

Several  of  the  Turkoman  groups  studied  in  Iraq  and  in  Turkmenistan 
are  tall,  with  mean  statures  of  169  and  170  cm.,  but  this  is  not  true  of  all 
of  them.  The  Yomuds,  for  example,  have  a  mean  of  but  166  cm.,  as  do 
their  neighbors  the  Chaudir.  The  Yomuds  are  dolichocephalic,  with  a 
cephalic  index  of  75.2,  and  absolutely  long-headed,  with  a  mean  head 
length  of  194  mm.  Their  auricular  height  is  very  great,  132  mm.,  and 
they  are  markedly  hypsicephalic.  Other  Turkoman  tribes  have  cephalic 
indices  ranging  from  75  to  nearly  80,  but  all  seem  to  have  auricular  heights 
of  129  mm.  or  over. 

31  larcho,  A.  I.,  AZM,  1933,  #1-2,  pp.  70-119. 
See  also,  Kappers,  C.  U.  A.,  and  Parr,  L.  W.,  op.  cit. 

I  shall  also  use  a  series  of  31  Turkomans  measured  at  Kirkuk,  Iraq,  by  Mr.  Robert  W. 
Ehrich,  with  his  kind  permission. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN   WORLD  423 

With  the  great  vault  height  goes  an  extraordinary  height  of  the  face; 
the  mean  for  the  Yomuds  is  130  mm.,  and  the  same  great  facial  length 
is  found  among  all  Turkoman  groups  studied.  A  mean  bizygomatic 
diameter  of  138  mm.,  absolutely  on  the  narrow  side  of  medium,  yields 
the  hyperleptoprosopic  facial  index  of  95.  The  forehead  and  jaw,  with 
mean  breadths  of  105  mm.  and  108  mm.,  respectively,  are  by  no  means 
narrow.  Narrower  jaws,  however,  are  found  among  Turkomans  in  Iraq. 
The  mean  nose  height  of  Yomuds,  59  mm.,  and  the  nose  breadth,  36  mm., 
combine  to  give  the  Turkomans  the  very  leptorrhine  nasal  index  of  61. 
In  some  Turkoman  groups  the  index  is  as  low  as  59,  or  hyperleptorrhine. 

All  of  the  Turkoman  tribes  are  predominantly  brunet  in  head  hair 
color;  the  majority  of  head  hair  is  black,  straight  or  slightly  wavy,  and  of 
fine  texture.  The  beard,  however,  is  sometimes  lighter;  among  Turkomans 
in  northern  Mesopotamia  no  black  beards  were  observed  in  a  small 
series,  and  while  50  per  cent  were  dark  brown,  the  remainder  were  reddish- 
brown,  red,  and  blond.  Part  of  this  beard  blondism  may  have  been 
derived  from  Kurdish  mixture,  but  part  must  be  native  to  the  Turkomans. 

Among  the  Yomuds,  65  per  cent  of  eyes  are  pure  brown,  and  the  com- 
monest color  is  dark  brown;  the  same  is  true  among  Mesopotamian 
Turkomans,  although  mixed  groups  are  darker  eyed.  Among  the  Yomuds 
the  35  per  cent  minority  of  eyes  are  all  mixed,  and  most  of  these  are  dark 
mixed.  Blondism  of  the  iris  is  thoroughly  mixed  and  definitely  submerged. 

Among  Yomuds,  the  beard  development  is  usually  heavy;  eyebrows  are 
of  moderate  thickness.  The  forehead  is  of  medium  slope,  as  a  rule;  the 
browridges  slight  to  medium  in  development.  Most  of  the  Yomuds  have 
an  oval  face  form,  and  a  deeply  excavated  horizontal  facial  profile;  the 
nasal  root  is  almost  always  high  and  thin,  the  profile  straight  in  65  per  cent 
of  cases,  and  convex  in  most  of  the  others.  The  nasal  tip  is  of  moderate 
thickness,  and  usually  horizontal;  it  is  elevated  more  often  than  depressed. 
The  nostrils  are  oval  and  often  parallel,  the  wings  usually  medium  to 
compressed.  The  Turkoman  nose,  with  its  high,  narrow  bridge  and  its 
great  absolute  length,  is  definitely  of  Irano-Afghan  size  and  proportions. 
The  lips  are  usually  thin,  and  little  everted. 

A  trace  of  mongoloid  admixture  appears  through  the  presence  of  a 
slight  inner  eyefold  in  7  per  cent  of  Yomuds;  this  is  never,  however,  pro- 
nounced. In  Mesopotamian  Turkomans  it  never  or  almost  never  appears. 

The  Turkomans,  as  exemplified  by  the  samples  described  above,  with 
their  medium-statured  to  tall  bodies,  slender  build,  thin  extremities,  and 
long,  thin  faces,  with  noses  which  reach  the  white  extreme  in  height  and 
thinness,  form  a  characteristic  racial  sub- type  of  their  own.  They  form 
a  variety  of  the  Irano-Afghan  race,  but  differ  most  succinctly  from  other 
branches  of  it  in  one  feature,  the  possession  of  an  extremely  high  head 


424  THE   RACES   OF   EUROPE 

vault.     In  this  feature  and  in  others  they  resemble  the  Corded  people 
who  first  appeared  during  the  Neolithic. 

The  usual  explanation  given  to  account  for  the  Mediterranean  racial 
character  of  this  Turkish-speaking  people  is  that  their  linguistic  ancestors 
were  mongoloids  who  became  transformed  racially  through  the  absorption 
of  the  old  nomadic  population  of  the  central  Asiatic  plains.  This  explana- 
tion, however,  seems  inadequate;  in  the  first  place,  the  Scytho-Sarmatian 
nomads  were  Nordics,  and  there  is  not  enough  blondisni  in  the  Turkomans 
to  permit  such  a  derivation.  In  the  second  place  the  central  Asiatic 
Nordics  were  broad-faced,  and  the  mixture  of  a  broad-faced  white  with 
a  broader-faced  mongoloid  strain  could  hardly  produce  a  facial  form 
narrower  than  either. 

Furthermore,  they  are  probably  not  Turkicized  brunet  Iranians  from 
the  plateau,  for  their  vault  heights  are  too  great  for  such  a  specific  and 
recent  relationship.  The  most  logical  explanation  is  that  which  has  al- 
ready been  set  forth  in  Chapter  VII,  that  the  Turkomans  are  descended 
from  the  early  white  people  who  went  northward  into  Mongolia  bearing 
Altaic  speech,  agriculture,  and  later,  horse  nomadism;  their  partially 
mongoloid  relatives  include  the  Kirghiz  and  the  Turkish-speaking  peoples 
of  both  Chinese  and  Russian  Turkestan.  That  the  Turkomans  in  their 
purest  form  have  not  wholly  escaped  a  mongoloid  infusion  is  to  be  expected. 

Other  Turkoman  peoples  show  more  mongoloid  features  than  those 
studied,  or  than  those  in  Turkmenistan  proper.  A  mixed  group  of  Tur- 
komans is  to  be  found  in  the  northern  Caucasus,  that  asylum  for  small 
fragments  of  peoples.  This  group  includes  sections  of  the  tribes  of  Chaudir, 
whose  main  home  is  in  Khoresm,  and  of  Suyun-Djadji  and  Igdir.  These 
Turkomans  are  shorter  than  the  Yomuds,  with  a  mean  stature  of  163.5  cm., 
and  rounder  headed,  but  equal  in  face  and  nose  heights.  They  are  darker 
eyed,  less  heavily  bearded,  straighter  in  forehead  profile,  and  frequently 
round  faced;  their  horizontal  facial  profile  is  often  flat,  their  noses  lower 
rooted.  In  mixture  with  a  mongoloid  strain  which  is  perceptible  in  most 
individuals  but  strong  in  few,  they  have  partly  assumed  the  lateral  breadth 
dimensions  of  the  mongoloids,  while  retaining  the  sagittal  length  and 
height  dimensions  of  their  Mediterranean  ancestors,  except  in  head  height 
and  in  stature;  in  soft  part  features,  their  position  is  intermediate. 

Close  relatives  of  the  Turkomans,  and  less  exposed  to  mongoloid  in- 
fluences, are  the  Azerbaijani  Turks,  who  occupy  a  large  territory  in 
northwestern  Iran  on  the  southeastern  shores  of  the  Caspian,  and  whose 
territory  also  includes  a  large  portion  of  Russian  Transcaucasia.  Here  the 
Azerbaijans  have,  besides  a  province  which  is  theirs  almost  uniquely, 
scattered  pastures  and  villages  farther  west  and  north,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Kurds,  Georgians,  and  Armenians, 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  425 

These  Azerbaijanis  may  be  divided  on  a  racial  basis  into  two  groups: 
those  who  are  still  mainly  pastoralists  and  who  are  essentially  similar  to 
the  Turkomans  in  all  physical  features,  and  those  who  live  in  scattered 
communities  in  Armenian,  Georgian,  or  other  territory  and  have  been 
altered  by  local  admixture.32  The  longest-headed  groups  have  cephalic 
index  means  ranging  from  76  to  78,  the  roundest-headed  as  high  as  81. 
The  brachycephalizing  agent  in  the  latter  case  is  not  mongoloid,  as 
with  the  Turkomans  living  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  but 
Alpine,  as  with  Armenians  and  Georgians.  The  head  height  and  face 
height  retain  much  of  their  original  elevation  among  most  of  the  Azer- 
baijanis, and  the  facial  form  is  the  same  as  with  Turkomans.  A  majority 
of  dark  brown  rather  than  black  hair,  however,  is  characteristic  of  the 
more  altered  groups,  as  is  a  ratio  of  over  50  per  cent  of  mixed  and  light 
eyes.  The  mongoloid  traits  which  appear  sporadically  among  the  Tur- 
komans are  here  almost  never  encountered. 

The  Azerbaijanis,  like  the  Turkomans,  are  members  of  the  Irano- 
Afghan  family  of  the  Mediterranean  race.  Their  ancestors  entered  Iran 
from  the  plains  east  of  the  Caspian  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  millen- 
nium, and  took  part  in  the  western  thrust  of  Turkish  peoples  across 
northern  Iran  and  into  Anatolia,  where  other  branches  of  the  same 
ethnic  family,  the  Seljuks  and  Osmanlis,  founded  empires,  the  latter  des- 
tined to  expand  into  southeastern  Europe.  The  racial  history  of  the 
Osrnanli  Turks  in  Anatolia  and  in  Europe  will  be  dealt  with  in  the  fol- 
lowing chapter. 

(6)   THE   VEDDOID   PERIPHERY,   HADHRAMAUT   TO 
BALUCHISTAN 

Although  this  chapter  is  primarily  concerned  with  the  Mediterranean 
race,  it  will  be  necessary,  for  the  sake  of  geographical  continuity,  to  dis- 
cuss certain  non-Mediterranean  racial  elements  in  southwestern  Asia 
before  turning  back  to  the  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  con- 
tinuing the  study  of  the  rest  of  the  Mediterranean  racial  area.  These 
racial  elements  may  be  lumped  under  one  category,  the  Veddoid.  Veddoid- 
looking  people  are  first  noticed,  in  proceeding  from  west  to  east,  in  the 
country  around  Aden,  and  as  a  minority  element  in  the  population  of 
southern  Yemen.  In  the  Hadhramaut  country  they  become  numerically 
important;  while  among  the  Mahra,  Qara,  and  Shahara,  the  non- 

82  Anserov,  N.  I.,  AZM,  1934,  #1-2,  pp.  109-115. 
Djawachischwili,  A.  L.,  AFA,  vol.  48,  1925,  pp.  77-89. 
Chantre,  E.,  Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  V  Asit  Occidental. 

Erckert,  R.  von,  AFA,  vol.  18,  1889,  pp.  263-281,  pp.  297-335;  vol.  19,  1890, 
pp.  55-84,  211-249,  331-356. 

larcho,  A.  I.,  AZM,  1932,  #2,  pp.  49-83. 


426  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

Arabic-speaking  tribesmen  who  live  between  the  Hadhramaut  and  Oman, 
they  constitute  the  principal  racial  factor  in  the  groups  mentioned. 

In  the  Hadhramaut  country  there  are  tribes  and  clans  of  Arabs  who 
entered  the  valley  from  the  west  and  north  in  pre-Islamic  and  post- 
Islamic  times;  there  are  also  holy  families  of  Sayyids,  who  concern  them- 
selves with  the  spiritual  life  of  the  region;  besides  these  Arabs,  however, 
and  besides  the  so-called  Bedawin  who  are  the  subjects  of  this  section, 
other  population  elements  of  relatively  recent  arrival  must  be  mentioned. 
These  consist  of  two  groups,  an  African  and  a  Southeast  Asiatic. 

Negroes  have  been  imported  into  the  Hadhramaut  as  agricultural 
slaves  ever  since  the  beginning  of  the  sea-power  of  Oman  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  probably  were  introduced  in  smaller  numbers  in  even  earlier 
times.  These  negroes  and  descendants  of  negroes,  bonded  and  eman- 
cipated, form  a  large  community  which  is  called  by  the  general  term 
Hojeri.  This  class  remains  at  least  as  distinct  as  the  negro  group  in  the 
United  States;  although  there  is  much  mixture,  the  Arabs  and  Bedawin 
still  remain  almost  wholly  free  from  negroid  traits,  since  the  product  of 
the  mixture  remains,  as  a  rule,  in  the  Hojeri  category. 

These  Hojeris  are  numerous  on  the  Yemen  coastal  plain,  and  a  very 
old  class  of  Hojeris  exists  in  the  southern  Yemen,  probably  since  the  time 
of  the  Abyssinian  domination  in  the  century  just  before  the  arrival  of 
Islam.  They  are  not,  however,  found  in  the  Yemen  plateau  country, 
which  we  have  already  designated  as  the  home  of  the  purest  Mediter- 
ranean racial  type  in  Asia.  In  the  Hejaz  negroes  are  numerous,  and  in 
the  Nejd  every  important  family  has  its  negro  or  negroid  slaves,  while  a 
subservient  class  of  blacksmiths  is  partly  negroid. 

In  the  Hadhramaut  itself,  and  in  the  Mahra  and  Dhofar  regions,  the 
free  tribesmen  of  Veddoid  racial  tendency  distinguish  carefully  between 
themselves  and  negroids,  and  use  as  their  primary  basis  of  judgment, 
when  genealogies  are  not  known,  hair  form  and  facial  features  rather  than 
skin  color.  Besides  the  Hojeris  of  slave  descent  there  are  villages  of  Somalis 
along  the  coasts  of  the  Hadhramaut  country,  and  also  in  the  valley  itself. 
These  Somali  villages  are  suburbs  of  straw  huts,  built  outside  the  walls 
of  the  proper  masonry  towns  of  the  Arabs.  The  Somali  arrival  is  still  so 
recent  a  phenomenon  that  these  people  have  kept  their  own  language  and 
customs,  and  show  no  tendency  toward  assimilation,  either  physical  or 
cultural. 

Whereas  the  African  element  in  the  South  Arabian  population  has  kept 
itself  distinct,  the  opposite  is  true  of  the  immigrants  from  southeastern 
Asia  and  Indonesia.  For  centuries  it  has  been  a  common  practice  for 
members  of  the  Arab  families  of  the  towns  in  the  valley,  for  example, 
Terim,  Saiwun,  and  Shibam,  to  go  as  young  men  to  Singapore,  Batavia, 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  427 

and  Colombo,  and  to  set  up  shop  as  merchants.  This  practice  dates  back 
to  the  time  when  Hadhrarni  missionaries  converted  the  Malay  to  Islam, 
and  probably  even  earlier.  The  cultural  influence  of  the  Hadhramis  on 
the  Malay  States  and  Indonesia  has  been  profound,  and,  to  a  lesser 
extent,  the  reverse  is  true.  From  the  racial  standpoint,  however,  the  few 
thousand  Hadhramis  have  made  little  impress  on  the  millions  of  Malays, 
while  the  merchants  who  have  brought  their  native  wives  home  from 
Singapore  and  Java  have  introduced  an  important  mongoloid  factor  into 
the  valley.  Except  for  the  Sayyid  group,  it  is  the  upper  stratum  of  Ha- 
dhramaut  society  which  has  been  affected  by  this  mongoloid  infusion. 
The  Bedawin  remain  genetically  isolated  from  mongoloid  and  negroid 
alike. 

These  Bedawin  represent  a  variety  of  blendings  between  the  standard 
southern  Arabian  Mediterranean  type,  and  one  or  more  alien  strains 
which  are  neither  mongoloid  nor  negroid.  These  Bedawin  may  be  divided 
without  difficulty  into  three  types  which  are  not  the  product  of  the  sorting 
machine,  but  which  any  observer,  whether  or  not  anthropologically 
trained,  would  notice.  The  first  is  Mediterranean,  and  approaches  the 
Yemenitic  form.  The  second,  which  we  will  call  the  fine  type,  is  hook- 
nosed and  lean  bodied;  the  third,  which  we  will  call  the  coarse  type,  is 
broader  and  lower-nosed,  and  thicker-set  in  bodily  build.  Since  the 
character  of  the  first  is  already  well  known,  we  shall  describe  only  the 
second  and  third.  In  the  population  of  the  country  from  Aden  eastward 
to  Mahra,  the  fine  type  is  the  most  numerous,  forming  more  than  half  of 
the  whole;  the  Mediterranean  is  nearly  twice  as  common  as  the  coarse 
type.  As  one  goes  eastward  into  the  Mahra  and  Qara  country,  among 
non-Arabic  speakers,  and  also,  apparently,  to  Socotra,  the  Mediterranean 
type  falls  into  the  background.  According  to  Bertram  Thomas's  data, 
the  Mahra  and  Qara  belong  mostly  to  the  fine  type,  and  the  subject 
peoples,  including  the  Shahara,  mostly,  to  the  coarse.  All  cultural  data 
point  to  the  priority  of  the  coarse  type  as  a  primitive  local  population. 

In  stature  these  Bedawin  are  shorter  than  the  Mediterraneans,  with 
statures  of  163  cm,  for  the  fine  type,  and  161  cm.  for  the  coarse;  the  arms 
of  both  are  relatively  longer  than  with  the  Mediterraneans,  the  legs 
shorter,  the  sitting  height  greater.  In  all  these  bodily  traits  the  coarse 
type  exceeds  the  fine  in  its  divergence  from  the  Mediterranean  norm. 
The  heads  are  smaller  than  those  of  most  indubitably  white  groups  yet 
studied;  in  length  and  breadth  dimensions  the  two  types  are  much  alike, 
with  length  means  of  180  to  182  mrn.,  and  breadths  of  148  mm.  The 
resultant  cephalic  index  means  are  82  for  the  fine  type,  and  81  for  the 
coarse.33  The  vaults  are  of  moderate  height;  the  faces  narrow.  The  fine 
33  The  extremely  high  cephalic  indices  found  by  Bertram  Thomas  in  his  small  series 


428  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

type  has  the  extraordinarily  small  bigonial  mean  of  98  mm.,  which  gives 
the  face  a  triangular  appearance. 

In  a  number  of  metrical  characters  these  types  deviate  quite  widely 
from  the  Mediterranean  mean;  the  distance  between  the  outer  eye 
corners  (biorbital  diameter)  is  great,  especially  in  the  coarse  type,  while 
in  the  fine  type  the  distance  between  the  inner  corners  (interorbital 
diameter)  is  extremely  narrow.  The  faces  are  absolutely  very  short, 
especially  those  of  coarse  type,  with  a  mean  of  1 1 5  mm. ;  the  noses  of  the 
fine  type  are  very  leptorrhine  (N.  I.  =  60.2);  those  of  the  coarse  type 
nearly  mesorrhine  (N.  I.  =  68.1). 

In  skin  color  the  Hadhramis  are  definitely  darker  than  the  Mediterranean 
Yemenis.  The  exposed  hue  of  the  fine  type — and  with  the  Hadhrami 
costume  most  of  the  skin  is  exposed — is  light  to  medium  brown,  ranging 
mostly  from  von  Luschan  #15  to  #25,  and,  in  a  few  instances,  very  dark 
brown;  among  individuals  of  the  coarse  type  it  is  usually  darker,  with 
nearly  20  per  cent  in  the  chocolate-brown  class,  from  #26  to  #29.  These 
skins  are  definitely  too  dark  for  white  men.  The  unexposed  color  of  the 
fine  type  is  swarthy-white  to  light  brown,  with  the  darkest  individual  at 
von  Luschan  #18,  a  cafe  au  lait  hue.  The  coarse  type  again  is  usually 
darker,  within  the  same  general  range. 

The  hair-form  is  the  most  noticeable  diagnostic  of  these  types,  partly 
because  of  the  fashion  of  wearing  the  head  hair  long,  either  loose  or 
bunched  on  top  of  the  head  in  a  knot.  No  individual  in  the  series  of 
either  type  has  straight  hair;  in  the  former,  40  per  cent  are  curly,  the  rest 
wavy;  in  the  latter,  57  per  cent  are  curly.  No  frizzly  or  negroid  hair 
occurs  in  either  type.  The  curls  are  wide  ringlets  like  those  of  many 
European  children,  and  like  those  cultivated  by  orthodox  Jews  and  by 
ladies'  hairdressers.  Much  of  the  wavy  hair  might  also  be  curly  if  it 
were  not  combed  out.  This  hair  is  of  medium  texture  among  the  first 
type,  often  fine  among  the  second. 

Correlations  and  contingencies  made  upon  the  total  Hadhramaut  group 
show  that  deeply  waved  and  curly  hair  form  a  correlative  unit;  they  are 
correlated  with  fine  hair,  cephalic  indices  running  up  to  83,  higher  nasal 
indices  and  shorter  stature  than  the  other  hair  forms.  By  means  of  these 
correlations,  using  hair  form  as  a  primary  diagnostic,  one  may  isolate  by 
directional  influences  a  short-statured,  short-legged,  fine-haired,  moder- 
ately brachycephalic,  euryporsopic,  mesorrhine  racial  type. 

In  both  the  coarse  and  fine  types,  the  head  hair  is  abundant  and 

of  southern  Arabian  tribesmen  may  be  partly  attributed  to  technical  inconsistency. 
The  head  lengths  seem  to  be  some  10  to  20  mm.  short.  This  may  be  checked  by  his 
mean  of  174.8  mm.  on  6  Somalis.  The  standard  Somali  mean  is  192  mm.,  taken  from 
a  series  of  80  Somalis  measured  by  the  author  in  southern  Arabia.  Thomas,  B.,  Arabia 
Felix,  Appendix  I,  by  Keith,  Sir  A.,  and  Krogman,  W.  M. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  429 

baldness  rare;  in  the  fine  type  the  beard  is  sparse,  in  the  coarse  type 
moderate  to  heavy;  the  body  hair  varies  likewise.  Among  the  members 
of  the  coarse  type  the  head  and  beard  hair  are  both  uniformly  black; 
among  those  of  the  fine  type,  a  few  brown  heads  appear,  and  about  10 
per  cent  of  brown  and  red  beards.  In  the  eye  color  also,  the  same  differ- 
ence appears;  the  coarse  type  has  22  per  cent  of  black  eyes,  and  all  but 
9  per  cent  of  the  rest  are  dark  brown.  The  9  per  cent  represents  a  mixed 
minority  with  gray  or  green  elements  in  the  iris.  Among  the  members 
of  the  fine  type,  partial  eye  blondism  rises  to  15  per  cent,  and  there  is 
much  mixture  between  various  shades  of  brown  and  black.  This  again 
indicates  the  mixed  condition  of  the  fine  type,  and  the  relatively  stable 
condition  of  the  coarse. 

The  eyes  of  both  are  typically  without  folds,  and  show  no  obliquity. 
The  browridges  of  the  fine  type  are  heavier  than  those  of  the  Mediter- 
raneans, while  among  the  members  of  the  coarse  type  35  per  cent  of 
browridges  are  actually  heavy.  The  greatest  difference  between  the  two 
types  comes  in  the  nose.  That  of  the  fine  type  is  extremely  high-rooted 
and  high-bridged,  and  extremely  narrow;  the  nasion  depression  is  slight 
or  absent,  and  the  profile,  in  72  per  cent  of  cases,  convex.  This  convexity 
takes  the  form  of  a  highly  beaked  curve,  unlike  the  angular  convexity 
observed  among  northern  Europeans,  and  among  many  I rano- Afghans. 
The  tip  is  thin  and  horizontal,  the  wings  closely  compressed,  the  nostrils 
thin  and  parallel. 

The  noses  most  frequently  observed  in  the  coarse  type  are  deep-rooted 
under  glabella,  of  moderate  height  and  breadth,  often  wide;  they  are 
straight  in  78  per  cent  of  cases,  with  an  everted  tip  of  medium  thickness. 
The  nostrils  are  moderately  wide,  and  the  wings  intermediate  between 
compressed  and  flaring. 

Among  the  members  of  the  fine  type  the  lips  are  thin  and  little  everted; 
those  of  the  coarse  type  are  thicker  and  quite  frequently  everted  to  a 
considerable  degree.  The  fine  type  has  little  prognathism,  while  a  minority 
of  the  coarse  type  shows  both  facial  and  alveolar  varieties. 

The  fine  type,  with  its  thin  face,  has  little  malar  prominence;  the 
coarse  type  is  distinguished  by  a  positive  forward  projection  and  a  con- 
siderable lateral  extension.  This  is  purely  a  morphological  feature,  how- 
ever, for  the  bizygomatic  is  still  absolutely  narrow. 

It  is  easy  enough  to  account  for  the  southern  Arabian  Bedawi  of  the 
coarse  type.  He  is  obviously  related  to  the  Vedda  of  Ceylon,  and  to  the 
most  important  element  in  the  Dravidian-speaking  population  of  southern 
India.  His  hair  form,  his  facial  features,  his  pigmentation,  and  his  general 
size  and  proportions  confirm  this  relationship.  The  Veddoid  race,  in 
turn,  has  many  eastward  extensions,  among  the  Shorn  Pen  of  Great 


430  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

Nicobar,  the  Toala  of  the  Celebes,  and  as  a  racial  sub-stratum  in  many 
of  the  islands  of  the  chain  running  from  Sumatra  through  Java,  Flores, 
Sumbawa,  and  Timor,  almost  to  New  Guinea. 

The  Veddoids  possess  an  obvious  relationship  with  the  aborigines  of 
Australia,  and  possibly  a  less  patent  one  with  the  Negritos.  The  racial 
history  of  southern  Asia  has  not  yet  been  thoroughly  worked  out,  and  it 
is  too  early  to  postulate  what  these  relationships  may  be.  At  any  rate, 
like  all  major  divisions,  the  Veddoid  group  appears  to  include  both 
dolichocephalic  and  brachycephalic  sub-races.  Among  the  present 
inhabitants  of  southern  Arabia  the  Veddoid  strain  is  found  in  various 
degrees  of  dilution.  Individuals  who  could  pass  for  Vedda  may  easily 
be  found,  however,  and  in  a  few  instances,  individuals  who  are  to  all 
extents  and  purposes  Australoid;  but  these  latter,  as  illustrated  on  Plate 
19,  are  rare. 

The  fine  type,  with  its  paper-thin  hooked  nose,  is  intermediate  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  Veddoid  positions  in  most  metrical  and  morpholog- 
ical characters.  Only  in  its  sagittally  mid-facial  and  nasal  compression, 
and  in  perhaps  a  slightly  greater  tendency  to  brachyccphaly,  is  it  different 
from  either.  At  this  point  we  must  anticipate  the  findings  of  our  analysis 
of  the  Dinaric  and  Armenoid  races  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor,34  and 

restate  the  principle  that  in  a  cross  between  A  and  B,  the  formula  — = — 

does  not  apply  to  all  characters,  and  most  rarely  of  all,  if  ever,  to  the  nose. 
In  the  formation  of  the  Dinaric  and  Armenoid  racial  types,  roughly  a 
third  of  Alpine,  when  combined  with  some  Mediterranean  form  produces 
a  brachycephalic,  beaky-faced  hybrid  of  considerable  stability.36  If  we 
substitute  the  Veddoid  of  brachycephalic  tendency  for  the  Alpine,  we 
obtain,  by  the  same  principle,  the  finely  featured,  beak-nosed  Hadhrami. 
It  is  possible  that  the  short-statured,  low-vaulted,  relatively  broad-nosed 
brachycephalic  seafaring  race  of  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  coastal  towns 
of  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  Red  Sea  is  involved  in  this  mixture,  but  this 
is  unnecessary  and,  on  metrical,  morphological,  cultural,  and  historical 
grounds,  unlikely. 

Directly  across  the  Persian  Gulf  from  the  easternmost  tip  of  Arabia, 
on  the  Persian  mainland,  lies  the  western  boundary  of  the  Persian  Makran, 
the  territory  occupied  by  part  of  the  western  Baluchis.  These  are  separated 
by  an  intrusion  of  Indians,  speaking  Sanskrit  derivatives,  from  the  eastern 

34  See  Chapter  XII,  sections  13  and  18. 

35  This  principle  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Byron  O.  Hughes  in  an  extensive  statistical 
analysis  of  1500  Armenian  males,  carried  on  according  to  genetic  principles.    It  was 
stated  in  his  doctor's  thesis,  "The  Physical  Anthropology  of  Native  Born  Armenians," 
submitted  to  the  Division  of  Anthropology  of  Harvard  University  in  1 938  and  as  yet 
unpublished. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  431 

Baluchis  and  from  the  Brahui,  whose  language  has  been  linked  with 
Dravidian.  Although  the  Baluchis  speak  Indo-European  languages  of 
the  Iranian  family,  like  the  Persians,  Afghans,  and  Pathans,  their  racial 
relationship  lies  partly  elsewhere.36  With  the  Brahui  they  seem  to  be 
the  results  of  a  mixture  between  the  Veddoid  type  isolated  in  the  Ha- 
dhramaut,  and  the  Irano-Afghan  race  to  which  their  linguistic  relatives 
belong.  The  difference  between  the  majority  of  the  Baluchis  and  Brahui 
and  the  fine  type  of  the  Hadhramaut  is  simply  the  difference  between  the 
small  Mediterranean  type  of  southern  Arabia  and  the  Irano-Afghan. 
On  the  whole  the  Baluchis  are  somewhat  taller,  with  stature  means  from 
164  to  168  cm.,  their  heads,  however,  are  of  about  the  same  length, 
from  178  to  182  mm.,  and  the  cephalic  index  hovers  about  the  82 
mark.37  The  facial  measurements  are  much  the  same,  except  for  an 
excessive  nose  length,  which  is  without  doubt  an  Irano-Afghan  contribu- 
tion. 

For  pigment  and  morphology  we  are  reduced  almost  entirely  to  photo- 
graphs and  general  descriptions.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  many  of 
the  Baluchis  are  thin-faced  and  hook-nosed;  that  their  hair  is  abundant 
and  seldom  straight;  and  that  their  skins  are  dark  and  their  hair  and 
eyes  usually  brunet. 

This  survey  has  shown  that  there  still  exists,  along  the  shores  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Indus  to  the  Bab-el  Mandeb,  a 
submerged  population  of  Veddoid  peoples  who  are  in  turn  related  to  the 
whole  early  southern  Asiatic  racial  group,  which  includes,  as  an  extreme 
and  evolutionarily  retarded  branch,  the  Australoids.  This  racial  group, 
in  combination  with  the  pygmies,  has  without  doubt  had  much  to  do 
with  the  formation  of  Papuans  and  Melanesians.  At  present  it  is  impossible 
to  tell  how  old  this  Veddoid  sub-stratum  is  in  southern  Arabia;  whether 
it  is  as  ancient  as  the  Mediterraneans,  or  is  a  fairly  recent  prehistoric 
intrusion  from  the  east.  For  a  further  sjtudy  of  it  one  must  turn  to  India, 
but  since  the  present  book  is  concerned  with  The  Races  of  Europe,  we 
feel  that  we  have  wandered  eastward  far  enough,  and  we  shall  leave  the 
problems  of  Indian  physical  anthropology  in  the  competent  hands  of 
Guha  and  of  Bowles. 

86  Metrical  data  upon  which  the  following  discussion  is  based  come  from  an  unsigned 
publication,  entitled  Anthropometric  Data  from  Baluchistan,  a  part  of  the  Ethnographic 
Survey  of  India  series,  published  in  Calcutta,  1908.  A  few  groups  are  taken  from  Joyce's 
publication  of  Sir  Aurel  Stein's  measurements,  JRAI,  vol.  62,  1912,  pp.  450-484. 

I  am  indebted  to  Dr.  Gordon  Bowles  for  the  collection  and  presentation  of  this 
material. 

87  One  group  of  Baluchi,  the  Sangur,  represented  by  1 6  individuals  in  the  Ethno- 
graphic Survey  of  India  publication,  has  a  mean  C.  I.  of  86.3,  but  this  is  due  to  the  pos- 
session of  a  greater  head  breadth  than  the  others,  rather  than  to  a  reduction  in  head 
length. 


432  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

(7)   PALESTINE,  JEWISH   ORIGINS,   AND  THE   EASTERN  JEWS88 

An  integral  part  of  the  racial  history  of  Mediterranean  peoples  is  that 
of  the  Jews,  who  have  spread  widely  throughout  the  world,  and  whose 
cultural  position  within  the  ranks  of  the  white  race  is  unique.  From  the 
standpoint  of  the  physical  anthropologist,  Jewish  history  may  be  divided 
into  two  segments,  (a)  the  formation  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  (b)  their 
dispersion  and  subsequent  racial  history.  Since  the  Jews  are  basically 
Mediterranean  in  race,  the  first  segment,  and  that  portion  of  the  second 
which  deals  with  the  Mediterranean  world,  merit  consideration  in  the 
present  chapter. 

The  Children  of  Israel,  who  formed  the  basic  stock  of  the  present-day 
Jews,  lived  continuously  and  exclusively  in  Palestine  from  about  1200 
B.C.  until  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians  in  586  B.C.  These 
centuries  of  Jewish  history  may  be  considered  the  period  of  formation, 
and  those  which  follow  the  Babylonian  conquest  the  period  of  dispersal, 
for  the  first  diaspora  was  initiated  by  the  Babylonian  captivity. 

The  ethnic  contents  of  Palestine,  during  the  second  half  of  the  second 
millennium  B.C.,  was  varied.  Aside  from  the  Israelites  it  included  the 
Amorites,  whose  domain  was  centered  farther  to  the  north,  and  who  had 
controlled  much  of  Palestine  before  the  spread  of  Egyptian  power  north- 
eastward at  about  1600  B.C.;  the  Canaanites,  who  inhabited  the  land 
which  bears  their  name  until  their  absorption  into  the  Israelitish  body; 
and  the  Philistines,  who  were  a  branch  of  the  western  sea-peoples  who 
harried  Egypt  'and  the  whole  eastern  end  of  the  Mediterranean  about 
1200  B.C.,  the  time  of  the  Trojan  War,  and  who  may  have  come  from  the 
general  neighborhood  of  the  Aegean. 

Egyptian  monuments  give  us  excellent  pictures  of  Philistines,  Amorites, 
and  Semites  in  general,  under  which  last  grouping  the  Canaanites  must 
have  been  included.  The  Philistines  (Fig.  33)  are  represented  as  straight- 
nosed,  European-looking  Mediterraneans,  with  light  skins;  the  Amorites 
(Fig.  36)  as  yellowish-skinned  and  long-faced,  with  long,  con  vex- profiled 
noses  and,  in  some  representations,  heavy  browridges.  The  drawings  of 
the  Semites  in  general  (Fig.  34),  show  sloping  foreheads  and  exaggeratedly 
Near  Eastern  noses  of  types  easily  recognizable  today.  The  Egyptian 
artists  had  a  genius  for  accurate  racial  representation  which  emphasized 
characteristic  features  and  eliminated  non-essentials.  The  Bible,  a  literary 
document  which  is  poor  in  descriptions  of  persons,  indicates  nevertheless 

38  The  information  on  which  the  introductory  pages  of  this  section  are  based  is  drawn 
partly  from  Oesterley,  W.  O.  E.,  and  Robinson,  T.  H.,  A  History  of  Israel  (vol.  1);  and 
partly  from  data  given  me  by  Dr.  Robert  E.  Pfeiffer  and  by  Professor  Harry  Wolfson. 
I  am  especially  indebted  to  Dr.  Pfeiffer  for  the  earlier  material,  and  to  Professor  Wolf- 
son  for  that  concerning  the  history  of  the  Jews  from  the  time  of  the  Babylonian  captivity 
onward. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD 


433 


REPRESENTATIONS  OF  PALESTINIANS   IN  EGYPTIAN  AND 
BABYLONIAN  ART 


FIG.  33.    PHILISTINES.      (Egyptian.) 


FIG.  34.    "SEMITES."    (EGYPTIAN.) 


FIG.  35.  JEWS.    (BABYLONIAN.)    FIG.  36,   AMORITES.    (EGYPTIAN.) 

Redrawn  from  Gressmann,  H,,  Altorientalische  Bilder  zum  alter  Testament,  Berlin  und 

Leipzig,  1927;  Plates  IV,  V,  VI,  and  LVI,  Figs.  11,  17, 19,  and  125. 


434 


THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 


that  the  Amorites  were  physically  different  in  some  respects  from  other 
Palestinians — they  are  called  "tall  like  cedars"  and  "strong  as  oaks."  39 

The  exact  origin  of  the  Children  of  Israel  who  entered  Palestine,  who 
fought  the  various  independent  kingdoms  which  they  found  there,  and 
later  the  Philistines,  and  who  founded  a  Jewish  kingdom,  is  not  known, 
but  Biblical  accounts  as  well  as  other  sources  indicate  that  they  were 
probably  nomadic  or  transhumant  Semitic-speakers  from  the  desert 
border  of  southern  Mesopotamia,  who  moved  north- 
ward and  westward  along  the  edges  of  cultivation 
and  finally  into  Palestine.  The  tribes  of  Ammon, 
Moab,  and  Edom  were  probably  nomads  from  the 
same  general  source  who  had  established  themselves 
in  the  countries  bordering  Palestine  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Children  of  Israel,  as  were  the  Amorites;  in 
Palestine  itself  others  attempted  to  follow  them  in 
later  times.  The  Israelites  themselves  did  not  arrive 
as  a  single,  united  body,  but  came  at  several  times, 
over  several  routes,  and  under  several  leaderships. 
Once  in  Palestine  they  gradually  absorbed  the  ear- 
lier inhabitants,  both  racially  and  culturally,  so  that 
the  composite  group  became  eventually  Hebraic; 
the  Philistines  of  the  coastal  settlements  resisted  this 
process  the  longest. 

The  racial  composition  of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
David  was  without  doubt  simpler  than  the  complex- 
ity of  their  ethnic  origin  would  indicate.  The  origi- 
nal Children  of  Israel  must  have  been  brunet  Med- 


I  *  Afr i que 
tale,  Egypte; 
p.  31. 


O  r  i  e  n- 
Fig.    15, 


Fio,  37.   ANCIENT 

JEW. 
Redrawn    from    -  1-1  A     A      t  i    x  x 

Ghantre  E  Rkherckes  lterraneans5  hke  most  Arabs  and  Mesopotamians, 
anthropologiques  dans  and  so,  presumably,  were  for  the  most  part  the 
peoples  whom  they  absorbed  in  Palestine.  Skeletal 
material  from  early  Palestine  indicates  the  predomi- 
nance of  a  Cappadocian  Mediterranean  type,  with 
a  minor  incidence  of  Dinaric  brachycephaly.40  Both  Egyptian  (Fig.  37)  and 
Babylonian  (Fig.  35)  sculptural  materials  give  us  pictorial  representations 
of  early  Palestinian  Jews,  and  both  show  familiar  Palestinian  facial  forms 
consistent  with  the  representations  of  Amorites  and  other  Semites.41 

39  Amos.  ii-9. 

40  See  Chapter  V,  pp.  137-138.    In  addition  to  the  Bronze  Age  material,  two  skulls 
from  Megiddo,  dating  from  the  time  of  Solomon,  have  been  measured.    These  have 
cranial  indices  of  79.6  and  81.4  respectively.  See  Kappers,  C.  U.  A.,  The  Anthropology  of 
the  Near  East.    Four  crania  from  the  Jewish  catacombs  on  the  Via  Appia,  Rome,  rep- 
resenting a  much  later  date,  include  one  brachycephal  of  small  size,  and  three  dolicho- 
cephals  with  long  faces.    EPkind,  A.,  RAJ,  vol.  8,  1912,  pp.  1-50. 

41  Reference  to  the  possible  absorption  of  Hittites  by  the  early  Jews  has  been  pur- 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  435 

Although  we  may  be  reasonably  sure  that  the  Jews  of  Palestine  during 
the  time  of  David  were  for  the  most  part  brunet  Mediterraneans  of  several 
types,  at  least  one  of  which  was  characterized  by  a  long  face  and  a  convex 
nasal  profile,  we  have  not  enough  data  to  specify  more  accurate  details. 
Our  task  is  now  to  follow  the  complexities  of  Jewish  history  from  586  B.C. 
onward,  and  to  study  the  racial  characters  of  the  living  Jews.42 

The  capitivity  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon  may  be  considered  the  first 
Jewish  diaspora.  At  this  time  strong  Jewish  colonies  were  founded  in 
Mesopotamia,  and  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration  under  Cyrus  (538  B.C.) 
when  some  of  the  Jews  of  Mesopotamia  returned  to  Palestine,  the  majority 
of  them  remained  in  Iraq.  There  the  Jewish  colony  continued  to  exist, 
and  from  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  A.D.  to  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh,  under  the  successive  rules  of  the  Persians  and  the  Moslem 
Arabs,  it  flourished  as  one  of  the  most  important  cultural  centers  of  the 
Jews.  By  the  time  of  Christ  this  colony  had  reached  the  number  of  a 
million  persons,  and  in  later  centuries  it  grew  even  greater. 

The  history  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon,  like  that  of  the  rest  of  the  population, 
was  interrupted  by  the  arrival  of  the  Mongols,  who  wreaked  irreparable 
damage  upon  the  valley  of  the  two  rivers,  and  reduced  its  population  to 
a  fraction  of  its  former  numbers.  At  this  time  the  Jews  shrank  from  over 
a  million  to  a  few  thousands.  At  present  the  Jewish  population  of  Iraq 

posely  omitted  from  the  text,  since  statements  that  such  an  absorption  took  place  in 
quantity  are  based  not  so  much  upon  historical  records  as  upon  two  assumptions: 
(a)  that  the  brachycephalic,  Armenoid-like  type  of  modern,  European  Jew  derives  his 
brachycephaly  from  a  Near  Eastern  source;  (b)  that  the  Hittites  were  "  Armenoid  "  in 
race.  Both  assumptions  are  erroneous.  For  an  exposition  of  the  Hittite  theory,  see 
Oesterley  and  Robinson,  who  state:  "We  have  little  or  no  record  of  the  next  invaders, 
the  Hittites,  though  they  must  have  settled  in  numbers,  since  they  have  left  their  mark 
on  the  physical  build  of  the  Palestinian  peoples"  (vol.  1,  p.  30).  And  again:  "We  may 
have  no  details  of  the  Hittite  invasion,  but  it  has  left  its  stamp  so  clearly  impressed  on 
the  faces  of  the  people  that  we  hardly  need  further  evidence  of  its  historicity"  (vol.  1, 
p.  40).  Whether  or  not  some  of  the  Hittites  became  Jews,  the  facial  features  depicted  on 
their  monuments  were  common  to  most  of  the  peoples  of  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Asia 
Minor  at  that  period.  Neither  the  Hittites  nor  the  Jews  were  Armenoid. 

42  A  selected  bibliography  on  the  subject  of  Jewish  history,  of  especial  value  to  an- 
thropologists, is : 

Barons,  S.,  A  Social  and  Religious  History  of  the  Jewish  People. 

Dubnow,  S.,  Die  neueste  Geschichte  des  j lidischen  Volkes,  1789-1914.  10  vols.;  History 
of  the  Jews  in  Russia  and  Poland. 

Kastein,  J.,  History  and  Destiny  of  the  Jews. 

Margolis,  M.,  and  Marx,  A.,  History  of  the  Jewish  People. 

Roth,  G.,  A  Short  History  of  the  Jewish  People. 

Ruppin,  A.,  The  Jew  in  the  Modern  World. 

Wischnitzer,  M.,  Die  Juden  in  der  Welt. 

Dubnow's  ten  volume  work  is  the  principal  authority.  The  concise  compilation  of 
Wischnitzer  is  extremely  useful,  and  has  been  largely  employed  here.  I  am  particularly 
grateful  to  Professor  Harry  Wolfson  for  suggesting  this  list  as  well  as  for  his  assistance  in 
preparing  the  accompanying  historical  summary. 


436  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

is  87,000,  a  small  number  in  comparison  to  its  former  strength.  Those 
who  remain  are,  however,  important  as  representatives  of  the  ethnic 
source  from  which  the  Jewish  colonies  of  many  other  Asiatic  countries 
were  drawn.  Among  these  may  be  numbered  the  Persian  Jews,  who 
first  left  Iraq  in  the  time  of  Cyrus,  but  whose  major  emigration  from  the 
same  source  took  place  during  the  twelfth  century  A.D.  The  Jews  of 
Bokhara,  in  Russian  Turkestan,  are  derivatives  of  the  Persian  nucleus. 

The  second  Jewish  diaspora  was  the  stream  of  migration  of  Jews  which 
followed  the  expansion  of  Hellenism;  it  began  with  Alexander  and  his 
successors,  and  continued  under  the  Byzantine  Empire.  Although  Jews 
spread  to  the  entire  Hellenistic  and  Byzantine  worlds,  there  were  two 
main  centers  (aside  from  Egypt,43  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor),  in  which 
these  Hellenistic  Jews  were  concentrated;  (a)  the  Balkans,  and  (b)  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  Both  of  these  Jewish  centers  were  estab- 
lished well  before  the  Christian  era.  On  the  north  shore  of  the  Black  Sea 
the  greatest  Jewish  concentration  point  was  the  Crimea,  where  Jews 
went  with  the  Greeks  after  the  days  of  Alexander.  The  Hellenistic  and 
Byzantine  Jews  of  what  is  now  southern  Russia  sustained  the  invasions 
of  the  Goths  and  of  the  Huns  without  dislodgement;  in  the  seventh 
century  A.D.  they  met  the  invasions  of  the  Tatars.  The  rise  of  the  Khazar 
kingdom,  a  Tatar  state,  was  of  some  importance  in  Jewish  history,  for 
in  740  A.D.  the  reigning  family  and  a  few  of  the  upper  class  of  the  Khazars 
were  converted  to  Judaism. 

The  Khazars  had  two  centers,  one  on  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  the  other  in  the  Crimea.  The  Caspian  cen- 
ter was  abolished  between  966  and  969  A.D.,  but  the  Crimean  center 
lasted  until  1016  A.D.  The  power  which  broke  up  this  kingdom  was 
mainly  that  of  the  newly  established  Slavic  state  of  Kiev.  After  the  de- 
struction of  their  kingdom,  some  of  the  Khazars  who  had  accepted 
Judaism,  together  with  the  racial  Jews  who  lived  among  them  and  had 
taken  over  Jagatai  Turkish  speech  from  them,  scattered  in  various  parts 
of  southern  Russia.  Kiev  and  its  neighborhood  drew  Jews  not  only  from 
the  disintegrated  Khazar  kingdom,  but  also  from  the  Balkans,  though 
there  may  have  been  Byzantine  Jews  in  Kiev  before  1016  A.D.,  since  that 
Slavic  center  had  been  for  some  time  under  strong  Byzantine  influence. 

The  third  and  final  diaspora  of  the  Jews  was  that  which  took  them  to 
the  Roman  world.  This  dispersion  began  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees, 
with  the  first  contact  between  Jews  and  Romans,  but  it  became  particu- 
larly active  from  the  time  of  the  second  destruction  of  the  Temple  in 

43  There  was  an  earlier  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  Lower  Egypt,  established  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  under  Nebuchadnezzar  in  586  B.C.  These  colonists  were 
later  absorbed  by  the  Hellenistic  group. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  437 

70  A.D.  onward.  The  Jews  who  moved  westward  with  the  Romans  were 
drawn  from  all  the  places  of  Jewish  settlement,  from  Palestine  as  well 
as  from  the  Hellenistic  world.  They  followed  the  Romans  into  Italy,  Spain, 
and  France,  and  into  Germany  as  far  as  the  Rhine.  The  French  Jews 
disappeared  in  1394  A.D.,  when,  as  a  result  of  mass  expulsions,  they  were 
scattered  among  Jews  in  neighboring  countries.  The  Italian  Jews  re- 
mained localized  in  Italy,  where  they  have  had  a  continuous  history,  and 
have,  at  various  times,  been  influenced  by  successive  immigrations  of 
other  Jews  from  other  countries.  The  Jews  who  originally  settled  in  Spain 
and  in  the  Rhine  Valley  in  Germany,  spread,  as  a  result  of  expulsions  and 
migrations,  to  other  countries,  and  the  descendants  of  these  two  stocks 
are  distinguished  respectively  by  the  terms  Sephardim  and  Ashkenazim, 
borrowed  from  two  Biblical  words  which,  in  mediaeval  Jewish  literature, 
were  applied  to  Spain  and  Germany. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Jews  from  Spain,  along  with  that  of  the  Moors, 
took  place  in  1492  A.D.  These  Spanish  Jews  spread  at  various  times  to 
Holland,  to  England,  to  Italy,  and  to  North  Africa,  but  the  bulk  of  them 
took  refuge  in  the  newly  expanded  Turkish  Empire.  In  many  places 
where  they  went,  they  became  the  predominant  element  in  the  Jewish 
communities;  in  some  of  the  Balkan  cities  the  Jewish  population  was 
overwhelmingly  if  not  exclusively  Sephardic.  Their  descendants  still 
speak  a  form  of  Spanish  known  as  Ladino,  and  still  preserve  a  costume 
and  other  cultural  traits  which  are  reminiscent  of  their  Iberian  sojourn. 

The  other  branch  of  the  western  Jews,  which  was  destined  to  become 
the  most  numerous  element  in  the  Jewish  world,  was  that  of  the  Ash- 
kenazim, descendants  of  the  original  Jewish  settlers  in  Germany.  While 
the  German  Jews  were  originally  confined  to  the  Rhine  Valley,  after  the 
First  Crusade  in  1096  A.D.  they  moved  eastward  in  large  numbers  until 
they  reached  the  Slavic  countries,  although  small  groups  may  have  pre- 
ceded them  by  at  least  two  centuries  in  Bohemia  and  Poland. 

In  Poland  and  in  southern  Russia  these  German  Jews  met  the  remnants 
of  the  Byzantine  Jews  and  of  those  who  had  been  dominated  by  the 
Khazars,  all  of  whom  were  being  forced  northward  and  westward  by 
political  disturbances.  This  meeting  resulted  in  a  fusion,  in  which  the 
Jews  from  the  west  predominated  both  numerically  and  culturally.  The 
German  Jews,  in  their  migration  to  the  Slavic  countries,  carried  with 
them  their  High  German  speech  which  developed  into  the  Yiddish  lan- 
guage, just  as  the  Spanish  Jews  Carried  their  Spanish  idiom.  Both,  how- 
ever, retained  Hebrew  as  the  language  of  literature,  liturgy,  and  edu- 
cation. 

As  a  result  of  the  historical  events  summarized  in  the  preceding  pages, 
the  Jews  of  the  world  may  be  divided  into  three  principal  groups:  (a)  The 


438  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Ashkenazirn;  the  central  and  eastern  European  Jews,  and  their  offshoots 
in  the  newer  settlements  of  North  and  South  America,  the  Near  East, 
South  Africa,  and  elsewhere,  (b)  The  Sephardim,  who  are  most  numer- 
ous in  the  Balkan  states  and  the  Near  East,  but  who  also  live  in  scattered 
colonies  on  both  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  who  have  emi- 
grated in  some  numbers  to  both  North  and  South  America,  (c)  The 
Oriental  Jews,  who  belong  in  neither  of  the  two  categories  just  named, 
but  owe  their  origins  to  various  original  migrations  from  Palestine,  or 
to  others  from  secondary  Jewish  sources. 

The  Oriental  Jewish  world  includes  colonies  in  North  Africa,  Palestine, 
Mesopotamia,  the  Caucasus,  Persia,  Russian  Turkestan,  and  even  India 
and  China.  Exotic  varieties  of  Jews  include  the  Falasha  of  northern 
Ethiopia,  the  so-called  "Black  Jews,"  who  are  somewhat  negroid  and  who 
speak  Agau,  an  early  Cushitic  language;  and  the  Daggatuns,  the  black 
Jews  of  the  southern  Sahara.  In  North  Africa  there  are  many  colonies 
of  Berber-speaking  Jews  living  in  the  mountains,  who  claim  that  their 
ancestors  left  Palestine  before  the  Babylonian  captivity. 

It  is  possible  that  Jews  entered  North  Africa  with  the  Phoenicians,  and 
it  is  certain  that  Judaism  was  once  strong  among  many  tribes  of  Berbers 
shortly  before  the  arrival  of  the  Moslems.  The  present  Berber-speaking 
Jews  are  sharply  distinguished  from  the  Spanish-speaking  Sephardim  of 
Moroccan  cities.  Arabic-speaking  Jews  found  in  the  mellahs  of  such  cities 
as  Casablanca,  Marrakesh,  Mogador,  and  Sefrou  are  derived  from  more 
than  one  Jewish  source,  but  mostly  from  the  Berber-speaking  element. 

The  Jews  were  numerous  in  central  and  southern  Arabia  in  the  cen- 
turies immediately  preceding  Islam,  although  there  is  some  uncertainty 
as  to  what  time  they  arrived  there  and  by  what  route.  Colonies  of  them 
were  to  be  found  in  the  cities  of  the  Hejaz  and  Yemen.  In  the  latter 
country  large  numbers  of  the  Sabaean  population  were  converted  to 
Judaism,  and  one  of  the  sixth-century  Sabaean  kings,  Yusuf  Dhu  Nuwas, 
was  Jewish  in  religion.  The  Hadhramauti  immigrants  who  colonized  the 
Ethiopian  highlands  and  founded  the  Ethiopian  Empire  were  originally 
Jewish  in  belief,  but  shifted  early  to  Coptic  Christianity.  During  the  life- 
time of  Mohammed  the  Jews  were  expelled  from  the  Hejaz,  and  today 
they  are  found  only  in  the  Yemen. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  no  single  Jewish  community  in  the  world 
which  has  been  genetically  isolated  from  admixture  with  Jews  from  other 
communities  since  the  period  of  its  first  formation.  For  this  reason  we 
cannot  assume  that  any  one  group  of  Oriental  Jews  is  fully  representative 
of  the  Palestinian  Jews  of  the  time  of  Christ.  If,  however,  we  study 
the  Jews  of  the  Mediterranean  world  both  separately  and  as  a  group,  we 
should  be  able  to  find  the  common  racial  denominator  or  denominators 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  439 

which  will  reveal  to  us  the  physical  characteristics  of  their  united  ancient 
Jewish  ancestors.  Let  us  begin  with  present-day  Palestine,  where  al- 
though representatives  of  every  type  of  Jew  have  come  together,  there  is  a 
complete  historical  continuity  of  Jews  from  the  time  of  Christ. 

The  modern  Samaritans,  who  are  generally  supposed  to  represent  the 
indigenous  Palestinian  Jewish  strain  more  faithfully  than  any  other,  are 
tall,  with  a  mean  stature  of  173  cm.,44  and  mesocephalic  (C.  I.  =  78),  with 
heads  similar  in  dimensions  to  both  Yemenis  and  Mesopotamians.  Their 
faces  are  moderately  long  (125  mm.),  and  narrow  (132  mm.),  while  their 
thin  foreheads  are  of  moderate  breadth  (103  mm.).  Their  noses  are  lep- 
torrhine  (N.  I.  =  66),  and  of  moderate  dimensions. 

In  pigmentation  the  Samaritans  show  more  than  the  usual  Mediter- 
ranean 25  per  cent  of  partial  or  incipient  blondism;  out  of  35  males,  17, 
or  two-thirds,  had  black  or  dark  brown  head  hair,  one  was  blond,  and 
the  rest  brown.  Only  7  (22  per  cent)  out  of  35  had  black  or  dark  brown 
beards,  the  rest  were  brown,  blond,  and  red.  In  eye  color,  one- third 
were  light  or  mixed;  the  rest  were  equally  divided  between  dark  brown 
and  brown. 

The  general  body  of  Oriental  Jews,  however,  is  less  tall  and  less  blond 
than  these  comparatively  specialized  and  inbred  Samaritans.  Weissen- 
berg,  in  a  general  series  of  Palestine  Jews,45  finds  no  blondism,  and  the 
short  stature  of  159  cm.,  combined  with  the  mean  cephalic  index  of  79.8, 
extremely  narrow  faces  (128  mm.),  and  a  nasal  index  of  61.  Convex  noses, 
of  a  type  which  he  designates  as  "Semitic,"  are  found  in  78  per  cent  of  his 
series. 

Weissenberg,  following  von  Luschan,  thinks  that  the  so-called  Jewish 
face,  and  in  particular  the  Jewish  nose,  were  acquired  by  the  Jews  through 
mixture  with  Hittites.46  It  is,  however,  unnecessary  to  postulate  the  exact 
source  of  these  well-known  features,  since  they  are  a  part  of  the  heritage 
of  the  entire  Mediterranean  racial  population  of  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Meso- 
potamia, and  points  east.  Some  of  the  Jews  must  have  had  the  high- 
bridged,  convex  nose,  with  a  tendency  to  depression  of  the  tip,  from  before 
the  time  of  their  dispersal,  since  it  was  common  among  Amorites  and 
Canaanites,  and  since  there  is  no  group  of  living  Jews  anywhere  some 
members  of  which  do  not  possess  these  traits. 

The  Yemenite  Jews,  who  form  the  only  large  colony  of  this  people  in 
Arabia,  may  be  divided  into  two  groups  on  the  basis  of  residence  and 
occupation.  The  largest  and  best  known  is  the  community  of  city  Jews, 
living  in  the  Kaa'-el-Yahud  in  Sana*  a,  and  in  other  towns  such  as  Sa'ada, 

u  Huxley,  H.  M.,  The  Jewish  Encyclopedia,  vol.  10,  1916,  pp.  675-676. 
46  Weissenberg,  S.,  AFA,  vol.  41,  1915,  p.  386,   Also,  ZDSJ,  1909. 
48  See  footnote  41 ,  p.  434. 


440  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

Raudha,  Ibb,  and  Taiz.  The  others  are  the  country  Jews,  who  live  in 
small  villages  as  farmers.  The  city  Jews  live  mostly  by  commerce  and  by 
the  exercise  of  manual  trades,  such  as  metal  work,  carpentry,  masonry, 
and  the  manufacture  of  jewelry. 

The  city  Jews  of  Sana' a  47  are  for  the  most  part  short,  slender  people, 
light-skinned  but  purely  brunet  in  hair  and  eye  color.  The  commonest 
shade  of  the  hair  is  black  and  of  the  eyes  dark  brown.  Weissenberg,  how- 
ever, finds  four  different  shades  of  brown  eyes  among  them.  In  stature 
and  in  cranial  and  facial  dimensions,  they  resemble  the  Palestinian  Jews 
greatly,  except  that  the  brachycephalic  element  is  almost  entirely  lacking; 
the  mean  cephalic  index  of  the  Yemenites  is  74.  Their  faces  are  absolutely 
small,  with  a  total  face  height  of  under  120  mm.,  and  a  bizygomatic  of 
130  mm.  In  Weissenberg's  series,  60  per  cent  had  straight  nasal  profiles, 
and  a  few  even  concave. 

To  anyone  familiar  with  these  Jews  in  their  native  habitat,  it  is  clear 
that  there  are  two  easily  distinguished  types  among  them.  The  more 
numerous  is  only  moderately  slender,  often  well  muscled  in  the  extrem- 
ities. The  face  is  short  and  of  moderate  breadth,  the  chin  well  developed, 
the  lips  of  medium  thickness  or  in  some  cases  thick,  the  nose  short  and 
straight,  with  a  tip  of  medium  thickness  and  nasal  wings  usually  medium, 
seldom  compressed  or  flaring.  The  nasion  depression  is  medium,  and  the 
browridges  usually  noticeable  but  not  heavy.  The  eyebrows  are  thick 
and  convergent,  the  eyes  deep  set  and  the  palpebral  opening  is  sometimes 
narrow. 

The  second  and  less  numerous  type  is  lighter  in  weight  and  slenderer, 
with  small  hands  and  feet,  an  extremely  narrow  head,  a  projecting  occiput, 
and  a  sweeping  curve  to  the  forehead  when  seen  in  profile.  The  face  is 
long  and  very  narrow,  the  mandible  slender,  the  lips  thin,  the  nose  ex- 
tremely long  with  compressed  wings,  the  nasion  depression  slight,  the 
nasal  tip  somewhat  depressed,  and  the  nostrils  highly  set  on  the  sides. 
Although  the  nasal  profile  is  convex,  the  bridge  of  the  nose  is  not  un- 
usually high. 

Both  of  these  types  are  purely  or  almost  purely  brunet  in  hair  and  eye 
color;  both  are  brunet- white  in  skin  color.  Owing  to  the  indoor  life  of  the 
city  Jews,  they  seem  lighter-skinned,  on  the  whole,  than  Arabs.  The  first 
type  is  sometimes  heavy- bearded,  the  second  usually  scantily  equipped 
with  facial  hair.  The  first  type,  which  is  the  commonest,  is  found  among 
the  common  run  of  Yemeni  tic  Jews;  the  second  may  be  seen  most  fre- 
quently among  the  wealthier  and  more  prominent  families. 

47  The  author  has  lived  among  these  Jews  and  is  familiar  with  their  physical  type,  but 
failed  to  measure  them.  The  only  published  series  is  that  of  Weissenberg,  S.,  in  ZFE, 
vol.  41,  1909,  pp.  309-327.  The  series  includes  78  males  measured  in  Palestine. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  441 

To  a  foreigner  used  to  seeing  Ashkenazim,  the  aristocratic  type,  which 
would  not  be  out  of  place  among  European  Sephardim,  looks  the  more 
Jewish;  but  to  an  Arab  both  look  equally  so.  The  Jewish  appearance  of 
the  coarse  type  is  concentrated  in  the  eyebrows,  eyes,  and  mouth;  of  the 
fine  type  in  the  nose.  Although  there  is  no  doubt  that  much  local  blood 
was  absorbed  into  the  Jewish  community  by  conversion  in  pre-Islamic 
days,  it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  a  Jew  from  an  Arab  in  Sana' a, 
regardless  of  costume. 

There  is  quality  of  looking  Jewish,  and  its  existence  cannot  be  denied. 
Both  Jews  and  Gentiles  are  aware  of  it,  and  any  observant  European  or 
Arab  who  has  seen  many  Jews  can  distinguish  most  of  them  from  Gentiles 
with  some  accuracy,  whether  in  Europe,  America,  or  the  Near  East.  There 
is,  however,  no  known  physical  criterion  or  set  of  criteria  by  which  this 
quality  may  be  measured.  It  cannot  be  nasal  convexity,  for  Arabs, 
Afghans,  and  many  Europeans  have  high  incidences  of  it,  while  among 
Arabian,  North  African,  and  Sephardic  Jews,  the  majority  of  noses  are 
straight.  It  cannot  be  tip  depression,  for  that  is  also  common  among  other 
peoples.  It  cannot  be  the  external  eye,  for  while  Arabian  Jews  sometimes 
have  deep-set  slitty  eyes,  European  Jews  often  have  prominent,  widely 
open,  large-lidded  ones.  Two  other  characters  may  be  mentioned  as  pos- 
sibilities, but  neither  is  by  any  means  universal  among  Jews.  One  is  a  high 
attachment  of  the  nasal  wings  on  the  cheek,  with  a  great  lateral  visibility  of 
the  septum;  the  other  is  a  characteristic  slant  to  the  ear  in  both  the  frontal 
and  lateral  planes. 

It  seems  most  likely  that,  while  all  of  these  racial  criteria  enter  into  this 
quality,  the  deciding  factor  may  not  be  so  much  physical,  as  social  and 
psychological.48  It  is  possible  that  the  feature  which  confirms  the  tentative 
identification  of  a  person  as  a  Jew,  aside  from  clothing,  speech,  and  other 
external  cultural  phenomena,  is  a  characteristic  facial  expression  centered 
about  the  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth;  this  seems  to  be  a  socially  induced  ele- 
ment of  behavior.  Not  all  Jews,  by  any  means,  have  it;  those  who  lack 
it  may  be  just  as  "Jewish5*  in  the  racial  sense  as  those  that  possess  it;  it 
is  the  absence  of  this  expression,  as  well  as  the  absence  of  other  purely 
cultural  diagnostics,  which  may  be  responsible  for  faulty  identifications 
in  many  such  instances.  The  Jewish  look  may  be  seen  occasionally  upon 
members  of  other  ethnic  groups;  it  is  one  of  the  standard  patterns  of  facial 
expression  which  man  possesses  in  his  repertoire  as  a  primate. 

The  Jews  are  by  no  means  unique  in  the  possession  of  a  national  or 
ethnic  facial  expression.  The  English  Public  School  man  of  standard  type, 

48  This  subject  is  not  directly  concerned  with  the  subject  of  race.  It  is,  however,  intro- 
duced here  because  it  has  often  been  confused  with  race  and  hence  merits  full  exposi- 
tion. 


442  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

trained  in  a  social  tradition  as  definite  in  its  own  way  as  that  of  the  Jew, 
has  a  look  that  can  be  recognized  almost  anywhere,  and  one  which  is  just 
as  easy  prey  to  the  cartoonist  as  is  that  of  the  Jew.  Many  further  examples 
could  be  introduced,  if  necessary;  however,  the  only  point  that  needs  be 
brought  out  here  is  that  the  Jews  form  an  ethnic  group;  that  like  all  ethnic 
groups  they  have  their  own  racial  elements  distributed  in  their  own  pro- 
portions; like  all  or  most  ethnic  groups  they  have  their  "look,"  a  part  of 
their  cultural  heritage  that  both  preserves  and  expresses  their  cultural 
solidarity.  And  since  the  ethnic  solidarity  of  the  Jews  is  remarkable  for 
its  strength  and  constancy,  so  the  Jewish  look  seems  to  be  one  of  the  most 
noticeable  and  most  easily  distinguished  of  characteristic  facial  expres- 
sions found  within  the  racial  family  of  white  people. 

Leaving  their  cultural  attributes  aside,  we  find  nothing  mysterious 
about  the  physical,  racial  origin  of  the  Jews.  Those  with  whom  we  are,  in 
the  present  section,  concerned  are  a  group  of  Mediterranean  Semites, 
who  absorbed,  early  in  their  history,  the  old  population  of  Palestine, 
which  was  also  largely  Mediterranean  in  blood.  The  strains  which  they 
absorbed  contained  much  of  the  old  Cappadocian  element  typical  of 
both  Palestine  and  Asia  Minor.  From  this  heritage,  through  subsequent 
inbreeding  and  through  the  influences  of  social  and  occupational  selec- 
tion— stronger  in  their  case  than  with  any  other  important  white  people — 
they  have  developed  a  special  racial  sub-type  and  a  special  pattern  of 
facial  and  bodily  expression  easy  to  identify  but  difficult  to  define. 

The  Mesopotamian  Jews, 49  to  continue  our  study  of  the  Oriental  divi- 
sion, are  no  different  as  a  group  from  their  coreligionists  in  Arabia,  Egypt, 
Morocco,  and  Palestine;  they  are  of  moderate  stature  (164  cm.),  dolicho- 
to  mesocephalic  (C.  I.  =  78),  leptorrhine  (N.  I.  =  61),  narrow-faced, 
straight-  or  convex-nosed,  and  brunet  in  pigmentation.  The  preservation 
by  them  of  a  Mediterranean  type  in  a  Mediterranean  country  is  to  be 
expected,  but  that  these  Jews  are  for  the  most  part  truly  Jews  and  not 
Judaized  Iraqians  is  apparent  from  their  absolutely  smaller  heads  and 
faces,  in  comparison  to  those  of  the  Moslems,  and  from  the  dimensions 
and  proportions  of  their  noses. 

The  Jews  in  northern  Mesopotamia,  especially  in  Mosul,  where  many 
of  the  Arabic-speaking  Moslems  are  themselves  round-headed,  have 
been  altered  by  a  process  of  brachycephalization.50  The  same  is  true  in 
northern  Persia;  the  mean  cephalic  index  for  Jews  of  Urmia  61  is  82,  and 
this  rise  over  the  lowland  Mesopotamian  Jewish  level  is  accompanied  by 
a  shortening  of  the  head  length,  an  increase  in  its  breadth,  and  an  increase 

•  Weissenberg,  S.,  AFA,  vol.  10,  1910,  pp.  233-239. 

60  Krischner,  H.,  and  Mrs.,  KAWA,  vol.  35,  1932,  pp.  205-227. 

61  Weissenberg,  S.,  ZFE,  vol.  45,  1913,  pp.  108-119. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  443 

in  the  facial  breadth  as  well.  The  stature  rises  to  165  cm.,  while  the  nose 
form  and  the  pigmentation  remain  constant.  It  is  apparent  that  a  Dinaric- 
like  form  has  been  produced  by  Alpine  admixture,  probably  through  some 
already  Dinaricized  medium.  In  southern  Persia,  however,  the  Jews  re- 
tain their  long-headed  form.52 

Turning  to  the  west  again,  we  find  ample  statistical  evidence  to  prove 
that  the  Jews  of  Egypt  and  North  Africa,  as  well  as  the  Spaniols  or  exiled 
Sephardim,  whether  living  in  Salonika  and  other  parts  of  the  former 
Turkish  empire  in  Europe,  or  in  Palestine,  conform  closely  to  the  Oriental 
Jewish  types  already  defined,  and  form  with  them  an  anthropometric 
unit.63  The  North  African  Jews  are  on  the  whole  taller  than  those  of 
Palestine  and  Yemen,  with  a  mean  stature  almost  uniformly  between  164 
and  166  cm.;  their  cephalic  index  is  74,  and  very  few  individuals  are 
brachycephalic.  No  more  than  5  per  cent  show  any  evidence  of  blondism. 
The  same  two  facial  types  noticed  in  the  Yemen  were  found  by  Kossovitch 
and  Benoit  in  Morocco,64  and  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of  bimodality 
in  facial  and  nasal  index  curves.  Regional  variations  of  Jews  in  North 
Africa  are  extremely  slight.  Although  mixture  with  Arabs  and  Berbers 
would  tend  to  preserve  the  original  Jewish  indices,  the  absolute  cranial 
dimensions  of  the  Jews  are  smaller  than  those  of  most  Berbers,  and  agree 
with  the  Palestinian  and  Yemenitic  means. 

The  Sephardic  Jews  of  Salonika  and  of  Turkey  in  Europe  differ  from 
the  North  African  ones  only  in  possessing  the  mesocephalic  cephalic  in- 
dex of  78;  they  are  predominantly  straight-nosed,  and  partly  blond  in 
one-sixth  of  the  group.  Correlations  within  the  Moroccan  and  Turkish 
series  show  that  the  blond  element  is  no  different  anthropometrically  from 
the  brunet,  and  that  it  is  probably  a  minority  tendency  inherent  in  the 
Jews,  rather  than  an  accretion  acquired  in  their  wanderings.  Jews  in 
Egypt  differ  in  no  important  way  from  their  co-religionists  in  North  Africa 
and  Palestine. 

On  the  whole  the  Jews  of  the  entire  Mediterranean  racial  belt,  from 
Persia  to  Morocco,  and  including  those  whose  ancestors  once  lived  in 
Spain,  are  remarkably  constant  in  their  racial  unity.  This  unity  may  be 
partly  due  to  the  fact  that  these  Jews  have  lived  among  peoples  little 

62  Krischner,  op.  cit. 

63  Principal  works  of  North  African  Jews  are : 
Fishberg,  M.,  Boas  Anniversary  Volume^  1906,  pp.  55-63. 
Kossovitch,  N.,  and  Benoit,  M.  F.,  RA,  vol.  42,  1932,  pp.  99-125. 
Weissenberg,  S.,  MAGW,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp.  85-102. 

On  Sephardic  Spaniols: 

Szpidbaum,  H.,  ACAP,  pp.  207-216;  STNW,  vol.  24,  1931,  pp.  146-156. 

Wagenseil,  F.,  ZFMA,  vol.  23,  1923,  pp.  33-150. 

Weissenberg,  S.,  MAGW,  vol.  39,  1909,  pp.  225-239. 

64  The  personal  observation  of  the  author  agrees  with  this  conclusion. 


444  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

different  from  themselves  racially,  but  it  cannot  be  wholly  or  even  largely 
explained  on  that  basis,  since,  as  has  been  shown  above,  these  Jews  differ 
less  from  each  other,  regardless  of  geographical  distance,  than  they  do 
from  the  peoples  nearest  at  hand.  Endogamy  and  an  extraordinary  ethnic 
solidarity  must  be  the  most  important  causes. 

So  far  as  our  present  study  of  living  Jewish  peoples  has  been  carried,  we 
are  justified  in  concluding  that  the  Jews  are  an  ethnic  unit,  although  one 
which  has  little  regard  for  spatial  considerations.  Like  other  ethnic  units, 
the  Jews  have  their  own  standard  racial  character,  in  this  case  a  stable 
combination  of  several  brunet  Mediterranean  sub-races.  How  far  this 
Jewish  racial  entity  is  concerned  with  the  Jews  of  central  Europe  and  of 
central  Asia  is  a  question  which  must  be  deferred  to  the  next  chapter. 

(8)  THE  MEDITERRANEAN  RACE   IN  EAST  AFRICA 

In  the  present  section  we  shall  consider  what  is  today  a  second  southern 
periphery  of  the  white  racial  stock;  peripheral  in  this  case  to  the  world  of 
the  African  Negro.  East  Africa,  with  its  highland  plateaux  of  Eritrea, 
Ethiopia,  and  Kenya,  and  with  its  treeless  grasslands,  forms  an  environ- 
mental zone  suitable  for  the  economies  of  highland  agriculture  and  of 
pastoral  nomadism.  Its  early  connections  lie  with  the  north  and  east, 
with  Egypt  and  Arabia,  rather  than  with  the  equatorial  forests  to  the  west. 

The  highlands  of  Ethiopia,  according  to  studies  conducted  by  economic 
botanists,  seem  to  contain  a  number  of  indigenous  varieties  of  cultivated 
cereals  and  legumes.55  It  is  possible,  but  by  no  means  established,  that 
these  highlands  formed  one  of  the  primary  centers  of  Old  World  agricul- 
ture, in  which  the  Neolithic  economy  originated.  It  is  also  possible  that 
part  of  the  agricultural  impulse  which  initiated  the  high  civilization  of 
ancient  Egypt  was  derived  from  this  source. 

Later  than  the  development  of  highland  agriculture  in  East  Africa  was 
the  introduction  and  diffusion  of  pastoral  nomadism.  The  cattle  complex, 
with  its  elaborate  set  of  social  restrictions  and  of  social  differentiation  on 
the  basis  of  wealth  in  herds,  was  introduced  from  India  by  way  of  southern 
Arabia,  along  with  the  humped  zebu,  at  some  none  too  distant  period, 
probably  as  late  as  the  first  millennium  B.C.  Its  diffusion  passed  south- 
eastward into  the  Lake  Region,  where  it  was  taken  up  by  Bantu  peoples 
and  spread,  in  modern  times,  as  far  south  as  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
where  an  earlier  version  of  the  same  complex  had  already  arrived,  in 
the  hands  of  the  Hottentots. 

In  the  Horn  of  Africa  region,  however,  and  northward  into  Egypt,  the 
humped  cow  is  replaced  by  the  more  thirst-resisting  camel;  camel  nomads 
are  found  in  all  regions  in  which  agriculture  is  impractical.  The  antiquity 
66  Vavilov,  N.,  Studies  on  the  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  445 

of  camel  nomadism  in  East  Africa  is  unknown,  but  it  cannot  be  as  old  as 
in  Arabia,  for  the  camel  is  an  Asiatic  animal.66  Camels  did  not  appear  in 
any  numbers  in  North  Africa  east  of  the  Nile  before  300  A.D.,  but  they 
must  have  been  earlier  than  that  in  East  Africa,  having  been  introduced, 
at  some  unknown  period,  from  Arabia  by  way  of  Suez,  of  the  Bab  el 
Mandeb,  or  simply  across  the  Red  Sea. 

The  living  peoples  with  whom  this  section  is  concerned  live  by  all  three 
economies  mentioned — highland  agriculture,  cattle  nomadism,  and  camel 
nomadism.  They  are  the  whites  and  near- whites  who  live  east  of  the 
equatorial  forests,  of  the  Nilotic  swamps,  and  of  the  deep  escarpment  of 
the  Blue  Nile.  They  are  the  Gallas,  the  Sornalis,  the  Ethiopians,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  Eritrea.  They  speak  languages  of  two  stocks — Hamitic  and 
Semitic.  Of  the  two,  Harnitic  is  the  older,  for  Semitic  speech  was  intro- 
duced by  colonists  from  the  Hadhramaut  only  a  few  centuries  B.C. 

The  Hamitic  linguistic  stock  is  divided  into  three  families  of  languages: 
(1)  Libico-Berber,  (2)  Ancient  Egyptian  and  its  derivative  Coptic, 
(3)  Cushitic.  These  families  seem  to  be  nearly  as  closely  related  to  Semitic 
as  they  are  to  each  other,67  so  that  a  Semito-Hamitic  superstock  has  been 
postulated,  with  Semitic  as  the  fourth  branch.  Ancient  Egyptian, 
according  to  a  recent  analysis,58  may  have  been  merely  a  blend  of  the 
other  three.  The  East  African  Hamites,  however,  all  speak  languages 
of  the  Cushitic  family,  and  the  word  Hamitic,  when  applied  to  East 
Africans,  is  equivalent  to  Cushitic. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  racial  history  of  East  Africa  in  antiquity  is 
limited  to  the  southern  frontier  of  the  present  Hamitic  linguistic  area. 
Excavations  in  Kenya  and  Tanganyika  have  uncovered  remains  of  a 
tall,  extremely  long-headed,  Mediterranean  racial  type,  with  a  tendency 
to  great  elongation  and  narrowness  of  the  face,  in  pre-Neolithic  times. 
In  Mesolithic  times,  if  not  earlier,  some  of  these  Mediterranean  skeletons 
show  evidence  of  negroid  admixture.59  The  country  east  of  Lake  Victoria 
may  be  taken  as  the  southern  boundary  of  the  area  occupied  by  this  race, 
since  to  the  south  all  known  sapiens  skeletal  remains  belong  to  the  ancestors 
of  Bushmen.  The  center  of  this  area,  and  its  northern  boundary,  are 
unknown,  owing  to  the  lack  of  archaeological  work  in  Ethiopia  and  the 
eastern  Sudan.  The  present  distribution  of  a  similar  and  without  doubt 
derivative  racial  type  coincides  with  that  of  Hamitic  languages,  and  for 
that  reason  the  term  "Hamitic  Race,"  has  been  frequently  employed. 

68  Asiatic  in  the  sense  that  it  must  have  been  domesticated  in  Asia,  where  wild  camels 
are  still  found.  It  evolved,  of  course,  in  America. 

67  Meillet,  A.,  and  Cohen,  M.,  Les  Langues  du  Monde;  Langues  Chamito-Semitiques, 
pp.  81-151. 

58  Information  given  me  by  Professor  O.  Menghin. 

m  See  Chapter  II,  pp.  44-46;  Chapter  III,  pp.  57-59. 


446 


THE   RACES   OF   EUROPE 


MAP  13 


LINGUISTIC  MAP  OF  THE  EAST  AFRICAN  HAMITIC  AREA 

The  Cushitic  languages  of  East  Africa  and  of  the  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan  are  shown 
in  parallel  line  representation.  The  Semitic  languages  of  this  region  which  are  derived 
from  Geez  are  designated  by  cross-hatching.  It  should  be  noted  that  Tigrigna  is  the 
language  of  Tigre  Kingdom;  the  Tigre  language,  however,  is  a  related  coastal  speech. 
Sudanese  Negro  languages  are  shown  by  means  of  large  dots,  Arabic  by  means  of 
vertical  crescents.  (Adapted  from  Meillet  and  Cohen,  Les  Langues  du  Monde.) 

The  living  inhabitants  of  the  Abyssinia-Somaliland-Eritrea  area  may 
be  divided  into  the  following  groups: 

(1)  The  Highland  Cushites:  Descendants  of  the  pre-Semitic  agricultural 
population  of  the  northern  Ethiopian  plateau,  speaking  early  Cushitic 
dialects.  The  most  numerous  and  best  known  of  this  scattered  group  are 
the  Agaus,  peasants  and  agricultural  serfs  living  mostly  in  the  kingdom 
of  Gojjam,  in  the  Lake  Tsana  country. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  447 

(2)  The  Sidamos:  The  corresponding  pre-Semitic  agricultural  popula- 
tion of  the  present  Galla  country,  living  in  the  midst  of  Galla  tribal  terri- 
tories, and  in  small  separate  kingdoms  of  their  own,  in  southwestern 
Ethiopia.     The  best  known  Sidamo  state  is  that  of  Kaffa,  whose  name 
has  been  given  to  coffee.    Throughout  the  Galla  country,  the  numerous 
peasant  class  consists  largely  of  linguistically  altered  Sidamos. 

(3)  The  Amharas:  This  is  a  general  name  applied  to  the  Ethiopians 
proper,  members  of  the  four  kingdoms  of  Tigre",  Amhara,  Gojjam,  and 
Shoa.    The  Guraghes,  who  live  south  of  Addis  Ababa,  speak  Amharic,  as 
do  all  the  others  named  except  the  Tigris,  whose  language  is  a  parallel 
derivative  of  Geez.    These  people  are  the  descendants  of  the  Hadhrami 
invaders  of  the  late  pre-Christian  era,  and  were,  until  the  Italian  conquest 
of  1935-37,  the  dominant  people  of  Ethiopia. 

(4)  The  Gallas:  The  inhabitants  of  most  of  southwestern  Ethiopia,  in- 
cluding the  country  as  far  north  and  east  as  Addis  Ababa,  are  Gallas; 
descendants  of  a  warlike  confederation  of  nomadic  tribes  who  invaded 
Ethiopia  from  the  southwest  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The  original  Gallas, 
who  came  in  great  numbers,  were  cattle  people  with  the  traditional  East 
African  dislike  for  agriculture  or  menial  occupations,  and  settled  down  in 
their  present  territory  as  aristocrats.    Galla  society  today  is  divided  into 
four  classes:   the  Oromo,  or  Galla  proper,   the  aristocrats;   the  Tumtu 
or  blacksmiths,  the  subservient  class  of  artisans  who  are  also  farmers;  the 
Faki,  a  low  caste  of  tanners;  and  the  Watta,  outcaste  hunters  who  live 
in  separate  villages.    The  Oromo  have,  for  the  most  part,  submitted  to 
the  pursuit  of  agriculture,  while  continuing  at  the  same  time  their  cattle 
raising. 

(5)  The  Somalis:  The  whole  Horn  of  Africa,  including  the  three  Somali- 
lands  and  the  Ogaden  region  of  Ethiopia,  is  occupied  by  various  tribes 
of  Somalis,  nomadic  Hamites  who  profess  Islam  and  claim  descent  from 
Arabian  missionaries.    Their  origin  is  not  clearly  known,  but  it  is  evident 
that  there  must  have  been  some  Galla  as  well  as  Arabian  mixture,  grafted 
onto  a  local  Hamitic  population. 

(6)  The  Danakil  (also  called  Afar):   In  southwestern  Eritrea  and  ad- 
jacent parts  of  the  desert  of  northeastern  Ethiopia,  as  well  as  in  part  of 
French  Somaliland,  live  the  Danakil,  tribesmen  culturally  related  to  the 
Somalis,  who  also  claim  Arabian  ancestry.     North  of  the  Danakil  in 
Eritrea  live  other  tribes  of  the  same  general  type.    The  Somalis,  Danakil, 
and  their  northern  relatives  form  part  of  a  continuous  belt  of  nomadic 
Hamites  reaching  from  the  Horn  of  Africa  to  Egypt;  the  northern  repre- 
sentatives, however,  from  the  Eritrean  Beja  to  the  Egyptian  Bisharin, 
have  been  subjected  to  strong  admixture  with  Sudanese  negroes. 

(7)  Negroes  in  Hamitic    Territory:    In  Eritrea  the   tribes  of  Baria  and 
Cunama,  in  the  midst  of  Hamitic-Tigre  territory,  probably  represent,  in 


448  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

the  linguistic  sense  at  least,  an  eastward  thrust  of  Sudanese  negroes. 
In  Ethiopia  proper  many  Shankalla,  negroes  brought  as  slaves  from  the 
Blue  Nile  country,  have  propagated  both  as  a  slave  population  and 
through  mixture.  In  Italian  Somaliland,  it  is  said  that  some  of  the  slave 
tribes  subservient  to  the  Somalis  speak  Bantu.  The  speech  of  the  Wattas 
may  also  be  neither  Hamitic  nor  Semitic. 

The  study  of  the  physical  anthropology  of  this  ethnologically  and 
historically  complex  region  may  be  said  to  have  barely  begun;  neverthe- 
less it  has  progressed  far  enough  to  warrant  reasonably  accurate  state- 
ments as  to  the  racial  characters  of  the  more  numerous  and  better  known 
peoples.60  Before  proceeding  further,  it  may  be  well  to  state  that  all  of 
the  peoples  of  this  "Hamitic"  area,  whether  Hamitic  or  Semitic  in  speech, 
represent  a  blend  in  varying  proportions  between  Mediterraneans  of 
several  varieties,  especially  of  the  tall,  Atlanto-Mediterranean  group, 
and  negroes.  Other  elements  include,  of  course,  the  Veddoid  brought  in 
solution  from  southern  Arabia;  there  is  also  a  possibility  of  traces  of 
dilute  pygmy  and  Bushman  blood  in  southwestern  Ethiopia  and  Somali- 
land,  although  neither  of  these  has  been  proved.  Needless  to  say,  the 
Gallas  and  Amharas  have  mixed  with  each  other  greatly  in  the  regions 
in  which  they  have  been  in  contact;  both  the  Amharas  and  Gallas  have 
absorbed  the  earlier  Cushitic  agricultural  peoples  in  great  numbers.  The 
most  important  single  influence  has  been  the  infiltration  of  negroes, 
through  the  slave  trade,  into  the  entire  Ethiopian  plateau  region.  So 
extensive  has  this  infiltration  been  that  it  is  unlikely  that  a  single  genetic 

60  The  principal  works  on  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  living  in  this  region  are : 

Castro,  L.  de,  Nella  Terra  del  Negus,  vol.  2,  pp.  342-477. 

Frasetto,  F.,  AnthPr,  vol.  10,  1932,  pp.  161-187. 

Garson,  J.  G.,  Appendix  to  Bent,  T.  J.,  The  Sacred  City  of  the  Ethiopians,  pp.  286-296. 

Klimek,  S.,  APA,  vols.  60-61,  1930-31,  pp.  358-38L 

Koettlitz,  R.,  JRAI,  vol.  30,  1900,  pp.  50-55. 

Lester,  P.,  Anth,  vol.  38,  1928,  pp.  61-90,  289-315. 

Leys,  N.  M.,  and  Joyce,  T.  A.,  JRAI,  vol.  43,  1913,  p.  195. 

Puccioni,  N.,  APA,  vol.  41,  1911,  pp.  295-326;  vol.  47,  1917,  pp.  13-164;  vol.  49, 
1919,  pp.  41-223;  vol.  53,  1923,  pp.  25-68;  Anthropologia  e  Etnografia  delle  Genti  delta 
Somalia. 

Radlauer,  G.,  AFA,  vol.  41,  1914,  pp.  451-473. 

Verneau,  R,,  Appendix  in  Duchesne-Fournet,  Mission  en  Ethiopie. 

In  addition  to  these,  the  author  has  used,  in  the  following  exposition,  a  MS.  of  his 
own,  awaiting  publication,  and  entitled:  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  the  Physical  Anthro- 
pology of  the  Ethiopians  and  Somalis 3  based  on  a  series  of  100  Ethiopians  and  80  Somalis 
measured  in  1933-34. 

Principal  works  on  the  craniology  of  this  region  are : 

Castro,  L.  de,  APA,  vol.  41,  1911,  pp.  327-339. 

Gipriani,  L.,  APA,  vol.  53,  1926,  pp.  11-24. 

Sergi,  S.,  Crania  Habessinica. 

Verneau,  R.,  Anth,  vol.  10,  1899,  pp.  641-662. 

Works  on  the  Danakil,  Baria,  Cunama,  and  Beja  are  listed  later. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  449 

line  in  the  entire  Horn  of  Africa  is  completely  free  from  negroid  ad- 
mixture; but  individuals  may  be  found  among  the  Amharas,  Gallas,  and 
Somalis  who  show  no  visible  signs  of  negro  blood.  These  individuals 
are  extremely  rare,  On  the  whole  the  negroid  element  in  the  Hamitic 
area  cannot  be  much  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole,  but  it  has 
penetrated  every  ethnic  group  and  every  social  level.  Just  when  this 
penetration  had  become  complete  we  do  not  know,  but  one  suspects 
that  it  had  already  occurred  by  the  sixth  century  A.D.,  when  the  Ethiopians 
ruled  the  Yemen.  The  Gallas,  despite  their  tradition  of  descent  from 
white  men,  were  already  partly  negroid  at  the  time  of  their  arrival  in 
Ethiopia. 

Despite  this  negroid  penetration,  and  despite  a  mixture  between  non- 
negroid  elements,  the  four  ethnic  units  of  Amharas,  Gallas,  Sidamos, 
and  Somalis  are  all  statistically  distinct  from  each  other.61  What  evidence 
we  have  for  the  Agaus  suggests  that  this  people  constitutes  a  fifth  anthropo- 
metric  entity.  As  one  would  expect,  the  more  purely  Hamitic  peoples, 
such  as  the  Agaus,  Gallas,  and  Somalis,  are  taller  than  the  Amharas. 
All  of  these  three  have  stature  means  ranging  from  169  to  174  cm.,  while 
172  cm.  seems  to  be  the  central  mean  for  all  of  them.  The  Semitic  speakers 
range  from  a  mean  of  164-167  cm.62  for  the  Tigre,  the  most  nearly  Arabian 
of  the  four  main  groups,  to  167-169  cm.  for  each  of  the  other  three,  while 
a  series  of  varied  Ethiopians,  mostly  from  Shoa,  and  measured  in  Addis 
Ababa,  rose  to  the  mean  of  169  cm.  This  latter  figure  may  reflect  Galla 
mixture — for  Addis  Ababa  is  in  Galla  territory — or  selection.  The 
Sidamos,  in  contrast  to  the  Agaus,  are  apparently  short  (164  cm.). 

In  bodily  build  and  proportions,  all  groups  are  much  the  same.  The 
predominant  type  is  leptosome,  with  a  relative  sitting  height  index  of  50  to 
51,  a  relative  span  of  103,  and  a  relative  shoulder  breadth  of  21 .  Long  legs 
and  relatively  short  arms,  narrow  shoulders,  and  even  narrower  hips,  are 
the  rule.  Few  Ethiopians  of  any  category  are  thick-set,  and  what  little 
corpulence  is  seen  hangs  ill  on  fine-boned  frames.  The  hands  and  feet 
of  all  but  the  palpably  negroid  are  small  and  extremely  narrow,  the 
lower  legs  and  wrists  usually  spindly  and  ill-muscled.  This  attenuation 
of  the  distal  segments  of  the  limbs  reaches  its  maximum  among  the  Somalis. 
The  Sidamos,  who  are  by  far  the  most  negroid  of  the  Ethiopian  peoples, 
have  the  broadest  shoulders  in  proportion  to  their  height,  and  the  narrow- 
est hips. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  tall  stature  of  the  Gallas,  Somalis,  and 
Agaus  is  an  old  Hamitic  trait,  since  both  the  negroid  Sidamos  anpl  the 
Semites  of  Hadhramauti  origin  are  much  shorter.  The  tallness  of  this 

61  From  statistical  analysis  of  author's  unpublished  material. 

62  From  several  different  series. 


450  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

East  African  Mediterranean  strain  stands  in  contrast  to  the  moderate 
stature  of  the  Mediterranean  Arabs  across  the  Red  Sea,  and  constitutes  a 
characteristic  difference  between  them.  The  bodily  build  of  the  East 
African  Hamites  is  typically  Mediterranean  in  the  ratio  of  arms,  legs, 
and  trunk,  but  the  special  attenuation  of  the  extremities  among  the  Somalis 
is  a  strong  local  feature,63  which  finds  its  closest  parallels  outside  the 
white  racial  group,  in  southern  India  and  in  Australia. 

The  different  groups  studied  in  Ethiopia  share  a  tendency  to  dolicho- 
cephaly  or  mesocephaly,  and  to  a  narrow  face  form.  In  the  measurements 
of  the  head  and  face,  all  are  fundamentally  Mediterranean,  and  the  negroid 
traits  manifested  in  the  soft  parts  do  not  reveal  themselves  in  the  measure- 
ments, except  in  nose  breadth  and  in  the  biorbital  and  interorbital 
diameters.  The  heads  are  larger  than  those  of  the  Yemeni  Mediterraneans; 
Amharas  (in  the  sense  of  Semitic-speaking  Abyssinians)  have  vault  di- 
mensions of  194  mm.  (length)  by  150  mm.  (breadth)  by  127  mm.  (height); 
these  figures  could  apply  as  well  to  Nordics  as  to  Abyssinians.  The  mean 
cephalic  index  of  77  or  lower  64  for  Amharic  speakers  is  in  the  dolicho- 
cephalic to  low  mesocephalic  class;  the  smaller  diameters  and  higher 
index  of  the  present-day  Hadhramaut  population  seem  to  have  yielded 
to  the  greater  size  and  dolichocephaly  of  the  indigenous  Hamitic  farmers, 
as  far  as  the  total  group  is  concerned.  There  is,  however,  some  evidence 
that  while  the  Tigr6  people  are  strongly  dolichocephalic,  brachycephaly 
may  be  common  in  the  kingdoms  of  Gojjam  and  Amhara.65 

The  Gallas  are  on  the  whole  smaller  headed  than  the  Amharas,  but 
also  mesocephalic.  Mesocephaly  is  also  the  prevalent  head  form  of  both 
Agaus  and  Sidamos;  among  the  latter  the  mean  cephalic  index  is  78, 
and  there  is  a  definite  brachycephalic  minority.  So  far  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Abyssinian  plateau,  whatever  their  speech  and  ethnic  origin,  are 
dolichocephalic  or  mesocephalic,  and  comparable  to  Mediterraneans 
elsewhere,  especially,  as  we  shall  later  see,  to  North  African  Berbers,  as 
well  as  to  North  European  Nordics.  Among  the  Sidamos,  however,  the 
vault  is  lower  (124  mm.)  than  among  Amharas  and  Gallas.  The  Somalis, 

63  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  AJKS,  vol.  9,  1934,  pp.  265-273. 

64  Verneau's  mean  is  75. 

66  De  Castro,  in  his  1915  study  of  Ethiopians,  gives  cephalic  index  means  of  73.9  for 
Tigre",  75.4  for  Shoa,  80.7  for  Amhara,  and  83.2  for  Gojjam.  The  Amhara  series  is  rep- 
resented by  50  men,  the  Gojjam  series  by  47.  Garson  finds  a  mean  G.  I.  of  81.4  for  12 
Amhara  men  measured  by  Bent.  Against  these  positive  evidences  of  brachycephaly 
stands  the  fact  that  in  none  of  the  composite  series  of  Amharic-speaking  Ethiopians, 
which  include  Gojjam  and  Amhara  men,  are  brachycephalic  individuals  found  in  suffi- 
cient numbers  to  support  these  figures.  Verneau,  out  of  a  series  of  83,  of  which  29  are 
Gojjamites,  finds  a  mean  C.  I.  of  74.9,  and  a  range  of  67-82.  In  my  own  smaller  series 
the  highest  G.  I.  is  81 ;  C.  I.'s  of  4  Gojjam  men  were  74,  76,  77,  80.  Both  Frasetto  (1932) 
and  Klimek  (1930-31)  fail  to  find  brachycephaly  in  composite  Abyssinian  series.  At 
present  it  is  impossible  to  confirm  or  refute  de  Castro's  figures. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  451 

as  contrasted  with  the  highland  bloc,  are  smaller  headed  and  purely 
dolichocephalic,  with  vault  dimensions  of  192  mm.  (length)  by  143  mm. 
(breadth)  by  123  mm.  (height),  and  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  74.5.  In  this 
they  resemble  closely  the  finer  Mediterranean  type  in  Yemen,  and  some 
of  the  northern  Bedawin. 

Facially  this  division  between  highlanders  and  Somalis  is  accentuated. 
The  highlanders  have  minimum  frontal  means  of  104  mm.  to  106  mm.; 
the  Somalis  of  102  mm.  The  bizygomatics  of  the  first  group  fall  at  134- 
136  mm.,  of  the  Somalis  at  131  mm.  The  bigonials  of  the  highlanders 
have  means  of  101-102  mm.,  of  the  Somalis,  96  mrn.  All  are  narrow 
faced,  but  the  Somalis  approximate  a  world  extreme.  The  forehead  is 
in  all  groups  notably  wider  than  the  jaw,  which  reaches  a  record  in 
narrowness  among  the  Somalis.  In  face  breadths  as  in  vault  dimensions 
the  less  extreme  highland  Ethiopians  might  as  well  be  Nordics  as  negroids. 

The  total  face  heights  of  the  four  groups  under  consideration  range 
from  122  mm.  to  124  mm.;  the  upper  face  heights  from  71  mm.  to  74  mm. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  Sidamos,  who  are  the  most  negroid,  have 
the  broadest  foreheads,  bizygomatics,  and  bigonials,  the  longest  menton- 
nasion  heights,  and  by  far  the  longest  upper  face  heights,  of  the  entire 
group.  It  is  the  Somalis  whose  t^per  face  height  is  shortest.  All  four  are 
leptoprosopic  and  leptene,  the  Somalis  hyperleptoprosopic. 

The  noses  of  Somalis,  Arnharas,  and  Gallas  are  leptorrhine,  with  nasal 
indices  of  66,  68,  and  69,  respectively.  This  regression  indicates  with 
some  accuracy  the  relative  amounts  of  negro  blood.  The  Sidamos,  with 
an  index  of  71,  arc  mesorrhine  and  the  most  negroid.  •  In  accordance 
with  the  principle  that  the  most  negroid  have  the  longest  as  well  as  the 
broadest  faces,  the  Sidamos  have  the  longest  and  broadest  noses,  with  a 
mean  height  of  55  mm.,  and  breadth  of  39  mm.  The  Somalis,  whose 
noses  are  narrowest,  also  have  the  smallest,  52  mm.  by  34  mm. 

In  the  measurements  of  the  external  eye  the  Somalis  differ  again  from 
the  highlanders;  their  mean  interorbital  diameter  of  31  mm.  is  narrow, 
while  that  of  the  highlanders,  34-35  mm.,  approximates  a  negroid  con- 
dition. In  the  biorbital,  the  distance  between  the  outer  eye  corners, 
the  Somalis  are  narrowest,  with  91  mm.;  the  Sidamos  the  broadest  with 
96  mm. 

Our  survey  of  the  metrical  characters  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Hamitic 
racial  area  has  brought  several  facts  to  light;  the  agricultural  population 
of  the  Ethiopian  highlands,  both  indigenous  and  imported  from  Arabia, 
belongs  to  a  tall,  dolichocephalic  to  mesocephalic,  leptoprosopic,  moder- 
ately leptorrhine  race,  which  is  Mediterranean  in  metrical  position  and 
cannot  be  distinguished,  on  the  basis  of  the  more  commonly  taken  measure- 
ments, from  blond  and  brunet  Mediterraneans  of  Europe  and  North 


452  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Africa.  The  Somalis,  on  the  other  hand,  belong  to  an  extreme  racial 
form;  extremely  linear  in  bodily  build,  extremely  narrow-headed  and 
narrow-faced,  with  a  special  narrowness  of  the  jaw.  The  relationship  of 
the  Somalis,  on  metrical  grounds,  is  with  some  of  the  peoples  of  India  as 
much  as  with  the  Mediterraneans  elsewhere.  The  leptosome  tendency,  and 
the  narrowness  of  the  face,  remind  one  of  the  same  tendency  found 
among  the  mixed  Bedawin  group  of  the  Hadhramaut.  It  cannot  be 
attributed  to  negro-white  mixture,  for  that  phenomenon,  as  witnessed 
among  the  Sidamos,  has  produced  a  heaping  of  characters,  resulting 
in  an  enlargement  of  both  sagittal  and  lateral  diameters  of  the  face,  in 
some  cases  in  excess  of  either  the  Hamitic  white  or  the  negroid  parent. 
Upper  face  height  and  nose  height  are  especially  affected.  The  Somali 
face  and  nose  are  not  long,  they  are  merely  narrow.  The  extremely  long 
faces  and  noses  found  among  the  Ba-Hima,  the  noble  class  of  the  Baganda, 
and  supposedly  of  Galla  origin,  have  acquired  a  social  value,  and  far 
exceed  those  of  the  Somali.  In  this  tendency  to  attenuation  of  the  face, 
we  are  reminded  of  Oldoway  man  and  some  of  the  Elmenteita  skeletons. 
This  tendency  is  an  extremely  old  one  in  East  Africa. 

In  the  skin  color  of  the  Arabs,  however  dark  the  exposed  and  tanned 
parts  might  be,  the  unexposed  epidermif  was  always  considerably  lighter. 
A  fundamental  difference  between  Arabs  and  Ethiopians  is  seen  in  this 
feature,  for  the  latter  are  usually  the  same  in  skin  color  all  over.  In  fact, 
the  foreheads  of  Ethiopians  are  in  some  instances  lighter  than  their 
shirt-protected  bodies.  In  the  three  highland  groups  of  Amharas,  Gallas, 
and  Sidamos,  the  Amharas  are  lightest  skinned,  with  the  majority  of 
shades  concentrated  in  the  medium  brown  category,  between  von  Luschan 
#21  and  #25;  individually  the  series  runs  as  light  as  #13,  a  brunet-white, 
which  is  approximately  the  color  of  the  former  Emperor,  Hailie  Selassie. 
At  the  other  extreme  it  reaches  #34,  which  is  almost  jet  black,  nearer  the 
color  of  the  great  Emperor  Menelik  II.  Thus  among  the  Amharas  almost 
the  entire  range  of  human  skin  color  intensity  is  covered,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  rosy  or  pinkish- white,  which  probably  does  not  exist  among 
Ethiopians.  The  Gallas  run  somewhat  darker,  with  their  concentra- 
tion in  the  medium  to  chocolate-brown  class,  between  #22  and  #29; 
their  range  is  somewhat  less  than  that  of  the  Amharas,  and  the  rare 
brunet-white  of  the  former  is  in  some  cases  replaced  by  a  yellow  of  Bush- 
man intensity.  Most  of  the  Sidamos  are  darker  than  #30,  and  are  thus 
really  dark  brown  or  black. 

So  far,  the  progression  in  skin  color  has  followed  that  of  relative  amounts 
of  negro  blood,  with  an  immense  range  covered;  the  inheritance  of  skin 
color  in  the  Ethiopian  highlands  is  not  strictly  Mendelian  in  a  simple 
sense,  nor  is  it  by  any  means  a  case  of  ordinary  blending.  If  there  was 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  453 

ever  a  rosy-white  shade  in  the  non-negroid  element,  it  has  long  since 
disappeared.  Among  the  Somalis,  however,  an  entirely  different  situation 
is  found,  for  the  majority  are  lumped  around  the  von  Luschan  #29. 
Numbers  27  and  30  account  for  most  of  the  others;  hence  there  is  a  single 
and  characteristic  Somali  color,  which  is  a  rich,  glossy,  chocolate-brown, 
which  accounts  for  seven-eights  of  the  entire  Somali  group.  A  very  few 
are  darker,  and  individuals  are  as  light  as  light  brown,  in  a  very  few 
cases  as  light  as  Arabs.  The  contrast  between  highland  Ethiopians  and 
Somalis  in  skin  color  is  so  great  that  one  must  postulate  that  the  original 
non-negroid  narrow-bodied  and  narrow-faced  strain  which  the  living 
Somalis  represent  was  not  white  skinned  in  any  sense  of  the  word,  for 
the  Somalis  are  the  least  negroid  people  in  East  Africa. 

The  Ethiopians  themselves  are  extremely  conscious  of  differences  in 
skin  color,  and  divide  themselves  into  four  groups:  "Yellow,"  " Yellow- 
Red,"  "Red,"  and  "Black."  These  groups  do  not  correspond  very  well 
with  the  von  Luschan  scale,  but  represent  the  product  of  centuries  of 
local  experience,  and  are  perhaps  more  significant  from  the  genetic 
standpoint.  A  jury  of  Amharas  and  Gallas  called  20  per  cent  of  the  former 
"Yellow,"  as  against  8  per  cent  of  the  latter;  only  2  per  cent  of  either 
was  "Black."  In  both,  the  "Red"  class  was  the  most  numerous;  with 
47  per  cent  of  Amharas,  and  70  per  cent  of  Gallas.  Most  of  the  few  Sidamos 
studied  are  evenly  divided  between  "Red"  and  "Black."  This  system 
could  not  be  applied  to  the  Somalis,  whose  characteristic  hue  defied 
classification. 

In  hair  form  the  Ethiopians  also  have  their  -own  system,  which  hardly 
agrees  with  ours.  It  has  three  divisions;  luchai,  meaning  "straight," 
gofari,  meaning  "curly,"  and  another  term  which  signifies  extremely 
negroid,  or  peppercorn.  Actually,  no  single  highland  Ethiopian  with 
straight  hair  was  measured  in  the  author's  series,  although  one  apparently 
straight-haired  Agau  was  seen.  Among  the  Amharas,  80  per  cent  were 
called  "curly,"  and  the  rest  "straight,"  according  to  native  terminology; 
among  the  Gallas  the  same  20  per  cent  of  "straight"  were  found,  while 
among  the  Sidamos  this  rose  to  30  per  cent.  Actually,  the  gofari  class 
included  both  curly  hair  in  a  Hadhramaut  sense,  and  frizzly  hair  of  a 
negroid  character.  Hair  which  the  Ethiopians  themselves  considered 
negroid  was  confined  to  a  few  individuals  who  were  to  all  purposes  pure 
negroes,  and  undoubtedly  slaves. 

According  to  our  own  classification,  40  per  cent  of  the  Amharas  have 
non-negroid,  wavy  or  curly  hair,66  and  the  rest  frizzly;  the  non-negroid 

66  According  to  Fischer's  findings,  our  "curly"  could  be  called  a  negroid-white  mixed 
form. 

Fischer,  E.,  Die  Rehobother  Bastards. 


454  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

class  among  the  Gallas  is  30  per  cent,  among  the  Somalis  86  per  cent. 
Some  of  the  Somalis  actually  have  straight  hair.  Although  our  series  of 
Sidamos  is  too  small  to  be  reliable,  it  indicates  that  these  people  are  not 
as  frequently  negroid  in  hair  form  as  are  the  Amharas. 

The  latter,  however,  show  their  predominantly  non-negroid  character 
in  the  distribution  of  the  pilous  system;  they  have  the  most  frequent 
baldness,  beards  which  are  often  heavy,  and  a  strong  minority  of  heavy 
body  hair;  while  the  Gallas  and  Sidamos  are  less  bearded  and  less  hairy, 
and  the  Somalis,  with  beards  comparable  to  those  of  southern  Arabs,  are 
almost  glabrous  on  the  body.  Black  hair  is,  of  course,  characteristic  of 
all  groups;  a  sporadic  individual  with  dark  brown  or  red-brown  hair  may 
be  found,  however,  among  all  of  them.  The  beard  shows  no  difference 
from  the  head  hair. 

In  eye  color  mixtures  between  several  brunet  strains  are  apparent. 
The  Amharas  have  47  per  cent  of  dark  brown  and  1 1  per  cent  of  light 
brown  irises,  with  39  per  cent  of  mixtures  between  these  two,  with  a  light 
brown  iridical  background  overlaid  by  rays  of  zones  of  dark  brown; 
among  the  Gallas  the  same  proportions  of  the  same  types  are  found. 
Among  the  Sidamos,  black  eyes  begin  to  appear,  and  the  dark  brown 
shade  is  in  the  great  majority,  while  among  the  Somalis  32  per  cent  are 
black  and  56  per  cent  dark  brown.  In  all  groups  an  occasional  case  of 
mixed  blond  eyes  occurs,  with  a  green-brown  or  gray-brown  mixture,  but 
these  form  no  more  than  2  per  cent  of  the  whole.67  They  indicate  the 
persistance  of  the  minority  tendency  to  eye  blondism  endemic  in  the 
Mediterranean  racial  stock,  rather  than  any  northern  admixture. 

The  external  eye  form  varies  between  the  different  groups  in  proportion 
of  negroid  blood;  the  Amharas  and  the  Somalis  have  few  eyefolds,  little 
obliquity,  a  medium  to  slight  opening  height;  among  the  Gallas  and 
Sidamos,  the  pseudo-mongoloid  68  negroid  internal  fold  is  occasionally 
seen,  and  a  strong  minority  has  oblique  and  wide  open  eye  slits.  Similarly, 
the  eyebrows  are  thickest  and  most  concurrent  among  Amharas  and 
Somalis. 

Browridges  are  moderate,  in  a  western  European  sense,  or  heavy,  in 
over  half  of  the  Somali  series;  the  Amharas  are  slight  to  moderate,  the 
Gallas  and  Sidamos  slight  or  absent.  Foreheads  are  usually  high  among 
Amharas,  and  progressively  lower  among  Gallas  and  Sidamos;  the  slope 
is  most  variable  among  the  Amharas,  among  whom  all  forms  are  fre- 
quent; least  variable  among  the  Somalis,  among  whom  it  is  usually  slight. 
On  the  whole  the  more  negroid  have  the  greatest  slopes. 

67  Higher  percentages  have  been  reported  among  Amharic  speakers  in  some  of  the 
northern  kingdoms. 

68  Seligman,  C.  G.,  and  B.  Z.,  Pagan  Tribes  of  the  Nilotic  Sudan,  p.  20. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  455 

Considerable  differences  are  seen  in  nose  form  between  the  different 
peoples;  the  most  European  forms  are  found  among  the  Somalis  and 
Amharas,  while  the  Sidamo  nose  is  for  the  most  part  negroid  in  morphology. 
The  Somali  noses,  although  they  vary  between  an  extremely  leptorrhine 
and  a  negroid  extreme,  assume  a  normal  distribution  when  tabulated  by 
individual  criteria.  The  mean  is  a  moderate  root  height,  narrow  to  medium 
root  breadth,  moderate  bridge  height,  narrow  to  moderate  bridge  breadth, 
a  straight  profile,  a  thin  tip,  which  is  inclined  slightly  upward,  medium 
wings,  with  thin  to  medium,  slightly  oblique  nostrils.  Although  individual 
Somalis  are  beaky  in  nasal  appearance,  the  impression  of  the  group  as  a 
whole,  and  especially  of  the  least  negroid  element,  is  that  of  a  straight 
profile  and  moderate  bridge  height;  in  other  words,  of  a  classic  Mediter- 
ranean nose  form. 

The  noses  of  the  Amharas,  while  very  variable,  are  as  a  rule  higher 
in  root  and  bridge,  and  at  the  same  time  broader,  thicker  tipped,  and 
often  inclined  downward,  with  a  tendency  to  flaring  nasal  wings,  and 
highly  excavated  nostrils.  The  Amharic  nasal  profile  is  again  usually 
straight.  The  Galla  noses  are  like  those  of  the  Amharas,  with  a  slightly 
higher  ratio  of  broad  and  flaring  forms.  Among  the  Sidamos,  thick 
tips,  flaring  wings,  and  low  roots  and  bridges  are  actually  in  the  majority, 
although  convex  profiles  are  more  frequent  than  among  the  less  negroid 
groups.  The  Sidamo  nose  is  morphologically  as  well  as  metrically  a  hybrid 
negro-white  organ,  such  as  is  frequently  seen  among  American  negroes. 

In  all  groups,  including  the  Somalis,  thick  lips  are  more  numerous 
than  thin  ones,  both  integumen tally  and  membranously;  lip  eversion 
is  also  characteristically  great  in  all  of  them,  as  is  a  prominent  lip  seam. 
Really  thin  lips  exceed  10  per  cent  only  among  the  Amharas.  All  of 
the  groups  show  some  degree  of  prognathism;  facial  prognathism  is 
approximately  10  per  cent  in  all  but  the  Sidamos,  among  whom  it  is 
greater;  alveolar  prognathism  is  present  among  all  but  Sidamos,  to  the 
extent  of  25  per  cent;  among  the  Sidamos  almost  half  are  prognathous. 
The  chin  is  as  prominent  as  among  most  white  men  in  over  60  per  cent 
of  all  but  Somalis,  among  whom  it  is  characteristically  receding.  Frontal 
projection  of  the  malars  is  slight  in  all  groups;  lateral  projection  is  often 
pronounced  among  the  Gallas  and  Sidamos,  seldom  so  among  Amharas 
and  Somalis.  Prominence  of  the  gonial  angles  is  most  frequently  marked 
among  Amharas,  never  among  Somalis. 

Negroid  traits  are  seen  sometimes  in  the  ear — among  Sidamos  the 
most  and  Amharas  the  least.  The  negroid  ear  has  a  small,  soldered  lobe, 
and  an  excessive  roll  to  the  helix.  It  rarely  slants,  while  the  ears  of 
Amharas  and  especially  of  Somalis  are  characteristically  set  at  an  angle 
to  the  vertical. 


456  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

Among  all  of  these  peoples  differences  in  racial  as  well  as  constitutional 
type  is  seen,  even  among  the  relatively  homogeneous  Somalis.  Here  the 
bulk  of  the  population  gravitates  between  two  end  types.  The  more 
numerous  of  these  two  is  typified  by  a  long,  thin,  bodily  form  with  ex- 
tremely narrow  hands  and  feet,  with  thin,  gracefully  built  bodies  which, 
among  the  women,  attain  a  degree  of  beauty  seldom  seen  in  Europe, 
with  high,  conical  breasts  in  the  women,  totally  unlike  the  pendulous 
negroid  udders  so  common  among  Gallas  and  Amharas,  and  with  the 
characteristically  narrow  faces  and  noses  typical  of  the  Somali.  The 
other  end  type  is  an  ordinary  prognathous,  thick-nosed,  wide-eyed 
negro.  About  one  Somali  out  of  five  seems  to  have  a  strong  strain  of 
negroid  blood;  in  the  others  it  is  for  the  most  part  dilute.  A  few  individ- 
uals among  the  Somali  69  are  lighter  skinned,  brachycephalic,  curly 
haired,  and  identical  in  almost  all  respects  with  the  typical  Hadhramis 
of  southern  Arabia.  They  undoubtedly  represent  the  strain  of  the  mis- 
sionaries who  converted  the  Somalis  to  Islam,  and  who  founded  the 
present  tribes  and  families.  They  are,  needless  to  say,  rare. 

Among  the  Amharas  there  is  one  very  impressive  type  with  a  relatively 
light  skin  color,  a  high,  wide,  sloping  forehead,  very  frizzly  hair,  a  high- 
bridged  nose  with  a  thick,  depressed  tip,  and  a  long,  rather  bony  face. 
The  total  effect  is  incipiently  Papuan,  and  one  feels  that  a  veddoid- 
negroid  cross  is  indicated,  in  combination  with  various  amounts  of  both 
Arabian  and  Ethiopian  varieties  of  Mediterranean.  The  linkage  in 
this  type  of  frizzly  hair  with  these  exaggerated  facial  characters  seems  to 
show  a  genetic  realignment  of  some  interest.  This  type  is  rare  among 
Hamitic-speaking  Ethiopians,  who  conform  for  the  most  part  to  Medi- 
terranean or  negroid  facial  patterns,  in  various  degrees  of  solution  and 
in  various  combinations. 

Except  for  the  peculiar  behavior  of  the  frizzly  hair  form  among  the 
Amharas,  white  racial  traits,  on  the  whole,  seem  to  be  linked  together. 
Among  the  Somalis,  straight  or  wavy  hair  is  usually  fine,  inclined  to 
baldness  on  the  head,  moderate  to  heavy  on  the  beard  and  present  on 
the  body;  frizzly  or  woolly  hair  is  of  medium  texture  and  scanty  on  beard 
and  body;  curly,  Hadhramaut-style  hair  is  often  coarse,  but  is  inter- 
mediate between  white  and  negroid  hair  in  quantity  and  distribution. 
Among  both  highland  Hamites  and  Somalis,  the  lighter  skins  usually  go 
with  narrower  noses,  and  straighter  hair;  dark  brown  eyes  are  strongly 
associated  with  narrow  noses,  black  eyes  with  broad  ones. 

On  the  basis  of  these  correlations,  it  is  evident  that  the  partly  negroid 
appearance  of  Ethiopians  and  of  Somalis  is  due  to  a  mixture  between 
whites  and  negroes,  and  that  the  Ethiopian  cannot  be  considered  the 

M  I  measured  but  one,  Puccioni  gives  photographs  of  several. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  457 

representative  of  an  undiflferentiated  stage  in  the  development  of  both 
whites  and  blacks,  as  some  anthropologists  would  have  us  believe.  On 
the  whole,  the  white  strain  is  much  more  numerous  and  much  more 
important  metrically,  while  in  pigmentation  and  in  hair  form  the  negroid 
influence  has  made  itself  clearly  seen.  This  study  of  Ethiopians  and 
Somalis  has  served  to  bring  out  the  principle  that  metrical  similarities 
of  a  racial  order  have  little  reference  to  the  soft  parts,  since  Somalis, 
Gallas,  Arabs,  Berbers,  Norwegians,  and  Englishmen  may  all  be  closely 
related  in  measurements,  and  at  the  same  time  fall  at  world  extremes 
in  pigmentation  and  in  hair  form.  Within  the  Mediterranean  racial 
family  there  is  every  variation  in  these  external  features  between  a  Nordic 
and  a  Somali. 

The  northern  relatives  of  the  Somalis,  the  Afar  or  Danakil,  seem  to 
resemble  them  closely  both  metrically  and  morphologically. 70  If  one 
may  hazard  a  guess  from  inadequate  material,  they  are  even  less  fre- 
quently negroid  than  are  the  Somali.  The  Baria  and  Cunama,  the  Su- 
danic-speaking  tribes  of  Eritrea,  are  of  moderate  stature,  and  are  small 
headed;  they  are  a  negroid-Hamitic  mixture  in  which  the  old  Sudanese 
negroid  element  is  strong.  71 

Of  great  importance  from  the  standpoint  of  the  history  of  Hamitic- 
speaking  peoples  in  North  Africa  are  the  various  tribal  divisions  of  the 
great  Beja  people,  who  live  to  the  east  of  the  Nile  from  Eritrea  north 
into  Upper  Egypt.  Some  of  them  now  speak  Tigre,  others  Arabic,  but 
their  original  speech  is  Gushitic,  and  their  racial  relationship  seems  to 
be  with  the  Somalis  and  Danakils  for  the  most  part.  Some  of  them,  such 
as  the  Haddendoa,  have  been  largely  mixed  with  Sudanese  negroes; 
the  less  mixed,  such  as  the  Beni  Airier  in  northern  Eritrea,  and  the  Bish- 
arin  in  the  Egyptian  desert,  represent  a  fairly  uniform  type  which  Selig- 
man  compares  to  the  predynastic  Egyptians.72 

This  type  is,  in  its  least  negroid  form,  of  moderate  stature,  with  tribal 
means  ranging  from  164  to  169  cm.,  and  comparable  in  head  dimensions 
and  in  facial  and  nasal  breadths  with  the  Somalis,  although  some  tribes 
are  smaller  headed.  The  characteristic  narrow  jaw  of  the  Somalis  is 
also  typical  here.  The  skin  color  is  usually  somewhere  between  a  bronze- 

70  Bouchereau,  A.,  Anth,  vol.  8,  1897,  pp.  149-164. 
Santelli,  BSA,  Paris,  ser.  4,  vol.  4,  1893,  pp.  479-501. 

71  Pollera,  A.,  /  Baria  e  I  Cunama.  Pollera's  data  make  both  Baria  and  Cunama  leptor- 
rhine,  a  supposition  which  his  photographs  belie.  His  nasal  breadth  technique,  and  his 
bizygomatic,  are  both  obviously  erroneous. 

72  Seligman,  G.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  43,  1913,  pp.  593-705. 
See  also: 

Chantre,  E.,  BSAL,  vol.  18,  1899,  pp.  138-141.    Also,  r6sum6  in  Anth,  vol.  13, 
1902,  pp.  122-123. 
Murray,  G.  W.,  JRAI,  vol.  57,  1927,  pp.  39-53. 


458  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

like  reddish-brown  and  a  light-chocolate,  probably  in  the  lighter  part 
of  the  rather  narrow  Somali  range;  the  hair,  when  not  frizzly,  is  some- 
times straight  but  is  usually  curly  or  wavy;  and  the  nasal  profile  is, 
like  that  of  the  Somalis,  usually  straight.  The  physical  type  of  the  present- 
day  northern  Beja  of  the  Egyptian  desert  does  not  exactly  fulfill  the 
specifications  of  the  peoples  who,  as  we  shall  see  shortly,  must  have 
brought  Hamitic  speech  and  Hamitic  culture  into  North  Africa  in  antiq- 
uity, but  it  approximates  the  general  racial  position  of  these  Hamitic 
culture  bearers.  The  presence  of  the  Beja  and  their  apparent  antiquity 
indicate  that  the  desert  country  east  of  the  Nile  and  west  of  the  Red  Sea 
has  long  been  a  corridor  for  northward  movements  by  people  adapted 
to  desert  living,  just  as  the  Nile  Valley  itself,  in  its  reaches  below  Khartum, 
may  have  been  a  corridor  for  early  agriculturalists. 

(9)   THE   MODERN  EGYPTIANS 

The  reader  is  already  familiar  with  the  physical  characters  of  the  an- 
cient Egyptians,  from  predynastic  to  Roman  times.  It  will  be  recalled 
that  throughout  their  pre-Islamic  history  the  Egyptians  consistently 
maintained  their  affiliation  to  a  central  Mediterranean  racial  type  of 
moderate  head  size  and  intermediate  stature.  Nevertheless  there  may 
have  been  several  contributing  Mediterranean  elements  from  different 
sources  which  together  combined  to  produce  the  Egyptian  population 
as  a  whole.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the  ruling  class  in  Egypt  was  often 
characterized  by  a  Hamitic  facial  cast,  recalling  the  upper  class  Somalis 
and  the  aristocrats  of  the  cattle-tending  tribes  of  Uganda.  The  Cushitic 
element  in  the  Egyptian  language  had  its  racial  counterpart. 

Egypt  has  never  been  truly  isolated,  and  has  continually  drawn  to  it 
peoples  from  other  countries.  During  the  Alexandrian  period,  many 
Greeks  and  Jews  settled  in  the  Delta,  particularly  in  the  new  city  to  which 
Alexander  gave  his  name,  and  this  metropolis  has  remained  ever  since 
an  international  settlement.  The  Arabs,  during  the  seventh  century 
A.D.,  swept  over  Egypt  and  imposed  a  new  language  and  a  new  religion, 
which  only  a  few  of  the  Nile  Valley  peasants,  the  ancestors  of  the  modern 
Copts,  were  able  to  resist.  Although  Coptic  speech  has  passed,  like  Latin, 
into  the  limbo  of  ritual  languages,  Coptic  Christianity  has  been  preserved 
until  the  present  day.  The  Arabs  must  have  introduced  their  racial 
increment  into  the  sedentary  Egyptian  population,  but  largely  in  the 
cities;  on  the  other  hand,  the  Bedawin  tribes  which  pasture  their  flocks 
in  the  deserts  and  oases  on  either  side  of  the  valley  are,  anthropometri- 
cally  at  least,  purely  Arab, 73 

78  Chantre  says  that  they  sometimes  marry  the  daughters  of  the  Egyptian  Fellahin. 
Chantre,  E.,  Recherche*  Anthropologiques  dans  VAJrique  Orientate,  figypte,  p.  172. 
See  also  Chantre,  E.,  BSAL,  vol.  20,  1901,  pp.  127-165. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  459 

After  the  absorption  of  the  Arabs,  the  Turks  settled  as  a  ruling  class 
in  Cairo  and  other  cities,  and  with  them  Albanians,  Circassians,  and 
other  foreigners.  With  the  digging  of  the  Suez  Canal,  Port  Said  became 
an  international  city,  with  inhabitants  drawn  from  all  nations.  Mean- 
while, thousands  of  negroes  and  Abyssinians  have  been  introduced  into 
Egypt  as  slaves,  and  few  of  them  have  returned  home. 

All  of  these  settlers  in  Egypt,  from  the  time  of  the  Jews  and  the  Greeks 
to  the  present,  have  been  city  people,  while  the  slaves  have  been  used 
mostly  in  urban  capacities.  In  Egypt  as  elsewhere,  the  country  feeds 
the  city  with  men,  and  one  may  expect  to  find  a  racial  continuity  between 
the  landed  peasants  of  ancient  Egypt  and  the  modern  Fellahin.  This 
continuity  should  be,  and  is,  as  great  as  that  between  ancient  Mesopo- 
tamia- and  modern  Iraq.  The  Copts,  who  have  lived  endogamously 
ever  since  the  advent  of  Islam,  must  be  even  better  representatives  of 
the  early  Egyptian  type  than  the  Moslem  peasantry. 

In  general,  the  living  Egyptian  population  is  probably  as  tall  as  or 
somewhat  taller  than  that  of  its  dynastic  counterparts.  74  Mean  statures 
by  districts,  from  the  Delta  to  Assuan,  run  from  165  to  168  cm.,  with  the 
mean  for  the  nation  somewhere  between  166  and  167  cm.  There  seems 
to  be  no  consistent  difference  in  regional  distribution,  except  that  the 
townsmen  are  shorter  as  a  rule  than  the  farmers.  In  bodily  build  neither 
Copts  nor  Fellahin  are  especially  thin  or  linear;  a  relative  span  of  104 
shows  a  length  of  arm  and  breadth  of  shoulder  in  excess  of  most  Medi- 
terraneans. The  small  hands  and  attenuated  extremities  of  the  East 
Africans  are  not  common  here. 

The  head  form  is  consistent  with  that  of  ancient  Egypt;  cephalic 
index  means  of  the  different  districts  are  consistently  dolichocephalic, 
at  the  figures  74  and  75;  only  in  the  cities  of  Alexandria  and  Cairo,  and 
at  Assuan  on  the  Sudanese  border,  does  it  rise  to  76.  Individual  brachy- 
cephals  are  extremely  rare.  The  head, size  is  considerable,  but  not  ex- 
cessive; the  Coptic  dimensions  of  193  mm.  by  143  mm.  represent  the 
groups  as  a  whole,  except  in  the  Delta,  where  breadths  run  to  145  mm. 
The  vault  height,  like  that  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  is  moderate,  with 
regional  means  varying  between  122  mm.  and  125  mm. 76  The  modern 
Egyptian  cranial  vault  is  slightly  larger  than  that  of  most  Mediterranean 

74  Anthropometric  data  on  living  Egyptians  have  been  obtained  from  the  following 
sources : 

Ghantre,  E.,  Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  I'Afrique  Orientate,  £gypte. 

Craig,  J.,  Biometrika,  vol.  8,  1911-12,  pp.  66-78. 

Myers,  C.  S.,  JRAI,  vol.  35,  1905,  pp.  80-91 ;  vol.  36, 1906,  pp.  237-271 ;  ns.  vol.  38, 
1908,  pp.  99-147. 

78  Cephalic  index  distribution  from  Myers  and  from  Craig ;  auricular  heights  from 
Chantre,  whose  technique  alone  seems  to  be  standard. 


460  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

Arabs,  and  consistent  with  the  dynastic  Egyptian  dimensions  and  form. 

Facially  this  difference  between  Egyptians  and  Arabs  becomes  more 
apparent;  the  bizygomatic  diameters  rise  to  means  of  137  mm.  among 
some  of  the  Fellahin  groups,  and  the  regional  nose  breadth  means  are 
characteristically  35  mm.  to  37  mm.  In  general,  the  faces  seem  meso- 
prosopic,  the  noses  mesorrhine.  Mesorrhiny  is  also  found  on  modern 
Egyptian  crania.  The  eye  slit  of  the  modern  Egyptians  is  especially 
long,  with  the  excessive  biorbital  diameter  of  93  mm.,  as  compared  to 
88  mm.  among  Yemenis. 

From  the  observational  standpoint,  the  faces  of  Copts  and  Fellahin 
vary  between  two  extremes — a  narrow  face  with  a  slender  jaw,  thin  lips, 
and  a  narrow,  aquiline  nose;  and  a  broader,  lower  face  with  a  strong 
jaw,  prominent  chin,  and  a  straight  to  concave  nose  with  root  and  bridge 
of  medium  height  and  breadth,  and  a  moderately  thick,  horizontal  tip. 
The  lips  of  this  second  type  are  usually  full,  but  not  excessively  thick. 

The  exposed  skin  color  of  the  Egyptians  has  been  often  described  and 
has  been  tabulated  on  the  basis  of  subjective  observation,  but  has  not 
been  measured  by  means  of  a  standard  scale.  It  is  the  agreement  of  all 
investigators  that  it  varies  greatly  with  latitude;  that  starting  with  the 
brunet-white  skin  of  the  Delta,  which  often  has  a  yellowish  or  honey- 
colored  tinge,  it  grows  darker  as  one  ascends  the  Nile,  so  that  the  charac- 
teristic shade  of  the  southernmost  districts  is  a  reddish  brown  to  medium 
brown  hue.  In  all  regions,  however,  it  varies  from  a  "very  fair,"  seldom 
exceeding  2  per  cent,  to  a  "very  dark,"  which  is  presumably  a  chocolate 
color.  On  the  whole  the  Copts  are  lighter  skinned  than  the  Moslems, 
but  this  must  in  a  measure  reflect  occupational  differences,  since  rela- 
tively few  of  the  Copts  are  farmers. 

The  hair  form  of  the  Egyptians  varies  from  straight,  which  does  not 
exceed  10  per  cent,  to  a  close  spiral  with  ringlets  of  small  diameter.  The 
majority  are  curly  in  one  sense  or  another;  few  are  frizzly  or  palpably 
negroid.  Wavy  hair  is  slightly  more  common  in  Lower  than  in  Upper 
Egypt,  but  not  greatly  so.  The  hair  is  almost  always  black  or  very  dark 
brown,  but  the  beard  is  sometimes  lighter;  the  eyes  range  from  dark 
brown  to  light  brown,  with  many  mixed  or  intermediate  brown  iris 
patterns.  Incipient  eye  blondism  seems  limited  to  10  per  cent  or  less, 
and  is,  of  course,  commonest  in  the  Delta. 

Some  130  miles  west  of  Luxor,  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  is  the  beginning 
of  a  long  geological  depression,  which  contains  a  number  of  oases.  The 
easternmost  of  these  is  Kharga, 76  which  is  part  of  Egypt  both  politically 
and  historically.  The  inhabitants  of  this  oasis  are  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  world  in  a  general  sense,  although  during  the  centuries  of  intensive 

78  This  material  derived  from  Hrdliclca,  A.,  The  Natives  of  Kharga  Oasis,  Egypt. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  461 

slave  trading  it  was  frequently  visited.  There  is  some  question  as  to 
whether  the  inhabitants  of  this  oasis  were  Libyans  or  Egyptians  in  Phar- 
aonic  times,  but  by  the  Roman  period  they  were  considered  fully  Egyp- 
tian. With  the  introduction  of  the  camel,  Kharga  became  an  important 
station  on  the  Sudanese  slave  route;  sick  slaves  were  left  there,  and  other 
slaves  taken  in  exchange  for  animals  and  food;  as  a  result  of  this  some 
third  of  the  population  now  shows  negroid  traits.  That  this  negroid 
blood  has  been  acquired  wholly  since  Roman  times  has  been  demonstrated 
by  a  study  of  many  mummies  and  skeletons  from  a  large  Coptic  cemetery 
in  Kharga.  None  of  these  show  negroid  traits  either  skele tally  or  in  hair 
form. 

The  non-negroid  Khargans  resemble  the  Fellahin  of  Upper  Egypt 
in  most  metrical  characters;  they  are,  however,  shorter,  with  a  mean 
stature  of  164  cm.  Their  relative  sitting  height  mean,  51.3,  conforms  to 
the  usual  Mediterranean  standard.  The  heads  are  somewhat  smaller 
than  those  of  most  Egyptians,  with  length  and  breadth  means  of  189  mm. 
and  141  mm.,  and  are  equally  dolichocephalic  (C.  I.  =  74.8).  The  faces  are 
short  and  of  moderate  breadth  (132  mm.)  while  the  foreheads  and  jaws, 
with  mean  widths  of  103  mm.,  are  moderate  and  typically  Mediterranean. 
The  noses  are  moderately  broad  (37  mm.)  and  apparently  mesorrhine. 77 

The  skin  color  of  the  Khargans  is  said  to  be  lighter  than  that  of  the 
Upper  Egyptian  Fellahin;  characteristically  it  ranges,  where  exposed, 
from  a  brunet-white  or  tawny-brown  to  a  medium  brown,  with  lighter 
colors  on  unexposed  regions.  The  head  hair  is  almost  always  black, 
but  the  beard  often  contains  lighter  individual  hairs;  the  beard  quantity 
is  usually  slight  or  moderate.  In  the  individuals  who  are  not  otherwise 
negroid,  the  head  hair  tends  to  be  straight  or  wavy,  with  a  minority  of 
curly  forms.  If  our  data  are  comparable,  it  is  straighter  than  that  of 
most  Egyptians. 

The  browridges  are  usually  slight,  the  eyes  horizontal,  and  the  nasion 
depression  medium.  The  commonest  nasal  profile  forms  are  straight  and 
slightly  convex,  with  concavity  rare.  On  the  whole  the  nose  resembles 
that  of  the  coarser  end  type  of  the  Egyptian  Fellahin.  One  of  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  Khargan  group  is  an  incidence  of  over  20  per  cent  of 
noticeable  prognathism.  Hrdlicka  finds  that  despite  these  close  metrical 
and  morphological  resemblances  between  Khargans  and  Upper  Egyptians, 
it  is  not  difficult  to  tell  them  apart,  and  he  attributes  this  to  the  lack  of  a 
Semitic  Mediterranean  element  in  the  oasis  population.  This  would 
imply  the  absence  of  an  Asiatic  Mediterranean  strain  in  dynastic  times, 

77  Hrdlicka  locates  nasion  at  a  point  lower  than  would  be  the  case  were  one  to  follow 
the  technique  considered  standard  in  this  work.  It  must  be  made  clear  that  his  techni- 
cal usage  is  not  to  be  considered  a  "mistake,"  but  rather  the  result  of  a  difference  of 
opinion. 


462  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

especially  if  the  early  Khargans  were  Libyans;   and  the  lack  of  any 
considerable  Arab  admixture  since  the  advent  of  Islam. 

(10)   NORTH  AFRICA,   INTRODUCTION 

North  Africa  is  today  an  integral  part  of  the  Mediterranean  world, 
but  it  has  not  always  been  so.  It  is  land  taken  over  by  Mediterraneans, 
rather  than  basic  Mediterranean  country;  for  this  reason  it,  like  Europe, 
is  racially  complicated  by  the  survival  of  Neanderthal-inspired  Upper 
Palaeolithic  food-gatherers.  This  survival  is  important  only  in  a  few  places 
and  among  small  populations,  and  in  this  respect  North  Africa  differs 
greatly  from  most  of  Europe.  The  Mediterranean  inroads  began  here 
earlier  than  in  Europe,  and  since  North  Africa  was  the  highway  over 
which  many  of  the  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic  invasions  of  Europe  passed, 
it  is  natural  that  it  should  have  a  more  thoroughly  Mediterranean  com- 
plexion. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  third  millennium  onward,  northern  Africa 
enjoyed,  throughout  Egyptian  and  classical  history,  the  hazy  repute  of  a 
region  peripheral  to  great  centers  of  culture.  From  the  beginning  of  the 
first  millennium  B.C.,  the  Phoenician  colony  of  Carthage  spread  eastern 
Mediterranean  civilization  into  Tunisia;  after  the  fall  of  Carthage,  the 
Romans  extended  the  enlightened  area  to  include  much  of  Algeria,  while 
the  Greeks  had  already  colonized  the  coast  of  Cyrenaica.  At  the  time  of 
the  Arab  invasions,  North  Africa  was  fast  becoming  a  backyard  of  Europe. 
The  advent  of  Islam  brought  this  process  to  a  violent  end,  and  it  did  not 
begin  again  until  after  the  conquest  of  Algeria  by  Napoleon. 

Ever  since  the  earliest  notices  of  North  Africans  on  the  Egyptian 
monuments,  the  native  inhabitants  of  North  Africa  have  spoken  Hamitic 
languages  of  the  closely  knit  Libyan  family.  There  is  very  little  dialectic 
difference  between  them,  and  it  is  possible  for  a  Riffian,  for  example, 
to  speak  with  an  Algerian  Kabyle.  Similarly,  the  Berber  speech  of  the 
natives  of  Siwa  Oasis,  on  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Berber  world,  is 
surprisingly  like  that  of  the  Braber  tribes  of  the  Moroccan  Middle  Atlas, 
some  3000  miles  distant.  When  contrasted  with  the  complex  Cushitic 
family  of  Hamitic  speech,  Berber  appears  extremely  homogeneous,  and 
we  are  warned  by  linguistic  principles  that  its  spread  over  the  immense 
Berber  area  cannot  have  been  too  remote  in  time.  It  is  possible  that 
earlier  Berber  languages  have  disappeared,  and  that  the  present  ones 
owe  their  distribution  to  a  relatively  recent  diffusion. 

There  are,  however,  remnants  of  pre-Hamitic  speech  in  various  parts 
of  North  Africa.  The  Guanche  spoken  in  the  Canary  Islands,  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  conquest,  early  in  the  fifteenth  century,  was  only  partly 
Berber,  and  contained  a  large  percentage  of  words  of  unknown  linguistic 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  463 

affiliation.78  In  modern  Riffian  and  in  other  Moroccan  Berber  dialects, 
there  is  a  residue  of  non-Hamitic  words  in  the  local  languages.  For 
example,  plant  names  ending  in  -nt  or  -nth  may  be  seen  in  the  word 
iminthi,  meaning  barley,  and  in  shinti,  meaning  rye.  These  words  have 
also  been  noticed  in  Indo-European  languages  of  the  northern  Mediter- 
ranean shore,  such  as  Greek  and  Albanian,  and  are  generally  attributed 
to  the  so-called  Caucasic  or  Mediterranean  linguistic  group,  which  is 
the  B  element  in  Indo-European.  It  is  very  likely  that  agriculture,  in- 
cluding the  use  of  these  two  cereals,  was  introduced  into  North  Africa 
by  pre-Hamitic  peoples. 

Although  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  Libyan  Berber  was  spoken  in 
the  part  of  North  Africa  with  which  the  Egyptians  were  in  contact  as 
early  as  3000  B.C.  and  earlier,  especially  since  there  is  a  Libyan  element 
in  ancient  Egyptian,  we  cannot  assume  the  same  for  all  of  North  Africa. 
It  is  possible  that  pre-Hamitic  languages  were  spoken  in  Morocco  and  in 
isolated  mountain  regions  in  Algeria  and  Tunisia  until  much  later, 
perhaps  as  late  as  the  time  of  Christ,  since  there  are  strong  Riffian  tradi- 
tions of  people  living  in  remote  valleys  who  did  not  speak  languages 
identifiable  as  tashilhait,  or  Berber. 

According  to  the  Arabian  genealogies,  all  Berbers  are  descended  from 
two  men:  Berr  ibn  Branes  and  Berr  ibn  Botr.79  These  two  Berrs,  although 
possessing  the  same  name,  were  not  related.  From  them  are  descended 
the  great  families  of  Berbers  such  as  the  Masmuda,  Senhaja,  and  Zenata. 
Of  all  these  great  families  the  earliest  to  spread  seems  to  have  been  the 
Masmuda  or  Ghomara  branch.  This  was  followed  traditionally  by  the 
Senhaja,  who  today  include  such  varied  peoples  as  the  Si  wans  on  the  bor- 
derlands of  Egypt,  the  Tuareg  of  the  Sahara,  and  the  Braber  of  the 
Middle  Atlas  in  Morocco.  The  third  great  expansion  was  that  of  the 
Zenata,  who  were  known  in  Roman  times  in  Cyrenaica,  but  who  did 
not  reach  Algeria  and  Morocco  until  the  Middle  Ages.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  these  Zenata  finally  invaded  Spain,  conquering  Arabs  and  earlier 
Berbers.  One  may  compare  the  expansions  of  the  Berber  families  to 
those  of  Kelts,  Germans,  Slavs,  etc.  in  Europe. 

78  Hooton,  E.  A.,  The  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands,  pp.  16-19. 
Abercromby,  J.,  HAS,  vol.  1,  1917,  pp.  95-129. 

79  Goon,  G.  S.,  Tribes  of  the  RiJ,  contains  a  survey  of  some  of  this  material.    See  also 
Bates,  O.,  The  Eastern  Libyans. 

Bertholon,  L.,  and  Chantre,  E.,  Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  la  Berberie  Orientale. 

Fournel,  H.,  Les  Berbers. 

Gautier,  E.  F.,  Les  Sticles  Obscurs  dans  I'Histoire  du  Maghreb;  Sahara,  the  Great 
Desert. 

Gsell,  S.,  Histoire  Ancienne  de  FAfrique  du  Nord. 

The  primary  sources  for  this  section  are  chiefly:  Herodotus,  Sallust,  Procopius,  el 
Bekri,  Ibn  Khaldun,  Marmol,  Leo  Africanus. 


464 


THE   RACES   OF   EUROPE 


Unlike  the  later  writings  of  mediaeval  Arabs,  the  Egyptian  and  classical 
notices  of  Berbers  do  not  assign  to  them  an  orderly  descent  from  a  few 
patrilineal  ancestors  in  a  typically  Semitic  scheme.  The  Egyptians, 
throughout  their  artistic  history,  took  pains  to  distinguish  the  Libyans 
from  other  peoples  by  well-defined  physical  peculiarities.  The  Libyans 
are  shown  as  active  barbarians,  clothed  in  animal 
skins,  and  wearing  ostrich  plumes  in  their  hair;  they 
are  definitely  white  men,  with  lighter  skins  than 
either  Egyptians  themselves  or  Semites.  Their  faces 
are  usually  more  sharply  cut  in  profile  than  those  of 
the  Egyptians;  the  browridges  are  often  prominent, 
the  noses  aquiline,  the  chins  pointed,  and  the  beards 
moderately  abundant. 

During  the  Old  Empire,  the  Libyans  are  depicted 
as  brunets;  but  in  New  Empire  representations  we 
see  a  change  in  the  appearance  of  some  of  them. 
One  branch,  the  Tehennu,  known  to  the  Egyptians 
from  earlier  times,  still  consists  of  brunet  white  men, 
but  another  group,  the  Mashausha,  coming  from 
farther  west,  is  definitely  blond.80  These  two,  the 
new  people  and  the  old,  joined  forces  and  attacked 
Egypt  from  the  west.  In  dress  and  in  other  respects, 
there  is  nothing  to  indicate  that  the  Mashausha 
were  not  Libyans. 

Herodotus,  in  later  times,  places  the  Maxyces  in 
western  Libya,  and  states  that  they  were  culturally 
different  from  the  purely  nomadic  Libyans  to  the 
east.  The  continuity  of  the  name  Mashausha  through 
Maxyces  extends  to  Mazuza,  a  sub-tribe  of  Riffians,  and  to  the  term 
Imazighen,  by  which  many  of  the  Berber  groups  designate  themselves,  and 
thamazighth,  by  which  they  identify  their  language. 

These  Maxyces,  or  Mashausha,  as  described  by  Herodotus,  Sallust, 
and  others,  seem  curiously  un-African  in  some  respects.  They  drive  about 
in  chariots,  drawn  by  fiery  horses;  their  garments  are  covered  with  gold; 
they  sacrifice  oxen  by  strangulation,  in  a  central  Asiatic  manner;  the 
details  of  their  council  form  of  government,  as  revealed  by  a  study  of  its 
modern  counterpart,  the  Ait  Arbain,  are  strangely  Altaic. 

While  it  would  not  be  prudent  to  press  this  argument  too  far,  it  is 
quite  possible  that  one  or  more  of  the  invasions  of  West  central  Asiatic 
peoples  which  reached  Palestine  during  the  Bronze  Age,  or  during  the 

80  Bates,  O.,  The  Eastern  Libyans,  pp.  39-43. 
Maspero,  G.,  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations ,  p.  431. 


FIG.  38.  ANCIENT 
LIBYAN. 

Redrawn  from 
Bates,  O.,  The  East- 
ern Libyans,  Plate  3, 
p.  120. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  465 

time  of  the  earliest  use  of  iron,  crossed  the  Delta  into  northern  Africa 
and  kept  moving  across  a  country  which  offered  little  feed  for  cattle  and 
horses,  until  they  reached  the  Algerian  and  Moroccan  grasslands.  He- 
rodotus specificially  states  that  these  people  were  descendants  of  Persians. 
In  any  case,  the  horse  and  chariot  entered  North  Africa  from  the  east; 
either  some  Libyans  took  both  from  the  Egyptians  and  spread  them 
westward,  or  a  specific  people  brought  them  in.  The  hypothesis  of  an 
Asiatic  invasion  of  blond  horse-users  is  not  necessary  to  explain  the 
Mashausha,  nor  the  modern  incidence  of  North  African  blondism,  but, 
as  will  be  seen  later,  it  agrees  perfectly  with  the  present  distribution  of 
races  in  this  area. 

The  history  of  North  Africa  during  the  last  five  millennia,  as  dimly 
outlined  by  oblique  literary  and  artistic  references,  and  in  the  absence 
of  adequate  archaeology,  is  not  as  simple  a  matter  as  the  early  Arab 
historians,  who  codified  Berber  tradition  in  their  own  pattern,  supposed. 
It  appears  to  have  consisted  of  a  succession  of  invasions  of  Hamitic- 
speaking  peoples,  mostly  nomadic,  interspersed  with  various  outsiders, 
and  later  of  Arabs,  into  the  territory  of  agriculturalists  of  Neolithic 
cultural  tradition  and  of  basically  European  racial  character.  The 
Ghomara-Masmuda  invasion  is  one  of  the  earliest  which  may  be  salvaged 
from  Berber  traditional  history,  and  this  was  followed  by  that  of  the 
Senhaja,  and  finally  by  that  of  the  Zenata.  Although  the  main  direction 
of  these  expansions  seems  to  have  been  from  east  to  west,  from  the  Harm  tic 
center  to  its  periphery,  this  is  not  true  of  all  of  them.  The  Senhaja,  in  at 
least  part  of  their  history,  moved  eastward. 

In  remote  parts  of  Barbary  are  still  to  be  found  clans  and  families 
who  cannot  trace  their  ancestry  to  one  of  these  noble  Hamitic  lines,  or 
to  Arabs,  but  who  admit  descent  from  indigenous  heathen  or  from  Chris- 
tians. These  families  are  called  by  Marmol  "Berbers  without  name," 
and  represent  the  last  survival  in  mountain  communities  of  pre-Hamitic 
patrilineal  family  lines,  except  in  those  cases  in  which  descent  from 
Romanized  Christians  of  various  origins  is  indicated.  Even  in  the  clans 
named  after  Hamites  or  Arabs,  the  indigenous  blood  may  be  strong 
through  continuous  female  infusion  and  through  adoption. 

The  Masmuda  and  Ghomara,  who  made  up  the  earliest  invasion  on 
record,  are  said  to  have  come  from  Rio  de  Oro,  as  are  the  Senhaja, 
according  to  one  tradition.  There  is,  however,  a  story  in  both  El  Bekri 
and  Ibn  Khaldun  that  Ifrikos,  the  ancestor  of  the  Senhaja,  came  from 
the  Yemen,  not  long  before  the  birth  of  Mohammed.  This  curious 
legend  is  supported  in  ways  unknown  to  the  Arab  historians,  for  cultural 
traits  diffused  by  some  of  the  Senhaja-speaking  peoples  include  terraced 
agriculture  with  irrigation,  high  earthen  tigremts  or  castles,  architecturally 


466  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

similar  to  those  in  southern  Arabia,  textile  techniques,  textile  designs,  and 
pottery  forms  and  decorations  all  of  which  are  strikingly  similar  to  those 
in  the  Yemen. 

The  Zenata,  who  appeared  in  Roman  Africa  in  the  third  or  fourth 
century  A.D.  and  did  not  invade  northern  Morocco  and  Spain  until  the 
twelfth  century,81  brought  with  them  the  camel,  which  they  passed  on  to 
some  Middle  Atlas  Braber  tribes,  who,  separately  or  in  combination 
with  them,  developed  into  the  Tuareg.  These  Zenatan  invaders  were 
what  Gautier  calls  les  grands  nomads  chamelliers,  the  tall,  lean,  desert 
people,  riding  on  camels,  clothed  in  blue,  and  veiled,  who  trickled  along 
the  northern  rim  of  the  desert,  and  who  took  from  Rome  the  outlying 
portions  of  her  African  empire. 

The  introduction  of  the  camel  changed  profoundly  the  life  of  the  North 
African  plains,  although  it  had  little  effect  on  that  of  the  mountains. 
The  wheel  disappeared  completely;  the  barbaric  Libyans  with  their 
bronze  and  gold  vanished  from  history,  and  those  of  them  who  were  not 
absorbed  by  the  newcomers  and  who  refused  to  adopt  the  new  economy 
took  to  the  hills,  to  found  rustic  family  lines  among  the  mountain  farmers. 
The  camels  of  the  newcomers  pulled  up  the  grass  by  the  roots,  flayed  the 
trunks  of  all  the  trees  which  they  could  reach,  hastened  the  process  of 
soil  erosion,  and  made  the  plains  of  North  Africa  at  last  truly  African  in 
appearance. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  camel,  however,  the  Sahara  became  once 
more  suitable  for  more  than  a  sub-marginal  human  habitation.  At  some 
time  during  the  late  Pleistocene  or  during  the  periods  of  post-pluvial 
climatic  change,  negroes  and  negroids  had  moved  up  to  occupy  the 
oases  and  mountains  of  the  northern  Sahara,  and  the  southern  fringe 
of  the  Atlas  country.  Kufra  was  a  negro  oasis  until  the  Arabs  took  it, 
and  the  course  of  the  Wed  Dra'a  is  the  home  of  the  Haratin,  an  insuf- 
ficiently studied  group  of  negroes.  With  the  camel,  white  men  moved 
down  into  the  Sahara  as  swiftly  riding  nomads,  enslaving  the  scattered 
groups  of  local  negroes,  and  bringing  others  up  from  the  Sudan  in  slave 
caravans,  to  cast  a  negroid  tinge  across  the  racial  complexion  of  North 
Africa,  which  had  hitherto  been  wholly  white  man's  country.  Most  of 
the  slave  trading,  however,  was  carried  on  in  Arab  times,  and  indeed, 
the  Arabs  arrived  in  North  Africa  not  long  after  their  most  useful  animal, 
the  camel. 

The  Arab  invasions  of  North  Africa  can  be  divided  into  two  waves, 

the  first  which  came  directly  from  Arabia,  shortly  after  the  death  of  the 

Prophet,  and  which  brought  families  of  aristocratic  Arabs  from  the  Hejaz 

and  Yemen.   These  invaders  came  mostly  without  wives,  married  Berber 

81  As  Almohades,  or  al-Muwahhids. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  467 

women,  and  founded  towns  and  dynasties.  Although  they  converted 
much  of  the  countryside  to  Islam,  they  did  not  force  the  Berbers  to  accept 
Arabic  speech,  which  was  confined,  at  that  time,  to  the  cities.  In  the 
eleventh  century  came  the  second  Arab  invasion,  which  was  one  of  much 
greater  volume  and  importance.  This  was  the  invasion  of  the  Beni 
Hillal  and  Beni  Soleim,  tribes  of  apostate  Bedawin  from  the  Syrian 
Desert,  who  had  made  nuisances  of  themselves  by  pillaging  caravans. 
This  Hillali  element  introduced  the  first  numerically  important  infusion 
of  Arab  blood  into  North  Africa.  The  Beni  Hillal  and  their  companions 
settled  first  in  Cyrenaica;  thence  some  of  them  moved  on  to  the  Algerian 
plateau  country,  and  to  the  country  just  south  of  the  Atlas  in  the  Moroccan 
Sahara,  and  onward  to  Rio  de  Oro.  Other  bands  passed  from  Algeria 
through  the  Taza  gateway  down  the  trik  es-sultan,  to  occupy  the  Moroccan 
plains  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  from  Safi  to  Tangier,  and  inland  to  Fez 
and  Wezzan. 

At  present  the  inhabitants  of  North  Africa  are  about  evenly  divided  be- 
tween Arabic  and  Berber  speech,  with  the  former  commoner  in  the  east,  and 
the  latter  in  the  west.  Although  the  Siwans  speak  Senhajan,  the  Gyrenai- 
cans,  largely  Berber  in  blood,  have  been  Arabized  in  language.  Aside 
from  the  Tuareg,  who  also  speak  Senhajan,  the  next  most  easterly  area  of 
Berber  speech  lies  in  southern  Tunisia  and  eastern  Tripoli.  In  Algeria 
Berber  is  spoken  by  two  important  Berber  groups,  the  Kabyles  of  the 
coastal  mountains  east  of  Algiers,  and  the  Shawia  of  the  Aures  Mountains 
farther  south.  Oasis  people,  such  as  the  Mzabites  of  Ghardaia,  are  also 
Berber  speakers,  as  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  Tunisian  island  of  Jerba. 
In  Morocco  Berbers  hold  more  land  than  do  Arabic  speakers;  the  whole 
northern  strip  from  east  of  Melilla  nearly  to  Tctwan,  is  occupied  by 
Riffians  and  Ghomarans;  the  whole  Middle  Atlas  by  Senhajan  Braber, 
and  the  Grand  Atlas  west  of  Demnat,  by  Shluh.  In  the  lowlands  east  of 
the  Middle  Atlas,  on  the  Algerian- Morpccan  borderlands,  and  reaching 
up  into  the  Riffian  territory,  are  tribes  of  Zenata. 

Throughout  North  Africa  there  are  tribes  and  confederations  of  Arab- 
ized Berbers,  and  also  some  Berberized  Arabs.  Language  and  ethnic 
origins  do  not  always  coincide,  and  North  Africa  must  be  studied  as  a 
whole.  The  present  North  African  peoples,  apart  from  Jews  and  negroes 
and  European  colonists,  represent  a  blend  in  different  proportions  be- 
tween descendants  of  the  old  Afalou  race,  the  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic 
Mediterraneans,  the  hypothetical  central  Asiatic  nomads  who  may  or 
may  not  have  brought  in  the  horse  and  chariot,  the  Hamitic-speaking 
tribesmen  whose  relationships  are  east  of  the  Nile  and  in  Ethiopia,  and 
the  two  waves  of  Arabs.  The  regional  variation  between  these  elements 
reflects,  in  the  main,  varying  proportions  of  the  different  components. 


468  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

An  exception  is  seen,  however,  in  the  coastal  region  of  Tunisia,  where 
the  Carthaginian  state  had  its  center,  and  where  there  may  survive  a 
minor  Punic  element,  and  the  Islamized  descendants  of  the  much  more 
numerous  Greek  and  Italian  settlers  of  the  Roman  period. 

(11)   TtfE   EASTERN  ARABO-BERBERS,   LIBYA,   AND   THE   OASES 

The  subject  of  this  section  will  be  the  population  of  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Italian  territory  of  Libya,  and  of  Siwa  Oasis,  which  is  under 
Egyptian  suzerainty.  This  population  is  largely  Arabic-speaking,  although 
the  Siwans  still  maintain  a  Senhajan  idiom;  the  Cyrenaican  tribes  of 
Berber  ancestry  have  been  linguistically  Arabicized.  In  this  territory 
there  are  three  general  classes  of  people  (1)  Oasis  Berbers  (2)  Arabized 
agricultural  Berbers,  in  Gyrenaica  and  Marmarica,  (3)  Nomadic  tribes, 
mostly  of  Arab  origin.  The  third  group  lives  mostly  in  the  hinterland 
of  Cyrenaica,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  oases  of  Awjila  and  Magiabra. 

The  oasis  dwellers  of  Siwa  and  Awjila  are  so  much  alike  that  they  may 
be  considered  together.82  In  both  there  is  a  considerable  homogeneity 
of  type,  and  this  type  differs  little  from  that  described  in  Kharga,  except 
that  here  it  is  more  extreme.  We  have  anthropometric  data  on  the  stature 
and  bodily  segments  only  from  Awjila.  These  oasis  dwellers  are  short, 
with  a  mean  stature  of  161  cm.;  relatively  long  armed,  with  a  relative 
span  of  105.  The  shoulders  are  relatively  broad  and  the  legs  somewhat 
short.  The  Siwans  on  the  whole  seem  very  much  the  same,  judging  from 
descriptions  and  photographs.  Neither  of  these  populations  appears 
particularly  well  nourished. 

The  most  notable  feature  about  these  oasis  peoples  is  their  extreme 
dolichocephaly.  The  mean  for  both  Siwa  and  Awjila  is  71.7,  and  in 
neither  group  has  a  single  brachycephal  been  measured.  The  heads  are 
of  moderate  size,  with  lengths  of  193  mm.  and  breadths  of  138  mm.  The 
vault  height,  at  least  in  Awjila,  is  relatively  low,  with  a  mean  of  117 
mm.  On  the  whole  these  people  are  a  hyperdolichocephalic  and  platy- 
cephalic group,  and  stand  at  an  extreme  end  of  the  Mediterranean 
racial  range  in  vault  proportions.  The  faces  are  both  short  and  narrow, 
with  a  mean  menton-nasion  height  of  118  and  bizygomatics  of  130  mm. 
in  the  case  of  Siwa  and  133  mm.  in  the  case  of  Awjila.  The  corresponding 
facial  indices  are  mesoprosopic  to  mildly  leptoprosopic.  The  noses  of 
these  people  are  mesorrhine,  with  nasal  indices  of  70  in  the  case  of  Awjila 
and  73  in  the  case  of  Siwa.  In  both  the  nose  height  is  approximately 
50  mm.  and  the  mesorrhine  condition  is  caused  not  by  the  breadth  of  the 
nose  but  by  its  shortness. 

82  Cline,  W.  B.,  HAS,  vol.  10,  1932. 

Puccioni,,N.,  Antropometria  delle  Gente  delta  Cyrenaica. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  469 

The  hair  form  in  both  groups  is  characteristically  wavy.  In  Siwa, 
one-fourth  of  the  series  is  said  to  have  curly  to  frizzly  hair,  while  the  same 
type  is  apparently  rare  in  Awjila.  Beard  and  body  hair  are  quite  scanty, 
and  the  hair  color  is  usually  black,  but  with  a  very  few  individuals  in 
Siwa  classified  as  dark  brown.  The  eye  color  is  dark  brown  in  three- 
fourths  of  the  Si  wans  examined,  and  the  incidence  of  eye  blondism  totals 
only  9  per  cent  in  the  Siwan  group,  while  there  is  no  evidence  of  it  whatever 
in  Awjila,  where  the  eye  colors  include  both  dark  brown  and  light  brown. 
In  hair  and  eye  color,  then,  the  oasis  people  are  unusually  brunet  for 
North  Africans.  The  skin  color  of  both  these  oasis  populations  is  likewise 
on  the  brunet  side.  In  Siwa  it  falls  for  the  most  part  between  the  von 
Luschan  #12  and  #15,  which  is  a  dark  brunet- white  or  a  light  brown,  and 
10  per  cent  of  the  group  has  pinkish-white  skin.  In  Awjila  it  runs  from 
#16  to  #24,  and  is  often  a  medium  brown. 

In  both  these  groups  straight  noses  are  commonest,  but  nasal  convexity 
is  very  frequent,  and  concave  forms  are  rare.  The  roots  are  of  moderate 
height,  but  with  a  tendency  toward  broadness,  and  the  bridge  is  moder- 
ately high  and  moderately  broad.  The  tips  are  of  medium  thickness 
with  medium  or  slightly  flaring  wings,  and  the  nasal  tip  is  usually  slightly 
elevated.  One  of  the  most  characteristic  features  of  the  nose  of  the  Siwans, 
and  of  the  Awjila  people,  is  a  considerable  nasion  depression.  The 
browridges,  however,  are  usually  absent  or  slight,  and  the  forehead 
slightly  sloping  to  straight;  in  some  cases  bulbous. 

The  chins  are  frequently  receding  and  the  jaws  narrow.  The  mean 
bigonial  diameter  of  99  mm.  among  Siwans  indicates  the  extreme  narrow- 
ness of  jaws  among  these  people,  which,  however,  does  not  reach  a  Somali 
extreme. 

On  the  whole  the  evidence  from  these  oases,  when  combined  with 
that  from  Kharga,  demonstrates  that  the  eastern  Libyan  peoples  of 
antiquity  included  an  oasis  dwelling  branch  of  an  extreme  Mediterranean 
type  characterized  by  small  stature,  'extreme  dolichocephaly,  a  low 
cranial  vault,  a  short  face,  and  a  mesorrhine  nose.  This  type,  while 
well-characterized  today,  cannot  be  identified  with  any  hitherto  studied 
skeletal  Mediterranean  sub-race,  although  it  appears  closest  to  the  small- 
sized,  mesorrhine  or  chamaerrhine  Mediterranean  type  which  reached 
southwestern  Europe  during  the  Mesolithic  or  as  a  Neolithic  advance 
guard,  and  which  is  best  represented  by  the  cranial  series  from  Chamb- 
landes.83 

The  inhabitants  of  the  oasis  of  Magiabra,  adjacent  to  Awjila,  belong 
partly  to  the  same  type,  but  differ  in  having  a  higher  cephalic  index, 
their  mean  being  75.5,  and  also  in  possessing  the  taller  stature  of  164  cm. 

83  See  Chapter  IV,  p.  115;  also  Appendix  I,  col.  14. 


470  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

Certain  Marabutic  tribes,  who  live  on  the  outskirts  of  these  oases  and 
who  are  of  palpably  Arab  descent  are  much  taller,  with  a  mean  stature 
of  168  cm.  and  are  dolichocephalic  (C.I.  =  74). 

In  the  agricultural  regions  of  Marmarica  and  Cyrenaica,  the  Arabo- 
Berber  tribesmen  present  a  variety  of  physical  types.  On  the  whole 
they  are  a  moderately  tall  group  with  tribal  stature  means  ranging  from 
166  to  171  cm.  As  with  the  oasis  people,  their  characteristic  hair  form  is 
wavy,  and  curly  forms  are  relatively  rare.  The  hair  is  mostly  black, 
but  brown  hair  rises  to  20  per  cent  among  certain  tribes,  and  the  mus- 
taches are  often  lighter.  This  hair  blondism  is  particularly  prevalent 
along  the  coast.  The  skin  color  is  a  dark  brunet-white,  usually  between 
von  Luschan  #12  to  #18,  but  the  range  is  considerable.  The  fairest  skin 
is  again  found  coastally.  Light  brown  is  the  commonest  eye  color,  but 
33  per  cent  show  some  evidence  of  eye  blondism.  All  of  these  people  are 
dolichocephalic  with  cephalic  index  means  ranging  from  74  to  77,  They 
are  all  long  faced,  and  all  leptorrhine.  Considerable  differences  are  found 
in  their  facial  features,  and  in  order  to  discuss  these  it  will  be  best  to  de- 
scribe some  of  the  principal  types  under  which  this  population  falls. 

Relatively  rare  is  a  thick-set  type  with  a  large  head,  a  square,  low 
face,  retreating  forehead,  heavy  browridges,  deep  nasion  depression, 
and  a  rather  short  and  wide  nose  with  a  straight  or  concave  profile. 
This  type  is  not  negroid,  but  is  reminiscent  of  the  Afalou  type  found  in 
the  Upper  Palaeolithic  remains  of  Algeria,  and  seems  to  be  the  oldest 
indigenous  racial  element.  An  ordinary  Mediterranean  type  is  also  dis- 
tinguishable, with  a  straight  or  slightly  sloping  forehead,  moderate  brow- 
ridges,  and  a  straight  nasal  profile.  This  Mediterranean  type  frequently 
shows  an  admixture  with  the  first  type,  and  this  influence  is  evidenced  by 
a  rectangular  facial  contour  and  a  considerable  width  and  prominence 
of  the  gonial  angles. 

A  third  type,  which  seems  to  be  of  considerable  numerical  importance, 
is  either  Near  Eastern  or  East  African  in  affinity,  or  both;  its  diagnostic 
features  are  a  receding  forehead,  a  high  vault,  small  or  absent  browridges, 
a  minimum  of  nasion  depression,  and  a  long  arc-shaped  convex  nose. 
This  type  must  be  ancient  in  Cyrenaica,  for  it  is  commonly  represented 
as  a  standard  Libyan  type  on  Egyptian  monuments.  Now  and  then  one 
encounters  individuals  with  extremely  long,  narrow  faces  and  vaults, 
with  straight  foreheads  and  straight  noses,  who  look  like  the  non-negroid 
end  type  of  the  Somalis.  Persons  who  give  the  impression  of  being  largely 
Nordic  are  not  common,  but  may  occasionally  be  observed. 

Apparently  pure  northern  Arabian  Bedawin  features  are  not  infrequent, 
but  the  Arabs  in  North  Africa,  from  Cyrenaica  to  Morocco,  are  tall; 
since  they  are  taller  than  most  Berbers,  it  is  unlikely  that  this  elevated 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  471 

stature  was  acquired  since  their  arrival.  There  are  a  few  brachycephals 
in  Cyrenaica,  living  in  the  coastal  villages,  and  these  appear  to  be  Dinarics 
or  Armenoids;  neither  of  these  racial  types,  however,  has  an  important 
part  to  play  either  here  or  in  most  other  sections  of  North  Africa.  Cyrenaica, 
with  its  medley  of  Mediterranean  and  pre-Mediterranean  forms,  serves 
as  a  fitting  threshold  to  the  study  of  North  African  races. 

(12)   THE  TUAREG 

The  most  specialized,  next  to  the  Riffians  the  most  famed,  and  at  the 
same  time  probably  the  least  well-known  of  all  North  African  Berber 
groups  is  that  of  the  Tuareg,  a  conglomeration  of  nomadic  tribes 
dominating  the  caravan  routes  and  the  few  cultivable  plots  of  land  lying 
between  the  Libyan  Desert  and  Rio  de  Oro,  and  between  the  Algerian 
oases  and  the  Niger.  Some  indeed,  live  in  the  Air  plateau  on  the  southern 
side  of  the  Niger.  Despite  the  vastness  of  their  territory,  the  Tuareg  are 
not  numerous,  since  their  habitat  will  support  but  a  minimum  population. 
They  are  divided  into  two  free  classes,  the  Ihaggaren,  or  nobles,  the  Imrad, 
or  tribute-paying  tribesmen,  and  slaves.  The  nobles  ride  about  on  their 
camels  policing  this  territory,  protecting  their  imrad,  and  pillaging  those 
of  other  tribes,  taking  toll  of  the  caravans  which  pass  through  their  coun- 
try, and  themselves  raiding  and  transporting  slaves.84 

The  social  system  of  the  Tuareg  86  is  a  finely  balanced  response  to 
their  environmental  needs,  and  resembles  that  of  the  northern  Arabian 
Bedawin  in  its  high  evaluation  of  self-reliance  and  independence  of  action. 
The  nobles  maintain  their  superior  position  by  protecting  their  dependents 
and  by  their  willingness  to  fight;  with  this  attitude  is  connected  the  concept 
of  racial  purity,  which  in  effect  makes  the  physical  type  of  the  Tuareg 
nobles  a  result,  in  part,  of  their  social  system.  Inheritance  of  rank  among 
the  Tuareg  passes  through  the  mother,  and  the  numerous  mixed  offspring 
of  Tuareg  men  and  slave  concubines  are  not  given  noble  rank.  Despite 
the  close  association  between  the  Tuareg  and  the  negroes,  who  preceded 
them  in  the  Sahara  and  with  whom  they  are  in  close  contact  in  Nigeria, 
the  noble  class  has  to  a  large  extent  preserved  its  freedom  from  negroid 
admixture,  although  there  are  many  individual  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
The  imrad  are  in  some  cases  fully  white,  and  individual  imrad  may  be 
found  who  are  less  negroid  than  individual  nobles,  but  the  reverse,  as  a 

84  The  tense  used  in  the  above  sentence  and  in  the  following  paragraph  is  the  ethno- 
graphic present.  Actually,  the  Tuareg  have  largely  ceased  these  activities,  under 
French  military  pressure,  and  are  now  faced  with  the  problem  of  making  a  new  social 
and  economic  adjustment,  no  easy  task  for  a  people  so  specialized  and  so  finely  adjusted 
to  an  extreme  environment. 

86  Sources  on  Tuareg  culture  are :  Duveyrier,  H.,  Les  Touareg  du  Nord;  and  Benhazera, 
M.,  Six  Mois  Chez,  les  Touareg  du  Ahaggar. 


472  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

rule,  is  true.  The  Tuareg  have  a  definite  standard  of  masculine  beauty, 
a  well-recognized  noble  physique  and  cast  of  countenance,  which  un- 
doubtedly has  been  crystallized  by  centuries  of  selection. 

The  physical  type  of  the  non-negroid  Tuareg  nobles,  and  of  the  imrad 
who  are  white,  is,  thanks  to  a  number  of  anthropometric  studies,86  well 
enough  known  to  merit  accurate  description.  Since  the  Tuareg  males 
are  never  seen  without  their  face-coverings,  an  accurate  knowledge  of 
their  characteristic  physiognomy  is  limited  to  a  few  scientists  who  have 
literally  succeeded  in  lifting  the  Tuareg  veil. 

The  Tuareg  nobles  are  tall  men,  with  mean  statures  running  tribally 
from  172  cm.  to  178  cm.;  about  174  cm.  would  be  their  total  mean. 
They  are  lean,  long-armed,  and  long-legged,  with  narrow  shoulders, 
narrow  hips,  and  chests  which  are  narrow  in  an  antero-posterior  direction; 
their  hands  and  feet  are  long  and  very  narrow,  their  fingers  long  and 
thin.  The  very  fine  wrists  and  ankles  which  we  have  observed  among 
the  Somalis  are  also  present  here.  The  addition  of  Negro  blood  to  this 
Tuareg  bodily  type  broadens  the  shoulders,  shortens  the  legs,  and  makes 
the  hands  and  feet  wider  and  larger.  The  Tuareg  relative  sitting  height 
mean  of  49,  indicating  that  the  sitting  height  is  less  than  half  the  stature, 
serves  to  illustrate  the  extremely  linear  constitutional  type  of  this  people. 

The  heads  of  the  Tuareg  are  dolichocephalic  and  large;  tribal  means 
in  the  cephalic  index  vary  between  72  and  75,  but  73  is  the  central  point 
of  the  whole.  No  brachycephals  are  found  among  the  white  nobles, 
although  they  occasionally  appear  among  negroids  of  other  classes. 
The  head  length  mean  for  a  series  of  75  Tuareg  nobles  is  195  mm.,  the 
breadth  146  mm.;  the  vault  is  apparently  also  high.  The  faces  are  both 
long  and  moderately  broad,  with  a  mean  menton-nasion  height  of  126 
mm.,87  and  a  bizygomatic  of  136  mm.  The  upper  face  height  (72  mm.)87  is 
moderately  great,  and  the  mandible  less  shallow  than  with  most  Mediter- 
raneans; the  foreheads  and  jaws  are  said  to  be  narrow.  Among  selected 
groups  of  unmixed  nobles,  the  nasal  index  means  run  as  low  as  62  and 
63;  among  nobles  in  general,  67  or  68 87  is  a  commoner  figure." 

The  skin  color  of  the  Tuareg  is  difficult  to  determine,  since  they  do  not 
wash,  and  indigo  runs  from  their  garments.  But  when  cleaned,  the 
unexposed  skin  of  the  non-negroid  nobles  and  Imrad  is  seen  to  be  a  brunet- 

8«Benoit,  F.,  and  Kossovitch,  N.,  CRSB,  vol.  109,  1932,  pp.  198-200. 

Leblanc,  E.,  RDAP,  vol.  38,  1928,  pp.  331-357;  vol.  39,  1929,  pp.  19-24. 

Leblanc,  E.,  and  Bercerot,  J.,  RDAP,  vol.  46,  1936,  pp.  140-150. 

Verneau,  R.,  Anth,  vol.  27,  1916,  pp.  47-95,  211-242,  406-430,  539-568. 

Zeltner,  F.,  Anth,  vol.  25,  1914,  pp.  459-476;  RDAP,  vol.  25,  1915,  pp.  170-173. 

A  craniological  study  is:  Leblanc,  E.,  RDAP,  vol.  39,  1929,  pp.  351-363. 

87  Adjustments  and  recombinations  of  different  sources,  and  substitutions  for  ques- 
tionable techniques,  have  been  employed  in  arriving  at  these  figures.  The  results  are,  I 
believe,  reliable. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  473 

white,  without  brownish  tinge;  the  mixed  bloods,  however,  who  are 
predominantly  Tuareg  and  only  in  a  minor  degree  negroid,  assume  a  con- 
stant and  characteristic  dark  brown  color,  known  in  North  Africa  as 
amrani,  and  comparable  to  the  characteristic  hue  of  the  Somalis.  Mixed 
bloods  of  the  Ifora  Tuareg  of  the  southern  Sahara  have  a  reddish-bronze 
color,  foreign  to  the  northern  Tuareg  hybrids,  and  due,  in  all  probability, 
to  mixture  with  Hausa  people  in  the  Nigerian  plateau  of  Air. 

The  eyes  of  the  Tuareg  are  all  brown;  not  a  single  light  or  mixed  eye 
has  been  reported  by  competent  observers;  the  blue  eyes  attributed  to 
the  Tuareg  by  travellers  cannot  be  supported  by  anthropometrists.  The 
characteristic  Tuareg  eye  color  is  actually  a  very  dark  brown,  verging 
on  black.  The  hair  likewise  is  black,  and  no  evidence  of  hair  blondism 
has  been  statistically  reported  from  the  noble  group.  The  hair  is  straight, 
wavy,  or  curly  with  ringlets;  frizzly  hair  among  the  Tuareg  is  considered 
a  negroid  diagnostic. 

The  classical  Tuareg  noble,  an  ideal  type  to  which  many  of  them,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  belong,  has  a  narrow,  high,  and  but  slightly  sloping 
forehead;  there  are  no  browridges  or  very  slight  ones.  The  face  takes  the 
form  of  an  attenuated  pentagon,  with  the  base  aloft;  prominent  malars, 
a  narrow  jaw,  and  a  pointed  chin  produce  this  form.  The  unmixed 
Tuareg  are  orthognathous,  have  thin  to  medium  lips,  and  small  teeth, 
which  in  older  people  are  often  worn  to  the  gums.  The  nose,  which  is 
the  most  characteristic  Tuareg  feature,  is  high-bridged,  narrow-rooted, 
and  often  convex  in  the  upper  segment,  while  the  lower  or  cartilaginous 
part  is  straight,  thin-tipped,  and  depressed  at  the  end,  with  small  wings 
and  oblique,  highly  excavated  nostrils. 

In  mixed  forms,  which  in  the  lower  Tuareg  classes  are  more  numerous 
than  the  pure  noble  strain,  the  stature  tends  to  be  lower,  the  shoulders 
broader,  the  head  vault  wider  and  lower,  the  forehead  and  mid-face 
broader,  and  the  nose  thicker  tipped,  with  wider  wings. 

The  Tuareg  in  their  pure  form  belong  to  a  specialized  Mediterranean 
sub-type,  the  creation  of  which  is  partly  a  matter  of  isolation  and  selec- 
tion under  extreme  environmental  stimuli.  They  resemble  the  East  African 
Hamites  very  closely,  and  especially  the  whiter  element  among  the  Somali, 
but  in  their  extreme  stature  and  great  head  size  they  seem  closer  than 
most  other  living  Mediterraneans  to  the  pre-Neolithic  East  African  men. 

Tuareg  history  does  not  support  the  view  that  they  represent  a  survival 
in  isolation  of  a  pure  East  African  strain  from  a  remote  period.  Their 
own  traditions  trace  the  nobles  and  Imrad  to  two  ancestresses,  Tin 
Hinan  88  and  Takamat,  who  came  from  Tafilalet  and  who  were  Braber, 

88  This  ancestress  was  apparently  a  real  person.  The  tomb  traditionally  associated  with 
her  name  has  been  excavated  and  found  to  contain  a  female  skeleton,  richly  equipped. 


474  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

or  Moroccan  Senhaja.  The  Braber  ancestry  cannot,  however,  be  the 
only  factor  in  the  genetic  composition  of  the  Tuareg;  their  use  of  the 
camel,  and  their  general  manner  of  living  must  be  ascribed  to  Zenata 
from  Cyrenaica,  who  probably  contributed  largely  to  the  ancestral  strain. 
It  is  more  than  likely  that  a  number  of  Berber  families  participated  in  the 
rapid  adaptation  to  desert  life  which  the  Tuareg  ancestors  must  have 
undergone  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era.89  It  must  be  re- 
membered that  the  chief  contacts  of  the  Tuareg  with  settled  lands  have 
been  with  the  Sudan  rather  than  with  the  north,  and  that  the  non- 
negroid  elements  in  such  peoples  as  the  Fulah  and  Hausa  must  have 
been  Hamitic  in  an  East  African  sense.  The  Tuareg  probably  represent 
in  a  general  way  the  ancestral  physical  type  of  the  bringers  of  Hamitic 
speech  to  North  Africa,  but  their  adherence  to  this  type  must  be  a  matter 
of  recombination  and  % selection.  They  are  by  no  means  typical  Berbers, 
but  may  be  taken  as  an  end  type  in  the  Berber  racial  complex, 

(13)   EASTERN  BARBARY,   ALGERIA,   AND   TUNISIA 

The  population  of  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  apart  from  the  numerous 
European  colonists  who  have  settled  there  during  the  last  hundred  years, 
and  from  the  Jews  who  have  lived  in  the  cities  for  a  much  longer  period, 
is  varied  and  complex  in  the  cultural  and  linguistic  sense,  as  well  as 
racially.  In  this  section  it  will  not  be  possible  to  cover  each  tribe  or  even 
each  group  of  tribes,  but  it  will  be  necessary  to  select  representative 
peoples  for  special  consideration. 

Any  division  of  this  population  into  segments  must  needs  be  arbitrary, 
but  it  must  be  segmented  if  it  is  to  be  discussed  simply,  With  this  warning, 
we  shall  proceed  to  divide  it  as  follows: 

(1)  Mountain  Berbers,  terrace  agriculturalists;  perhaps  the  oldest  and 
most  stable  element  in  the  population. 

(2)  The  Berber-speaking  oasis  people  of  Ghardaia,  Tidikelt,  Biskra, 
etc.    A  special  group  culturally,  and  belonging  to  the  schismatic 
religious  sect  of  Kharejites,  or  Khawarij.    To  these  may  be  added 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Isle  of  Jerba. 

(3)  The   Arabic-speaking    tribesmen    of   the    more    arid    plains   and 
plateaux;  pastoral  nomads  or  transhumants  for  the  most  part. 

(4)  The  townsmen,     A  mixed  urban  population  of  diverse  origin, 
differing  in  each  locality;  the  pre-Arab  Christian  population  of 
partly   European   origin   is   responsible   for   certain    elements    in 
Tunisia;  converted  Jews  have  founded  the  important  commercial 

89  Comparable  to  the  rapid  convergence  of  American  Indians  from  many  quarters 
to  the  western  plains  with  the  acquisition  of  the  horse,  and  the  equally  rapid  develop- 
ment of  a  characteristic  Plains  culture. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  475 

families  in  some  cities;  negro  slaves,  Christian  slaves,  Turks,  and 
wanderers  of  all  sorts  have  all  contributed  to  the  general  complexity. 
A  racial  study  of  townspeople  by  social  levels,  here  as  well  as  in 
Morocco,  would  be  interesting,  but  remains  to  be  made. 
Of  these  four  elements  listed  above,  I  propose  to  discuss  only  the 
first  in  any  detail.  Hence  it  will  be  better  to  deal  at  once  with  the  second 
and  third.  The  oasis  Berbers,  who  live  in  compact  villages  and  are  noted 
for  their  endogamy  and  clannishness,  have  a  reputation  in  North  Africa 
for  sharpness  in  money  matters,  and  this  is  especially  true  of  the  Beni 
Mzab  of  the  oasis  of  Ghardaia.90  The  Mzabites  form  a  caste  of  shop- 
keepers, setting  up  booths  in  the  markets  of  most  of  the  towns  and  cities 
of  eastern  Barbary,  associating  only  with  their  compatriots,  and  returning 
to  their  oasis  to  retire  and  marry  once  their  fortunes  are  made.  In  this 
respect  they  resemble  the  Hadhramis  in  the  East  Indies,  the  Greeks 
who  come  to  America  from  the  neighborhood  of  Sparta,  and  the  Cantonese. 
The  Mzabites  are  short  men,  with  a  mean  stature  of  162  cm.,  relatively 
wide-shouldered  and  long-armed,  with  the  unusually  high  relative  span 
of  106.  They  are  almost  exclusively  brunet,  with  less  than  5  per  cent  of 
incipient  blondism  in  either  hair  or  eye  color.  Their  hair  is  character- 
istically black  or  dark  brown,  their  eyes  include  both  dark  and  light 
brown  shades,  and  many  irises  which  fall  between  the  two  brown  extremes. 
In  bodily  size  and  proportions,  and  in  pigmentation,  they  resemble  the 
oasis  people  of  Libya,  from  Kharga  to  Awjila.  They  differ,  however,  in 
head  form,  for  the  mean  cephalic  index  of  Mzabite  males  is  77.3,  in  the 
low  mesocephalic  category.  The  normal  range  of  this  index  is  from  71 
to  85;  there  may  have  been  originally  both  a  dolichocephalic  and  a 
brachy cephalic  element  involved,  but  the  present  type,  whether  or  not 
the  result  of  a  blend,  is  definitely  mesocephalic.  The  face  is  moderately 
narrow  (133  mm.)  and  the  nose  is  leptorrhine  and  absolutely  long.  The 
Berber  inhabitants  of  Biskra  Oasis  91  resemble  the  Mzabites  closely  in 
measurements  and  in  pigmentation..  The  hair  form  of  these  latter,  and 
probably  of  the  Mzabites  as  well,  is  usually  straight  or  slightly  wavy. 

A  closer  approach  to  true  brachycephaly  is  found  among  both  the 
Berber -speaking  and  Arabic-speaking  Kharejites  of  Jerba,  who  resemble 
the  more  brachycephalic  element  among  the  Mzabites.  The  Jerbans  are 
of  medium  stature  (165  cm.),  and  are  often  of  a  stockier  bodily  build 
than  is  usual  in  North  Africa.92  Their  mean  cephalic  index,  80.8,  is 

90  Amat,  C.,  RDAP,  ser.  2,  vol.  7,  1884,  pp.  617-639;  La  Mzab  et  les  Mzabites. 
9lTopinard,  P.,  BSAP,  vol.  5,  ser.  2,  1870,  pp.  548-555. 
92Benoit,  F.,  and  Kossovitch,  N.,  CRSB,  vol.  109,  1932,  pp.  198-200. 
Bertholon,  L.,  Anth,  vol.  8,  1897,  pp.  399-425.    Also 

Bertholon,  L.,  ajid  Chantre,  E.,  Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  la  Berberie  Orientalet 
pp.  175-176. 


476  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

actually  sub-brachycephalic,  and  in  one  tribe,  the  Beni  Maguel,  it  rise 
to  82.  These  Jerbans  are  longer  and  narrower  faced  than  most  othe 
North  Africans  (F.I.  =  93.8)  but  at  the  same  time  are  not  as  narrow 
nosed  (N.I.  =  70.6).  Their  typical  head  form  is  globular,  with  a  prominen 
forehead  equipped  with  frontal  bosses,  and  a  slightly  flattened  occiput 
They  are  markedly  brunet,  with  only  two  partial  blonds  in  a  series  of  148 

Facially,  the  Mzabites  and  Jerbans  show  a  smoothness  of  feature  and  < 
lack  of  bony  prominence,  combined  with  a  frequent  convexity  of  th< 
nose,  which  gives  them  a  characteristic  appearance  which  renders  then 
easily  recognizable.  The  Algerian  and  Tunisian  Kharejites,  whethe 
living  in  oases  or  on  an  island,  seem  to  be  related  to  or  similar  to  th< 
oasis  people  farther  east,  with  the  addition  of  some  brachycephalic  01 
brachycephalizing  factor  which  is  strongest  among  the  maritime  Khare 
jites,  and  which  cannot  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  present  information 
It  is  tempting,  though  unprofitable,  to  suspect  the  early  accretion  o 
an  exotic,  sea-borne  brachycephalic  element,  such  as  that  found  amon| 
the  maritime  people  of  the  Arabian  coast.  Whatever  the  origin  of  thi: 
element,  which  does  not  appear  to  be  native  to  North  Africa,93  endogamy 
and  the  following  of  specialized  hereditary  trades  must  have  been  impor 
tant  factors  in  the  stabilization  of  the  Kharejite  type  or  types. 

Division  number  three  of  our  list,  the  nomadic  or  semi-nomadi< 
Arabic  speakers  of  the  plains  and  plateaux,94  is  comprised  of  numerous 
tribes  partly  or  wholly  of  Arab  origin;  some  of  them,  however,  must  be 
nothing  more  than  Arabized  groups  of  Zenata  and  Senhaja.  They  an 
all,  or  nearly  all,  tall  people,  with  stature  means  in  the  neighborhooc 
of  170  cm.;  they  are  dolichocephalic  or  mesocephalic,  and  leptorrhine 
with  a  tendency  to  strong  nasal  convexity  and  high,  sloping  foreheads 
Among  them  may  be  seen  members  of  various  Mediterranean  sub-races 
including  chiefly  Atlanto-Mediterranean  and  what  appears  to  be  Irano- 
Afghan.  Smaller  Mediterraneans  are  not  infrequent,  and  one  sees  amon§ 
them  an  occasional  Nordic  or  near-Nordic. 

The  mountain  agriculturalists  are  best  represented  by  two  groups  QJ 
tribes,  the  Shawia  and  the  Kabyles,  the  former  living  in  the  Aures  Moun- 
tains south  of  Gonstantine,  and  the  latter  in  the  coastal  Djurjura  imme- 
diately east  of  the  city  of  Algiers.96  Both  of  these  Berber  groups  are  noted 

93  The  Jerbans  possess  a  number  of  exotic  cultural  traits,  such  as  dog-eating,  the 
drinking  of  palm  toddy,  etc. 

94  Based  on  Bertholon  and  Chantre. 

95  Besides  Bertholon  and  Chantre,  the  chief  sources  are  : 
d'Hercourt,  G.,  MSAP,  vol.  3,  1868,  pp.  1-23. 

Malbot,  H.,  and  Verneau,  R.,  Anth,  vol.  8,  1897,  pp.  1-18,  174-204. 

Papillault,  G.  F.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  8,  1897,  p.  538. 

Randall-Maclver,  D.,  and  Wilkin,  A.,  Libyan  Notes. 

Vir6,  A.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  4,  1893,  p.  71.  (Continued  on  page  477.) 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  477 

for  their  European-like  features  and  fair  skins;  blondism  of  a  high  order 
is  frequently  attributed  to  them  in  the  non-statistical  literature.  Both  of 
them  contain  a  minimum  of  Arab  blood,  and  of  the  brunet  Mediterranean 
strain  or  strains  which  may  have  been  associated  with  the  introduction 
of  Hamitic  speech  into  North  Africa. 

The  notable  fact  about  the  Shawia  is  that,  in  a  metrical  sense,  they  are 
identical  with  northwestern  European  Nordics.  One  could  substitute 
the  means  of  the  Shawia  sample  of  Randall-Maclver  and  Wilkin  for 
those  of  a  characteristic  eastern  Norwegian  province  without  serious 
discrepancy.96  This  is  true  of  stature,  relative  span,  and  relative  sitting 
height,  as  well  as  of  the  principal  dimensions  of  the  head  and  face.  The 
only  difference  of  any  importance  is  that  the  minimum  frontal  (106  mm.) 
and  the  bigonial  (105  mm.)  of  the  Shawia  are  both  a  little  wider  than 
those  of  the  European  Nordics — that  they  diverge  from  the  Nordics  in 
a  non-Mediterranean  direction  and  in  the  direction  of  the  population 
of  western  Norway. 

Although  the  Shawia  are  so  Nordic  anthropometrically,  and  although 
they  are  characteristically  white  skinned,  they  are  for  the  most  part 
brunet  in  hair  and  eye  color.  Only  some  30  per  cent  have  mixed  or  light 
eyes,  and  96  per  cent  are  listed  as  having  black  head  hair.  The  nasal 
profile  shows  Nordic  tendencies;  concavo-convex  forms,  like  those  com- 
mon in  England,  are  as  frequent  as  straight,  and  together  account  for 
half  of  the  whole;  convex  profiles  are  more  frequent  than  concave, 
which  are  found  among  one-sixth  of  the  group.  Against  the  prevailing 
brunetness  of  the  Shawia  stands  the  tradition  that  their  ancestors  were 
formerly  much  blonder,  and  that  their  present  brunet  condition  is  due 
to  mixture  with  outside  Berber  and  Arab  groups.  This  statement,  how- 
ever, belongs  to  the  class  of  evidence  which  cannot  be  proved.  Since 
the  available  series  of  Shawia  do  not  lend  themselves  to  serious  analysis, 
the  anthropometrically  Nordic  condition  of  this  people  cannot  be  dis- 
cussed profitably  here;  there  are  other  such  populations  in  North  Africa 
which  have  been  more  extensively  studied,  and  which  will  be  dealt  with 
shortly. 

The  Kabyles  of  the  Djurjura  Mountains  cover  a  considerable  area, 
and  probably  vary  regionally,  as  differences  between  various  series 

Weissgerber,  H.,  Les  Blancs  d'Afrique. 

Also  an  unpublished  series  of  304  adult  male  Kabyles,  measured  at  Tizi  Ouzou  by 
H.  H.  Kidder  under  the  auspices  of  the  Division  of  Anthropology  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. 

96  The  same  is  true  for  the  series  of  Papillault  and  of  Bertholon  and  Ghantre,  except 
for  a  few  technical  discrepancies.  Randall-Maclver  and  Wilkin  find  a  total  face  height 
mean  of  120.95  mm.  for  the  Shawia,  and  a  nose  height  mean  of  51.35  mm.,  both  indi- 
cating a  low  location  of  nasion.  Since  Bryn  also  locates  nasion  low  in  his  Somatologie 
der  Norweger9  the  comparability  of  the  two  is  not  impaired. 


478  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

would  indicate.97  Some  are  very  much  like  the  Shawia,  but  those  coming 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Tizi  Ouzou 98  are  shorter  statured  and  smaller 
headed.  They  are,  in  fact,  so  constituted  anthropometrically  that  they 
serve  as  an  excellent  example  of  a  centrally  placed  early  Mediterranean 
racial  type,  with  certain  modifications. 

The  stature  of  this  group  is  moderate  (164.6  cm.),  the  bodily  propor- 
tions the  same  as  those  of  the  Shawia,  and  of  most  Nordics;  at  the  same 
time  comparable  to  those  of  Plateau  Yemenis  in  Arabia.  The  light  mean 
body  weight  of  124  Ibs.,  with  the  heaviest  man  only  190  Ibs.,  is  typically 
Mediterranean.  The  head  length,  however,  which  varies  from  161  mm. 
to  211  mm.,  has  a  mean  of  187  mm.,  while  the  breadth  falls  at  145  mm., 
with  a  cephalic  index  mean  of  77.6.  This  index  ranges  from  68  to  91, 
indicating  a  great  variety  of  head  form.  The  vault  height  of  127  mm. 
completes  the  parallel  between  the  mean  of  this  variable  group  and  the 
Yemenis.  In  facial  dimensions  the  Kabyles  are  good  Mediterraneans, 
except  for  an  excess  in  forehead  and  jaw  widths,  in  which  they  equal 
the  Shawia.  In  having  an  upper  facial  height  mean  of  73.7  mm.,  as 
compared  to  the  total  face  height  of  122.4  mm.,  they  are  typically  Mediter- 
ranean as  opposed  to  Nordic.  Except  for  forehead  and  jaw  breadths 
their  anthropometric  position  on  the  whole  lies  with  not  only  the  Yemenis 
but  also  with  the  predynastic  Egyptians. 

Their  pigmentation  is  characteristically  brunet,  but  definite  blonds 
occur.  Black  and  dark  brown  hair  run  to  85  per  cent  of  the  whole,  while 
reds  number  4  per  cent.  The  eye  color  is  light  or  mixed  in  but  16  per 
cent  of  the  group;  the  rest  are  evenly  divided  between  dark  brown  and 
light  brown.  The  skin  color,  observed  on  exposed  parts  only,  is  definitely 
dark  in  almost  all  instances;  while  the  unexposed  skin  is  undoubtedly 
lighter,  the  low  incidence  of  freckling  (9  per  cent)  would  argue  against 
much  extreme  lightness  of  skin  color.  There  is,  without  question,  a 
numerically  minor  blond  element  submerged  in  the  brunet  Kabyle 
mass,  as  exemplified  by  this  series,  but  it  is  relatively  insignificant. 

The  hair  growth  is  usually  dense  on  the  head,  with  little  baldness, 
and  relatively  sparse  on  the  beard.  The  hair  is,  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances, straight  or  wavy,  with  a  23  per  cent  incidence  of  ringlet  curls, 
and  12  per  cent  of  individuals  showing  what  may  be  presumed  to  be  a 
negroid  hair  form.  The  texture  of  the  hair  is  usually  medium.  In  these 
pilous  characters,  the  group  as  a  whole  agrees  with  a  normal  Mediter- 
ranean classification,  with  evidence  of  a  negroid  tendency  in  a  minority 
of  cases. 

87  Randall-Maclver  and  Wilkin,  d'Hercourt,  Vir6,  and  Kidder.  Since  Kidder's  series 
is  the  most  extensive,  it  is  the  one  chiefly  used  here. 

98  Principally  from  Bellora,  Beni  Sirenzer,  Ma'akta,  and  Sheikh  Ou  Meddour. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  479 

The  Kabyles  lack,  for  the  most  part,  either  internal  or  external  eye- 
folds,  but  one-fifth  of  the  sample  shows  median  folds,  .which  indicate  a 
low  orbit,  and  may  be  a  reminder  of  the  old  Afalou  race.  The  eyebrows 
are  typically  and  almost  exclusively  medium  in  thickness,  lacking  in 
concurrency,  and  relatively  great  in  lateral  extension.  Thus  the  bushi- 
ness  and  concurrency  of  the  eyebrows  common  among  Asiatic  Mediter- 
ranean varieties  hardly  exist  here. 

In  the  conformation  of  the  Kabyle  face,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
metrical  variability  of  the  vault,  there  is  a  considerable  homogeneity, 
and  a  characteristic  type  to  which  the  majority  of  Kabyles  conform. 
The  glabella  is  moderately  developed  and  heavy  browridges  are  rare; 
the  forehead  is  usually  straight  or  only  slightly  sloping.  In  the  nasal 
observations,  almost  all  of  the  characters  tabulated  exhibit  an  inter- 
mediate position  in  regard  to  the  total  white  racial  group.  The  root 
of  the  nose,  set  at  a  moderate  depth  below  glabella,  is  of  slightly  more 
than  moderate  height  and  breadth;  the  bridge  tends  to  slightly  more 
than  medium  height  and  breadth.  The  profile  is  usually  straight,  with 
a  strong  minority  of  concave  and  concavo-convex  forms.  The  tip  is 
moderate  in  thickness;  the  wings  are  of  medium  lateral  extension,  and 
rarely  flaring.  The  septum  is  usually  straight,  and  inclined  upward 
in  nearly  two-thirds  of  instances.  On  the  whole,  the  Kabyle  nose  shows 
little  or  nothing  of  a  high-rooted,  beaky  Near  Eastern  quality,  and  less 
that  can  be  called  negroid.  It  is,  on  the  whole,  an  average  Mediterranean 
nose. 

The  lips  are,  for  the  most  part,  on  the  thin  side  of  medium;  prognathism 
of  any  kind  is  almost  completely  absent,  the  chin  prominence  is  average 
for  whites,  and  malars  and  gonial  angles,  which  give  prominence  and 
detail  to  the  face,  are  on  the  strong  side  of  medium.  The  square-faced 
condition  so  often  noted  among  Berbers  is  present  in  a  minority  of  this 
group.  Lambdoid  flattening,  which  with  a  great  jaw  breadth  is  a 
diagnostic  of  the  old  Afalou  race  of  Algeria,  is  present  in  50  per  cent 
of  the  group;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  is  not  entirely  lacking 
among  pure  Mediterraneans. 

On  both  anthropometric  and  somatoscopic  grounds,  one  is  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Kabyles  represent  a  conglomerate  survival  of  several 
of  the  more  ancient  North  African  racial  elements;  the  major  one  is  a 
central  Mediterranean,  with  a  slight  negroid  tendency  or  accretion;  and 
this  Mediterranean  dates  back  to  the  days  of  Early  Neolithic  agriculture 
in  North  Africa.  With  it  also  survive  traces  of  the  Afalou  men,  whom  we 
shall  see  in  greater  strength  farther  west,  and  some  of  whom  show  a 
tendency  to  brachycephaly;  and  of  Nordics,  whenever  and  however  they 
may  have  appeared  in  North  Africa. 


480  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

(14)   WESTERN   BARBARY;   MOROCCO   AND   THE 
CANARY   ISLANDS 

Morocco  contains  the  largest  number  of  Berbers  of  any  North  African 
country,  both  absolutely  and  relatively;  60  per  cent  of  her  population 
is  Berber-speaking,  as  compared  to  33  per  cent  in  Algeria.  The  Moroccan 
Berbers  are  mostly  mountain  people,  while  the  plains  are  occupied  by 
Arabs.  The  road  from  Oujda,  on  the  Algerian  border,  to  Taza  and  Fez, 
separates  the  Berbers  into  two  groups,  who  diverge  to  the  west  with 
their  mountain  chains.  The  North  Moroccan  Berbers  include  the  RifT- 
ians,  the  Senhaja  Sghir  (a  group  of  tribes  of  Senhajan  origin  living  in 
the  highest  mountain  nucleus  of  the  Riffian  chain),  the  Ghomara,  and 
the  linguistically  Arabicized  Jebala  and  Anjera.  The  southern  group 
includes,  on  the  northeast,  the  Braber,  a  group  of  Senhaja  tribes  of 
sheep-herders  and  horsemen,  partly  agricultural,  living  half  the  year  in 
great  castles,  and  the  other  half  in  tents;  and  on  the  southwest,  the  Shluh, 
Masmuda  tribesmen,  who  are  fully  sedentary,  and  live  on  both  slopes  of 
the  great  Atlas,  and  in  the  Wed  Sous. 

The  Riffians,  the  best  known  of  the  Moroccan  Berbers,  are  sedentary 
agriculturalists,  with  the  exceptions  of  two  tribes,  the  Metalsa  and  Beni 
Bu  Yahi,  who  live  in  the  Caret  Desert  through  which  the  Muluya  River 
flows.  They  are  the  blondest  and  most  Nordic  of  the  Berbers,  and  have 
received  much  acclaim  for  their  warlike  ability.  They  are  not,  however, 
of  homogeneous  ethnic  origin."  In  some  tribes  the  leading  families 
claim  descent  from  Senhaja,  others  from  Zenata,  while  families  of  sherifs 
are,  of  course,  of  saintly  Arab  origin.  Families  in  the  central  Rif,  such 
as  the  Beni  Khattab,  the  clan  of  Sidi  Mohammed  ben  Abd  el  Krim,  are 
descended  from  the  eighth  century  Arab  missionaries  who  founded  the 
Kingdom  of  Nekor  in  the  coastal  section  of  what  is  now  the  tribe  of  Beni 
Urriaghel.  The  tribes  of  purest  Riffian  descent,  who  admit  indigenous 
heathen  lineage  in  many  families,  are  the  Beni  Urriaghel,  Beni  Amart, 
and  Gzennaya.  These  form  a  cultural  nucleus  in  the  country  back  of  the 
Bay  of  Alhucemas. 

Although  the  tribes  are  not  uniform  metrically  in  a  strict  sense,  they 
are  all  moderately  tall,  all  dolichocephalic,  all  high-headed,  and  all 
leptorrhine.  The  mean  stature  of  the  Riffian  nation  is  168.6  cm.;  the 
tribes  vary  from  166  cm.  to  172  cm.  Bodily  proportions  are  on  the  whole 

89  Both  the  cultural  and  anthropometric  material  in  this  section  which  deals  with 
Morocco  are  derived  from  Goon,  G.  S.,  Tribes  of  the  Rif. 

Other  sources  are : 

Benoit,  F.,  and  Kossovitch,  F.,  CRSB,  vol.  109,  1932,  p.  198.  This  contains  data  on 
four  constants  for  4238  Moroccan  Berbers,  treated  as  a  single  group;  also  Kossovitch, 
N.s  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  134-136. 

Kossovitch,  N.,  and  Benoit,  F.,  Anth,  vol.  45,  1935,  pp.  347-363. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  481 

lean  and  spare,  with  a  relative  sitting  height  of  50.9,  and  a  relative  span 
of  104.  The  shoulders  are  moderately  broad,  the  hips  narrow.  There  is 
a  type  of  Riffian  with  a  lateral  body  build,  a  long  trunk,  and  wide  shoulders 
and  hips,  but  this  type  is  in  no  tribe  numerous  enough  to  influence  the 
mean  of  the  whole. 

Absolute  head  size  among  Riffians  reaches  European  proportions; 
the  three  major  head  dimensions  are  195  mm.  by  146  mm.  by  129  mm. 
The  mean  cephalic  index  of  the  whole  group  is  75,  with  tribal  variations 
running  from  73.5  to  75.8.  Very  few  Riffians  are  actually  brachycephalic. 
Heads  which  are  large  in  one  dimension  are  usually  large  in  the  others; 
variation  individually  and  tribally  is  more  in  size  than  in  shape.  In  one 
tribe,  Beni  Said,  the  bulk  of  the  series  is  composed  of  the  imgharen,  or  mem- 
bers of  the  tribal  council  which  was  in  session  on  the  day  of  measuring;  the 
heads  of  this  august  group  have  the  remarkable  dimensions,  for  North 
Africa,  of  197  mm.  by  148  mm.  by  131  mm.  To  equal  these  diameters 
one  would  need  normally  to  go  to  western  Norway,  to  Ireland,  or  to 
the  United  States  Senate.  Some  tribes  have  much  smaller  vaults,  how- 
ever; for  example,  Targuist,  with  192  mm.  by  144  rnm.  by  127  mm.,  has 
more  typically  Mediterranean  or  Nordic  dimensions. 

The  faces  of  the  Riffians  are,  as  a  rule,  of  moderate  size;  the  total 
face  height  mean  of  the  whole  group  is  124  mm.,  the  bizygomatic  136  mm.; 
the  minimum  frontal  and  bigonial  are  both  106  mm.  Tribally,  the 
heights  vary  from  121  mm.  to  131  mm.;  the  bizygo^natics  from  133  mm. 
to  140  mm.;  the  minimum  frontal  from  104  mm.  to  109  mm.;  and  the 
bigonial  from  104  mm.  to  108  mm.  The  longest  faces  go  with  the  tribes- 
men of  the  eastern  Rif,  who  claim  Zenatan  ancestry;  the  shortest  ones 
with  the  central  tribes  of  purest  Riffian  tradition.  The  facial  indices 
of  these  latter  are  mesoprosopic,  the  others  leptoprosopic.  The  noses  are 
largest  and  most  leptorrhine  (61-62)  in  the  east,  and  smallest  and  least 
leptorrhine  (64-65)  in  the  west. 

The  Riffians  are  pinkish-white  skinned,  like  northern  Europeans,  in 
65  per  cent  of  the  total  group,  and  in  approximately  80  per  cent  in  the 
central  tribes.  The  exposed  skin  color  is  brick-red  in  many  cases,  being 
incapable  of  tanning;  in  others  it  is  brunet-white  or  light  brown  in 
summer,  and  bleaches  out  again  in  winter.  Freckles  are  found  on  23  per 
cent  of  Riffians;  this  figure  is  approximate  since  some  were  measured  in 
winter,  others  in  the  summer.  The  head  hair  is  black  in  44  per  cent  of 
the  total,  and  dark  to  medium  brown  in  46  per  cent;  the  others  are 
reddish-brown  or  light  brown;  in  a  few  cases,  golden-blond.  These  last 
form  less  than  1  per  cent  of  the  whole,  however.  The  beard  is  usually  much 
lighter,  being  black  in  only  34  per  cent  of  the  total,  dark  or  medium 
brown  in  25  per  cent,  reddish-brown  in  14  per  cent,  light  brown  in  19 


482  THE   RACES  OF  EUROPE 

per  cent,  and  golden,  ashen,  or  red  in  8  per  cent.  Seventeen  per  cent  of 
Riffians  show  some  rufosity  in  beard  color.  Since  the  Riffians  wear  tur- 
bans, and  since  the  few  adults  who  still  wear  pigtails  cover  all  but  the  ends 
of  these,  it  is  the  beard  color  and  not  the  head  hair  color  which  is  respon- 
sible for  the  current  idea  of  Riffian  blondism.  Furthermore  the  children, 
who  go  bareheaded,  possess  an  infantile  dominance  of  blondism,  as 
among  Europeans  of  mixed  pigmentation.  The  blondest  hair  and  beards 
are  found  in  the  central  Rif,  especially  in  the  tribe  of  Beni  Amart,  where 
over  50  per  cent  of  the  men  have  beards  light  brown  or  lighter. 

Fifty-seven  per  cent  of  Riffians  have  mixed  or  light  eyes;  of  the  re- 
maining 43  per  cent,  dark  brown  is  the  commonest  color.  Green-brown 
is  the  commonest  mixed  form,  then  gray-brown  and  finally  blue-brown; 
pure  blue  eyes  account  for  only  2  per  cent  of  the  group,  while  only  one 
man  was  observed  with  gray  eyes.  Unmatched  eyes  are  common.  In 
some  tribes  as  few  as  20  per  cent  are  pure  dark-eyed,  in  none  more  than 
55  per  cent.  On  the  whole,  blondism  is  strong  in  the  Rif;  over  half  of  the 
adult  men  show  some  trace  of  it.  But  the  Rif  is  not  a  blond  country  in 
the  sense  that  Norway,  Sweden,  Finland,  or  even  England  are  blond; 
it  is,  however,  blonder  than  most  of  Spain  or  southern  Italy. 

The  morphological  features  of  the  head  and  face  vary  tribally  in  the 
Rif,  as  well  as  individually;  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  typical  Riffian. 
The  hair  form,  however,  is  in  all  tribes  wavy  to  ringlet-curly;  it  is  never 
frizzly  except  among  blacksmiths  and  other  outsiders  who  are  negroid, 
and  who  enter  the  Rif  as  tradesmen,  to  go  out  again  when  they  have  made 
enough  money.  The  Riffians  have  as  heavy  beards  as  northwestern  Euro- 
peans, and  as  heavy  body  hair  in  most  cases;  baldness,  however,  is  rare. 

Facially  there  are  several  well-differentiated  types  which  can  best  be 
described  separately.  One  is  a  long-faced,  hook-nosed  brunet  or  mixed 
pigment  type  commonest  in  the  east,  especially  among  the  Nomads; 
this  physiognomy  is  considered  by  the  Riffians  to  be  *an  importation 
of  Zenatan  or  Arab  inspiration.  Another  is  a  classic  Mediterranean,  with 
slightly  sloping  forehead,  straight  nasal  profile,  slightly  elevated  tip, 
moderate  nasal  wings  and  oval  facial  contour;  this  type  is  usually  brunet; 
it  is  found  everywhere,  but  especially  in  the  central  and  western  tribes. 
A  third  is  a  Nordic  in  the  strictest  morphological  sense,  usually  with 
brown  hair  and  mixed  eyes,  and  a  Riffian  Nordic  could  be  mistaken  for 
an  Irishman  or  an  Englishman,  less  easily  for  a  Scandinavian. 

A  fourth  is  a  large-bodied,  large-headed  type,  tending  to  mesocephaly, 
with  a  prominent  lambdoid  flattening  especially  visible  when  the  scalp  is 
shaven;  the  face  is  broad,  the  orbits  low,  as  one  can  easily  discern  from 
the  narrow  palpebral  opening  and  the  presence  of  median  or  external 
eyefolds;  the  nose  is  short,  straight,  or  sometimes  snubbed,  the  mouth 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  483 

large,  the  chin  prominent,  and  the  jaw  heavy.  The  pigmentation  is 
usually  mixed,  with  brown  or  reddish  hair,  and  light-mixed  eyes.  This 
type,  without  further  discussion,  is  obviously  a  somewhat  reduced  modern 
survival  of  the  old  Cr6-Magnon-like  Afalou  men.  It  is  found  principally 
among  the  oldest  Riffian  families,  and  among  tribal  office-holders.  It 
is  not  rare  in  the  Rif,  and  its  reemergence  parallels  in  a  minor  sense  the 
reemergence  of  the  same  or  a  similar  type  in  northwestern  Europe. 

A  smaller  variant  of  this  is  considered  by  the  Riffians  themselves  typical 
of  the  mountain  Beni  Urriaghel;  short-statured,  broad  of  build,  with 
short,  broad  hands,  freckled  skin,  reddish  beard,  bluish  eyes,  a  short,  wide 
face  with  a  square  jaw,  and  a  snub  nose.  It  is  the  prevalence  of  this  last 
type,  concentrated  in  the  mountain  knot  between  the  Beni  Urriaghel  and 
Gzennaya,  which  has  reduced  the  stature  and  facial  dimensions  of  these 
two  tribes  as  units.  These  men  are  the  most  archaic  culturally  and  the 
most  inveterate  feud  fighters  in  the  whole  Rif. 

As  one  moves  westward  along  the  northern  Berber  zone  of  Morocco, 
one  encounters  the  Ghomara,  on  the  Mediterranean  slope  of  the  curving 
ridge  of  mountains.  These  Ghomara,  who  trace  their  ancestry  to  an 
ancient  invasion  from  the  south,  once  formed  an  unbroken  ethnic  unit 
with  their  traditional  relatives  the  Grand  Atlas  Shluh.  They  are  as 
blond  as  the  Riffians,  but  shorter  (165  cm.),  and  are  mesocephalic, 
with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  77.3  and  a  minority  of  brachycephals. 
Although  the  same  types  are  found  here  as  in  the  Rif,  it  is  the  shorter 
faced  reduced  Afalou  variety,  which  leans  in  an  Alpine  direction,  which 
is  important. 

South  of  the  Ghomara  and  again  west  of  the  Rif,  lie  the  high  mountain 
tribes  of  the  Senhaja  Sghir,  including  Taghzuth,  famous  for  its  craftsmen 
in  metal  and  leather;  these  people  speak  a  Senhajan  dialect  normally 
incomprehensible  to  Riffians,  who  can,  on  the  other  hand,  understand 
Ghornaran.  Both  the  Senhaja  Sghir  and  Ghomara,  however,  are  in 
recent  years  tending  to  lose  their  Berber  speech  in  favor  of  Arabic,  since 
all  or  nearly  all  are  bilingual.  The  Senhaja  Sghir  are  darker,  as  a  rule, 
than  Riffians.  A  number  are  definitely  negroid,  whereas  in  the  Rif 
negroid  blood  is  confined  to  outsiders.  Metrically  the  Senhaja  Sghir 
are  similar  to  the  Riffians,  but  slightly  smaller  headed  as  a  rule,  and 
narrower  jawed.  There  is  among  them  a  non- Riffian,  Mediterranean 
element,  which  shows  itself  in  a  convex  nasal  profile  and  a  sloping  fore- 
head, and  which  is  reminiscent  of  eastern  Barbary  and  of  points  farther 
east. 

West  of  the  Senhaja  Sghir  and  Ghomara,  and  covering  the  entire 
mountain  zone  of  the  western  third  of  Spanish  Morocco,  is  the  Jebala 
country,  the  home  of  numerous  religious  brotherhoods,  and  inhabited 


484  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

by  tribes  very  different  culturally  from  the  Riffians.  The  Jeballis,  who 
have  never  been  properly  measured,  are  as  a  rule  short,  often  stocky 
men,  with  small  to  medium-sized  mesocephalic  heads,  aquiline  noses, 
and  small,  pointed  chins.  They  are  usually  brunet  in  hair  color,  but 
often  mixed-eyed,  and  fair-skinned.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  Jebala 
country,  in  the  Anjera  region  which  approaches  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
the  Nordic  type  of  the  Rif  appears  again  with  some  frequency. 

The  Braber  of  the  Middle  Atlas,  one  of  the  three  most  numerous 
groups  of  Moroccan  Berbers,  have  never  been  measured  as  a  separate 
entity.  10°  Of  them  one  can  merely  give  an  eye-witness  description,  with 
all  the  faults  of  that  method;  the  author's  impression  is  that  they  are 
among  the  tallest  people  in  Morocco,  that  they  are  usually  long-faced 
and  hook-nosed,  with  heavy  beards,  and  that  they  are  almost  always 
brunet.101  This  impression  is,  needless  to  say,  subject  to  future  revision. 

The  fourth  of  the  great  Moroccan  Berber  groups,  the  Shluh,  differs 
from  the  northern  Moroccans  in  that  they  are  rarely  blond.  Mixed  and 
light  eyes  are  reduced  to  the  traditional  Mediterranean  25  per  cent;  hair 
lighter  than  dark  brown  to  5  per  cent,  and  beards  of  the  same  category 
to  25  per  cent.  Metrically  they  are  fully  Mediterranean,  with  a  stature 
mean  of  165  cm.,  smaller  vault  and  face  dimensions  than  the  Riffians, 
and  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  74.5.  The  total  face  height  is  120  mm.,  the 
bigonial  100  mm.  Individually  they  are  mostly  Mediterranean,  of  the 
straight-nosed,  basic  North  African  variety,  and  the  chief  deviation  from 
this  norm  is  in  a  negroid  direction. 

The  Arabic-speaking  population  of  the  Moroccan  plains  is  reasonably 
homogeneous,  except  for  a  certain  negroid  accretion,  and  looks  like  the 
Arab  population  elsewhere  in  North  Africa.  Although  these  "Arabs" 
must  be  partly  Berber  in  blood,  they,  nevertheless,  to  a  large  extent, 
preserve  their  Arabian  facial  types.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  their 
ancestors  who  immigrated  to  Morocco  at  the  time  of  the  Hillali  invasions 
came  in  large  numbers.  The  ordinary  city  Arabs  are  little  different 
from  their  pastoral  and  agricultural  brethren,  but  this  rule  does  not 
apply  to  the  aristocratic  families.  These  merchant-princes  are  sometimes 
blond,  and  of  Nordic  appearance;  others  of  them  look  like  Mekkan  aristo- 
crats in  Arabia. 

Before  propounding  any  conclusions  as  to  the  racial  history  of  western 
Barbary,  it  seems  advisable  to  consider  the  racial  history  of  that  supremely 

100  The  large  series  of  Benoit  and  Kossovitch  undoubtedly  contains  some  Braber. 

101  At  the  village  of  Bahlil,  5  km.  northeast  of  Sefrou,  Kossovitch  and  Benoit  measured 
an  excellent  series  of  Arabicized  Berbers,  who  may  be  partly  representative  of  the  Mid- 
dle Atlas  population.  These  Bahloula  are  almost  purely  brunet,  are  of  moderate  stature 
(166.7  cm.),  purely  dolichocephalic  (C.I.  =  73.7)  long-faced  and  leptorrhine.    Kosso- 
vitch, N.,  and  Benoit,  F.,  Anth,  vol.  45,  1935,  pp.  347-363. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  485 

marginal  cultural  province,  the  Canary  Islands.  These  islands,  consist- 
ing of  Lanzarote  and  Fuertaventura  near  the  coast  of  Rio  de  Oro,  Gran 
Ganaria,  Teneriffe,  Gomera,  and  finally  Palma  and  Hierro  on  the  west- 
ern fringe,  were  occupied  by  a  Neolithic  population  of  white  racial 
type  when  the  Spaniards  conquered  them,  with  great  difficulty,  during 
the  fifteenth  century.  The  adjacent  African  mainland,  an  utter  desert, 
had  by  then  long  been  the  home  of  primitive  Bedawin  Arabs  and  of 
negroes. 102 

It  is  unlikely  that  the  Guanches,  as  the  native  Canarians  were  called, 
had  arrived  there  by  the  end  of  the  Pleistocene,  since  no  archaeological 
remains  of  a  pre-Neolithic  culture  have  been  found,  and  the  islands 
themselves  are  of  recent  volcanic  origin.  The  Canarians  lived  by  breeding 
pigs,  sheep,  and  goats,  and  by  the  cultivation  of  barley  and  perhaps  of 
wheat,  although  their  use  of  the  latter  cereal  is  questionable.  They  ground 
their  grain  on  rotary  querns,  and  used  chipped  stone  cutting  implements. 
Polished  stone  celts  of  materials  not  found  on  the  islands  have  been  dis- 
covered by  archaeologists,  and  iron  spear  points  as  well;  apparently 
the  Neolithic  axe  was  given  up  by  the  early  colonists  through  lack  of 
material,  and  the  metal  of  later  visitors  was  also  irreplaceable.  Pottery  is 
of  a  Neolithic  type,  but  textiles  were  lacking.  Arabic  words  in  the  speech 
of  most  of  the  islands,  as  well  as  alphabetic  inscriptions  on  rocks,  and  the 
rotary  querns,  indicate  that  the  islands  were  visited  sporadically  by 
people  from  the  mainland  from  Neolithic  times  to  the  seventh  century 
of  the  present  era,  if  not  later.  The  basic  culture  is  a  Neolithic  Schwein- 
hirtenkultur  in  Menghin's  sense,  with  various  losses  and  accretions. 

At  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest,  the  islands  contained  a  varied 
population  of  different  physical  types,  stratified  in  social  classes.  There 
was  definitely  a  tall,  blond  element,  which  lived  by  its  flocks  for  the  most 
part,  and  which  seems  to  have  been  socially  superior,;  a  darker,  more 
Mediterranean  element  which  was  more  agricultural.  Gran  Canaria 
and  Teneriffe  were  the  centers  of  blondism,  while  of  the  two  outlying 
islands,  Hierro  was  prevailingly  brunet,  and  Palma  partly  blond.  The 
coastal  islands  of  Lanzarote  and  Fuertaventura  contained  almost  ex- 
clusively a  tall,  brunet  population.  The  Guanches  were  described  by  the 
Spaniards  as  being  frequently  of  giant  size,  and  it  is  apparent  from  the 
difficulties  of  the  Spaniards  that  they  were  redoubtable  fighters. 

The  osteology  of  the  Guanches  has  been  exhaustively  studied,103  and 

102  Rio  de  Oro  is  actually  one  of  the  least  known  segments  of  the  earth's  surface. 

103  Hooton,  E.  A.,  The  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
Verneau,  R.,  Cinq  Annees  de  Sejour  aux  Ues  Canaries. 
Tamagnini,  E.,  Os  Antiques  Habitantes  das  Canarias. 

A  complete  bibliography  of  this  subject  up  to  1 925  will  be  found  in  Hooton's  book. 
The  cultural  and  historical  summary  given  here  is  derived  from  this  source. 


486  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

does  not  wholly  support  the  Spanish  descriptions.  For  example,  the  mean 
statures  reckoned  from  the  long  bones  in  TenerifTe  and  in  Gran  Canaria 
are  only  166  cm.  The  crania  as  a  whole  are  of  moderate  size;  rneso- 
cephaly  seems  to  have  been  the  prevailing  head  form,  with  a  cranial 
index  of  75-76  in  TeneriflPe,  Gran  Canada,  and  Hierro,  and  of  77.7  in 
Gomera.  Since  this  is  equivalent  to  cephalic  indices  of  77  to  80,  it  is 
apparent  that  the  Guanches  were  less  dolichocephalic  than  most  living 
North  Africans.  The  upper  faces  of  most  were  not  particularly  long, 
and  euryene  crania  are  as  numerous  as  mesene;  in  Gomera,  the 
euryene  are  more  numerous.  The  characteristic  nose  form  in  the  outward 
islands  (Lanzarote  and  Fuertaventura  not  studied)  is  mesorrhine,  with 
the  narrowest  in  TenerifTe  (of  Teneriffe,  Gran  Canaria,  Gomera,  and 
Hierro)  and  the  least  so  in  Hierro.  The  orbital  index  mean  is  in  all 
islands  low,  exceptionally  so  in  Gomera.  The  majority  of  crania  from  all 
islands  is  chamaeconch. 

The  Guanche  skulls  as  a  whole  are  unlike  those  of  modern  European 
Mediterraneans,  and  resemble  northern  European  series  most  closely, 
especially  those  in  which  a  brachycephalic  element  is  present,  as  in 
Burgundian  and  Alemanni  series.  Hooton  has  divided  them  into  clearly 
differentiated  types,  which  include  a  Mediterranean,  a  Nordic,  a 
"Guanche,"  and  an  Alpine.  The  "Guanche"  accounts  for  50  per  cent 
of  the  whole  on  the  four  islands  of  Teneriffe,  Gomera,  Gran  Canaria, 
and  Hierro;  the  Nordic  for  31  per  cent,  the  Mediterranean  for  13  per 
cent,  and  the  Alpine  for  most  of  the  remainder.  The  "Guanche"  is 
particularly  prevalent  on  Teneriffe,  the  Alpine  on  Gomera,  and  the 
Mediterranean  on  Hierro. 

Hoo ton's  " Guanche"  type  skulls,  although  not  as  large  as  the  Afalou  bou 
Rummel  crania,  resemble  them  morphologically,  with  heavy  brow- 
ridges,  strong  muscular  markings,  low  orbits,  and  lambdoidal  flatten- 
ing.104 His  Nordic  crania  are  distinguished  from  the  Mediterranean 
sub-group  largely  on  a  basis  of  size  and  robusticity.  The  Alpine  crania 
bear  what  Hooton  considers  to  be  a  slightly  Mongoloid  cast,  as  is  also 
found  in  early  European  brachycephalic  skulls  of  the  Mesolithic  and 
earlier. 

After  the  Spaniards  had  conquered  the  Guanches  and  converted  the 
survivors,  they  proceeded  to  intermarry  with  these  new  Christians,  who 
perpetuated  their  kind  in  large  numbers.  On  historical  grounds  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  the  living  Canary  Islanders  are  at  least  as 

104  Hooton  wrote  before  the  discovery  of  the  Afalou  crania.  His  theory  of  the  multi- 
ple origin  of  this  "Guanche"  or  Afalou  group  must  be  projected  into  an  earlier  period 
than  he  had  supposed,  in  fact,  a  period  contemporaneous  with  that  of  the  Cr6-Magnons 
from  whom  Verneau  thought  that  the  Guanches  were  descended. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  487 

much  Guanche  in  origin  as  Spanish.106    Fischer,  who  has  studied  the 
modern  Canarians,106  finds  among  them  the  following  types: 

(1)  A  true,  small  Mediterranean,  which  may  be  partly  of  Spanish 
introduction. 

(2)  A  "Berber"  type,  with  a  heavier,  broader  face,  but  essentially 
Mediterranean. 

(3)  An  " Oriental"  type,  with  a  narrow  face,  thin,  convex  nose,  dark 
hair,  and  attenuated  extremities. 

(4)  An  Alpine  of  Bavarian  appearance — this  is  said  to  be  uncommon. 

(5)  The  " Cro-Magnon"  type;  with  a  low,  rectangular  face,  especially 
characterized  by  bigonial  prominence;  deep-set  eyes  under  heavy 
browridges,  with  low  orbits;  a  straight  nasal  profile,  but  relative 
broad  nose;  thin  lips,  and  heavy  jaw.  This  type  has  a  thick-set  body 
build,  with  trunk  proportions  similar  to  those  of  living  Bavarians. 

The  living  Canarians  have  nearly  the  same  stature  mean  as  their 
Guanche  predecessors,  165.3  cm.;  they  also  possess  a  comparable  head 
form,  with  a  cephalic  index  mean  of  79.  In  a  large  series  of  males  from 
all  islands,  there  are  three  definite  index  modes,  at  74,  79,  and  83.  The 
mean  bizygomatic  diameter  of  living  Canarian  males  is  138  mm.,  the 
mean  bigonial  111  mm.  Nasal  profiles  are  straight  in  73  per  cent  of  cases, 
and  convex  in  only  11  per  cent. 

The  hair  varies  from  straight  through  wavy  to  ringlets,  as  in  most 
Berbers.  The  hair  color  is  black  (Fischer  #27),  in  24  per  cent  of  the  series, 
dark  brown  (#4)  in  47  per  cent,  and  golden-brown  to  reddish  in  the  rest. 
The  lightest  Fischer  number  recorded  is  #9.  All  of  the  near  blonds  are  on 
the  reddish  or  golden  side;  not  a  single  ash-blond  has  been  observed. 
In  eye  color,  84  per  cent  have  shades  between  the  Martin  #1  and  #6, 
including  browns  and  very  dark-mixed;  the  rest  are  evenly  mixed  or 
light-mixed.  On  the  whole,  the  modern  Canarians  seem  less  blond  than 
the  Riffians.  Despite  this  statistical  evidence  of  the  predominantly  brunet 
quality  of  the  modern  Canarians,  the  blond  beauty  of  the  female  inhab- 
itants of  Teneriffe  is  famous  in  seafaring  quarters,  just  as  the  blondism 
of  the  early  Guanches  struck  the  Spaniards. 

Fischer  finds  no  Nordic  type  in  the  present-day  Canarian  population, 
but  attributes  the  mixed  blondism  present  in  it  to  his  "Cr6-Magnon" 
element,  which  is  the  modern  version  of  Hooton's  "Guanche"  type. 
Hooton  readily  states  that  he  has  no  means  of  attributing  any  given 
pigment  character  to  any  one  of  his  selected  cranial  types.  It  is,  therefore, 
questionable  whether  there  was  a  Nordic  type  in  the  Canary  Islands  in 
the  pigmental  as  well  as  in  the  skeletal  sense. 

we  Wolfel,  J.,  ZFE,  vol.  62,  1930,  pp.  282-302. 
106  Fischer,  E.,  ZFE,  vol.  62,  1930,  pp.  258-281. 


488  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

The  Canarian  evidence,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  of  great  value  in  the 
reconstruction  of  the  racial  history  of  North  Africa.  It  is  evident  that  in 
the  time  of  the  Neolithic  agriculturalists  the  Mediterranean  food-producers 
must  have  associated,  in  some  parts  of  North  Africa  at  least,  with  the 
descendants  of  earlier  Afalou-type  people,  who  survived  in  the  Canary 
Islands  as  an  important  factor  in  the  imported  population.  The  early 
Alpine-like  strain  found  in  the  Canaries,  especially  in  Gomera,  may 
probably  be  attributed  to  a  reemergence  of  the  brachycephalic  element 
in  the  Afalou  people,  in  a  somewhat  reduced  form.  This  identification 
is  confirmed  by  its  extreme  lowness  of  orbit  and  shortness  of  face.  This 
type  is  comparable  to  the  minor  brachycephalic  element  found  in  other 
parts  of  North  Africa,  as  in  Ghomara  and  among  the  Kabyles,  and  it 
may  conceivably  be  connected  with  the  brachycephaly  of  Jerba.  The 
Guanches  were  less  dolichocephalic  than  most  living  Berbers,  and  had 
received  a  minimum  infusion  of  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean  racial  element 
which  carried  Hamitic  speech. 

The  most  troublesome  factor  in  the  whole  North  African  racial  problem 
lies  in  the  necessity  of  explaining  the  origin  of  the  local  Nordics,  whose 
presence  as  a  minority  in  the  populations  of  Tunisia,  Algeria,  and  northern 
Morocco,  if  not  in  the  Canary  Islands,  cannot  be  denied.  There  are 
two  possible  explanations,  as  follows: 

(1)  The  North  African  Nordics  resemble  the  mixed  Nordics  of  Upper 
Palaeolithic  inspiration  found  in  Ireland  and  western  Norway  more  than 
they  do  the  ash-blond  Eastern  Valley  Nordics  of  Norway,  and  those  of 
Sweden.    Therefore  the  so-called  Nordics  of  North  Africa  are  a  mixture 
of  brunet  Mediterraneans  of  tall  stature  and  considerable  facial  length 
with  Afalou  survivors.   The  minor  blondism  of  these  "Nordics"  is  derived 
from  the  Afalou  side  of  the  ancestry. 

(2)  The  North  African  Nordics  were  partly  formed  as  stated,  but  not 
wholly  so,  for  there  are  some  ash-blonds  in  the  Rif;  furthermore,  the 
Riffian  Nordics  are  lighter-haired  than  individuals  of  Afalou  type,  just 
as  European  Nordics  are  lighter-haired  than  are  modern  representatives 
of  the  Briinn  race.    Blond  hair  is  positively  associated  with  narrow  noses, 
and  the  Afalou  type  nose  is  moderately  broad.    Unless  it  is  possible  to 
explain  these  phenomena  as  genetic  recombinations,  we  must  admit  a 
Nordic  invasion  of  North  Africa  from  Europe  or  Asia  as  early  as  the 
second  millennium  B.C.    Of  the  two  continents,  Asia  is  by  far  the  more 
likely  immediate  source. 

The  racial  history  of  North  Africa  may  best  be  understood  by  analogy 
with  western  Europe,  since  parallel  invasions  entered  both  continental 
sub-areas,  and  parallel  processes  of  evolution  occurred  in  both.  This 
parallelism  started  in  the  Pleistocene,  with  the  sequence  of  Upper  Pa- 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  489 

laeolithic  racial  types.  This  was  followed  by  the  entrance  of  small  Mediter- 
raneans into  both  areas,  in  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic  times,  but  of  course 
earlier  in  North  Africa,  whence  they  entered  western  Europe.  Tall 
brunet  Mediterraneans  arrived  in  both  areas,  by  land  in  North  Africa, 
by  sea  in  western  Europe.  Nordics  entered  both  from  the  east.  Meanwhile 
the  Palaeolithic  types  asserted  themselves,  in  both  unreduced  and  smaller, 
more  brachycephalic  forms.  Thus  we  have  in  both  regions  Afalou  or 
Borreby  men,  and  Alpines.  In  Europe,  we  may  add  the  Mongol  and  Lapp, 
in  North  Africa,  the  Arab  and  the  Negro. 

The  difference  between  North  Africa  and  western  Europe  racially  is 
largely  a  difference  in  the  relative  numerical  survival  of  the  component 
elements,  rather  than  in  the  nature  of  the  elements  themselves. 

(15)   THE   IBERIAN  PENINSULA 

The  Mediterranean  world,  which  we  have  studied  in  Asia  and  Africa, 
possesses  little  undisputed  territory  on  European  soil.  Aside  from  the 
western  islands,  including  the  Balearics,  Corsica,  and  Sardinia,  the  only 
truly  Mediterranean  country  in  Europe  is  that  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 
The  main  events  in  Iberian  racial  history,  as  far  as  we  know  them,  may 
be  summarized  as  follows.  In  Upper  Palaeolithic  times  Spain  and  Portugal 
were  backward  regions,  peripheral  to  both  France  and  North  Africa. 
Influences  from  the  north  came  in  the  earliest  Aurignacian  times,  and 
again  during  the  maximum  cold  of  the  last  glaciation,  when  reindeer 
migrated  southward  over  the  Pyrenees.  The  extent  to  which  influences 
came  from  across  Gibraltar  before  the  Mesolithic  invasions  is  not  known, 
but  such  influences  cannot  have  been  extensive.  In  the  absence  of  ade- 
quate skeletal  material,  it  is  useless  to  speculate  seriously  upon  the  racial 
characters  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  people  of  Spain  and  Portugal. 
If  there  were  tall,  large-headed  rncn  of  Cro-Magnon  or  Afalou  type, 
they  have  long  since  disappeared.  It  is  perhaps  more  likely  that  the  pre- 
Mesolithic  Iberians  may  have  included  people  resembling  the  T6viec 
group  in  Brittany. 

Spain  felt  the  repercussions  of  the  drying  of  the  Sahara  earlier  than 
did  any  other  region  in  western  Europe.  Mesolithic  invaders  of  a  small, 
rather  primitive  Mediterranean  type  brought  with  them  microlithic 
cultural  traits;  their  racial  characteristics  are  typified  by  the  skeletal 
remains  from  Muge.  During  the  third  millennium  B.C.,  food-producing 
peoples  entered  Spain  from  North  Africa  with  swine,  sheep,  and  goats, 
and  with  barley,  emmer,  and  other  plants.  The  physical  type  of  these 
invaders  is  well  known  to  us,  not  only  through  skeletal  remains,  but  also 
by  means  of  our  study  of  the  living  peoples  of  North  Africa.  Some  of 
these  invaders  remained  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  where  they  became  the 


490  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

basic  populations  of  these  countries;  others  passed  northward  over  the 
Pyrenees  into  eastern  France  and  Switzerland,  while  still  others  passed 
northward  as  far  as  Germany,  and  into  the  British  Isles. 

Toward  the  beginning  of  the  second  millennium  B.C.,  if  not  earlier,  these 
agricultural  colonists  were  reenforced  by  a  people  of  much  higher  culture, 
the  megalith-building  tall  Mediterraneans,  who  came  by  sea,  and  many 
of  whom  went  on  from  Spain  as  far  as  the  British  Isles  and  Scandinavia. 
Their  settlements  in  Spain  were  located  mostly  upon  the  eastern  seaboard, 
and  on  the  northern  Atlantic  coast,  particularly  in  the  region  of  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  They  are  followed  by  other  peoples  of  a  general  Mediterranean 
type,  but  coming  from  Asia  Minor,  as  their  exaggerated  nasal  form  in- 
dicates. These  new  invaders  brought  the  knowledge  of  metal  with  them 
from  the  east,  and  were  the  first  of  the  prospectors  to  visit  this  metal- 
rich  peninsula.  They  in  turn  were  followed  by  round-headed  compatriots 
with  the  same  nasal  peculiarities,  who  introduced  the  Dinaric  racial 
type  to  western  Europe.  These  Dinaric  brachycephals,  who  settled  in 
the  same  regions  as  their  maritime  predecessors,  probably  left  Spain  in 
large  numbers  after  a  brief  sojourn,  in  favor  of  countries  farther  north. 

From  Bronze  Age  time  until  the  Roman  conquest,  there  were  only 
two  known  movements  which  may  have  affected  Spain  racially.  One 
was  that  of  the  Phoenicians,  a  continuation  of  the  prehistoric  invasions 
from  the  eastern  Mediterranean;  the  other  was  that  of  the  Kelts  into  the 
north,  to  form  the  mixed  nation  of  Kelto-Iberians  known  to  the  Romans. 
Many  of  the  Kelts,  however,  also  used  Spain  merely  as  a  stopping  place 
on  their  wanderings.  In  post-Roman  times  Germanic  invaders,  the 
Goths  and  Vandals,  brought  a  second  Nojrdic  infusion  to  the  peninsula, 
but  the  Vandals  soon  moved  on  to  Algeria,  thence  to  Carthage,  and 
finally  to  Byzantium. 

The  invasions  of  the  Goths  and  Vandals  were  shortly  followed  by  a 
movement  in  the  opposite  direction,  that  of  the  Moors  from  across  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar.  These  Moors,  who  came  in  considerable  numbers, 
were  of  two  ethnic  origins,  Arab  and  Berber,  and  the  latter  group  was 
without  doubt  the  more  numerous.  During  the  eight  centuries  of  Moorish 
rule  in  Spain,  many  people  other  than  Arabs  and  Berbers  came  to  live 
in  the  Iberian  Peninsula;  thousands  of  Sephardic  Jews,  some  Slavs,  a 
few  Huns,  and  peoples  of  most  of  the  nationalities  which  were  in  contact 
with  the  Moslem  world.  Persians  were  brought  from  Iran  to  make 
Shiraz  wine,  which  is  our  present  sherry;  during  the  height  of  the  Omey- 
yad  caliphate  in  Spain,  Andalusia  became  a  center  of  world  civilization, 
and  like  all  such  centers,  drew  to  it  many  people  from  many  quarters. 

The  expulsion  of  the  Moors  and  of  the  Jews  in  1492  robbed  Spain  of 
the  forces  which  had  brought  it  civilization,  but  gave  the  Spaniards 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  491 

the  impetus  to  conquer  the  New  World.  The  shifting  of  population  from 
the  wholly  Christian  north  to  the  former  Moorish  territory,  combined 
with  the  drainage  of  men  into  the  New  World,  must  have  caused  some 
changes  in  the  racial  distribution  of  the  peninsula,  especially  in  com- 
bination with  the  departure  of  thousands  of  Moslems  and  of  Jews.  Many 
of  these,  however,  preferred  baptism  to  expulsion,  and  the  contribution 
of  North  Africans  and  of  Asiatics  to  the  Iberian  racial  body,  in  historic 
as  in  prehistoric  times,  must  have  been  considerable. 

Despite  the  complex  political  history  of  Spain,  the  living  population 
is  basically  and  almost  wholly  Mediterranean.  As  we  have  seen  in  Chapter 
VIII,  the  regional  stature  means  vary  from  161  cm.  to  168  cm.;  more  than 
one  Mediterranean  strain  is  obviously  involved.107  The  head  form  is  al- 
most everywhere  rnesocephalic;  108  not  even  in  Andalusia  does  a  Moorish 
or  Arab  degree  of  dolichocephaly  prevail.  Provincial  index  means  as  high 
as  80  occur  in  the  coastal  regions  of  the  northwest,  in  Lugo  and  Oviedo; 
Galicia  and  the  Asturias,  mining  country,  are  still  inhabited  by  people 
some  of  whom  preserve  the  head  form  of  the  prospectors  of  the  Bronze 
Age.109 

The  cephalic  index  rises  in  Spain  as  stature  increases,110  which  would 
indicate  that  the  Dinaric  element  is  to  a  certain  extent  concerned  with 
the  coastal  tallness,  as  is  the  early  Atlanto-Mediterranean.  In  northern 
Spain,  in  the  provinces  which  the  Moors  never  occupied,  blondism  is 
commoner  than  in  the  south,  where  much  of  the  population  is  as  dark  in 
skin  and  eye  color  as  most  non-Riffian  Berbers.111  Rufosity  is  rare  in 
Spain  except  in  the  Asturias  112  and  Galicia.  During  the  Riffian  war  it 
was  a  common  saying  among  the  Riffian  soldiers,  "The  ordinary  Spaniards 
are  as  nothing,  but  watch  out  for  the  small  red-headed  men,  the  Gallegos. 
They  are  shaitans,  and  do  not  know  fear." 

Any  careful  observer  acquainted  with  the  Spanish  will  recognize  a 
number  of  distinct  racial  types;  the  honey-skinned  Andalusian,  with  his 
medium  stature,  lithe  body,  flat  temples,  and  finely  modeled  nose  and 
chin;  the  hook-nosed  Cappadocian  type  so  well  exemplified  by  General 
Francisco  Franco;  the  large,  sometimes  fleshy  approach  to  a  brunet 
Dinaric;  the  rather  small  and  delicate  local  variety  of  Nordic,  with 
exaggerated  narrowness  of  face  and  nose,  pale  skin,  and  golden  rather 
than  ashen  blondness;  and  the  coarse  Mediterranean  type  found  among 

107  Oloriz  y  Aguilera,  F.,  La  Talla  Humana  en  Espana. 

™  Oloriz  y  Aguilera,  F.,  BRSG,  vol.  36,  1894,  pp.  389-422. 

Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  MSAE,  vol.  2,  1923,  pp.  1-68. 

109  Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  MSAE,  vol.  4,  1925,  pp.  83-100. 

»°  MacAuliffe,  L.,  and  Marie,  A.,  CRAS,  Paris,  vol.  171,  1920,  pp.  1077-1079. 

111  Hoyos  Sainz,  L.,  and  Aranzadi,  T.  de,  AFA,  vol.  22,  1893-94,  pp.  425-433. 

112  Uria  y  Riu,  J.,  MSAE,  vol.  3,  1924,  pp.  139-144. 


492  THE   RACES   OF  EUROPE 

the  peasantry  in  most  of  Spain,  short  of  stature,  relatively  thick-set, 
with  a  mesocephalic  head  form,  a  short,  broad-looking  face,  and  a  short, 
broad,  and  often  concave  nose.  This  last  type  may,  to  a  large  extent, 
date  back  to  the  Mesolithic,  with  older  accretions;  it  is  the  most  primitive, 
most  submerged  element  in  the  Spanish  population.  Alpines  may  be 
found,  here  and  there,  among  Spaniards,  but  they  are  rare;  it  is  their 
virtual  absence  which  makes  Spain  a  Mediterranean  rather  than  a 
central  European  country,  in  the  racial,  as  well  as  the  geographical,  sense. 

Two  widely  observed  racial  characters  serve  to  differentiate  the  Span- 
iards from  most  of  the  living  inhabitants  of  Arabia  and  North  Africa:  hair 
color  and  nasal  profile.  In  Spain,  as  a  whole,  some  29  per  cent  of  the 
male  population  has  black  hair,  some  68  per  cent  dark  brown,  while 
traces  of  blondism  are  visible  in  17  per  cent.113  In  most  of  North  Africa 
and  Arabia,  the  black  hair  is  commoner  than  the  dark  brown.  The 
nasal  profiles  of  some  120,000  Spaniards  are  convex  in  15  per  cent  of 
cases,  straight  in  72  per  cent,  and  concave  in  1 3  per  cent.  In  Arabia  and 
North  Africa  east  of  Morocco,  the  commonest  profile  form  is  usually 
convex,  and  concaves  are  very  rare.  The  prevalence  of  these  two  features, 
dark  brown  hair  and  a  straight  nasal  profile,  indicates  that  the  bulk  of 
the  Spanish  population  is  derived  from  the  earlier  Mediterranean  in- 
vasions of  Mesolithic  and  Neolithic  date.  The  Spaniards  are  more  like  the 
most  marginal  and  fully  sedentary  of  the  brunet  Berber  groups  in  North 
Africa  than  like  the  more  recently  settled  transhumant  ones  or  the  Arabs. 

The  eye  color  in  the  total  Spanish  group  is  listed  as:  blue,  18  per  cent;114 
brown,  68  per  cent;  black,  14  per  cent.  Dark-mixed  eyes  must  undoubt- 
edly fall,  in  many  cases,  into  the  brown  class;  still  it  is  doubtful  that  in 
most  parts  of  southern  Spain,  Catalonia,  and  Portugal  much  more  than  25 
per  cent  of  incipient  eye  blondism  is  to  be  found.116  In  Spain  as  a  whole, 
46  per  cent  of  definitely  dark  skin,  in  the  very  brunet-white  and  light 
brown  category,  again  marks  the  population  of  this  peninsula  off  from 
most  of  Europe.  The  regional  variation  in  this  is  great;  the  darkest 
skins  are  in  the  south,  in  the  country  of  Moorish  occupation. 

Several  relatively  complete  anthropometric  series  give  us  a  means  of 
comparing  Spaniards  with  other  peoples.  A  series  of  79  Spaniards 
measured  in  Madrid  11G  have  head  dimensions  comparable  to  those  of 

113  Sanchez  Fernandez,  L.,  El  Hombre  Espanol.  Resum6  in  MAGW,  vol.  44,  1914, 
p.  330.  This  work  covers  a  series  of  119,571  20  year  old  male  Spaniards. 

in  Identical  with  the  percentage  of  total  light  eyes  found  by  Hoyos  Sainz  and  Aran- 
zadi.  In  the  north  of  Spain  this  percentage  runs  from  21  per  cent  in  Castile  to  35  per 
cent  in  Navarre  and  the  Basque  province. 

115  An  apparently  accurate  figure  for  Portugal  is  28  per  cent. 
Tamagnini,  E.,  CEAP,  vol.  1,  Facs.  3,  1936. 

116  Barras  de  Aragon,  F.  de  las,  published  in  Williams,  G,  D.,  Maya  Spanish  Crosses 
in  Yucatan. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  493 

Yemenite  Arabs,  Oriental  Jews,  and  Kabyles.  The  vault  length  (191  mm.) 
and  breadth  (150  mm.)  yield  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  78;  the  auricular 
height  is  126  mm.  Facially,  the  Mediterranean  character  of  this  group 
is  pronounced;  a  menton-nasion  height  of  120  mm.  and  an  upper  face 
height  of  73  mm.  show  the  typical  Mediterranean  exaggeration  of  upper 
face  length  combined  with  the  usual  shallowness  of  jaw.  The  minimum 
frontal  (105  mm.),  bizygomatic  (133  mm.),  and  bigonial  (102  mm.) 
diameters,  are  likewise  convincingly  Mediterranean.  The  nose  is  high 
(56  mm.),  narrow  (33  mm.),  and  very  leptorrhine — more  so  than  with 
most  Spanish  groups.  This  sample  could  be  used  as  a  world  standard  of 
the  central  Mediterranean  race,  although  it  undoubtedly  consists  of  an 
amalgam  of  several  Mediterranean  strains.117 

Another  useful  series  is  one  of  420  adult  males  from  Andalusia,  repre- 
senting the  most  brunet  population  in  Spain,  and  the  one  which  supposedly 
contains  the  most  Arab  and  Berber  blood.118  These  Andalusians  have  a 
mean  stature  of  166.5  cm.,  approximately  the  same  as  that  of  the  smaller 
Moroccan  Berbers,  the  Kabyles,  and  the  modern  Egyptians.  Their  mean 
relative  sitting  height,  50.6,  relates  them  to  North  African  and  Asiatic 
Mediterraneans,  rather  than  to  most  Europeans.  The  rest  of  their  bodily 
proportions  follow  the  same  relationship.  Cranially  and  facially,  they 
differ  little  from  the  Madrid  series,  except  in  the  possession  of  a  wider 
bigonial  (104.5  mm.)  which  may  perhaps  be  a  North  African  heritage.119 

The  skin  color  of  the  Andalusians  is  light  brown,  corresponding  to 
#15  to  #18  on  the  von  Luschan  chart,  in  80  per  cent  of  cases,  while 
only  one  man  in  six  has  a  pinkish-white  skin  of  the  type  so  frequent  among 
Riffians.  Sixty  per  cent  have  dark  brown  hair,  30  per  cent  black  hair. 
The  remaining  10  per  cent  show  some  evidence  of  blondism  or  of  rufosity. 
Only  one  man  out  of  420  was  truly  blond.  The  hair  is  straight  in  half 
the  series,  wavy  in  a  third,  and  curly  in  a  sixth.  Six  men  in  the  entire 
group  have  negroid,  frizzly  hair;  a  minor  absorption  of  negro  blood,  dating 
from  Moorish  times,  is  evident.  As  a  whole,  however,  Andalusians  are 
free  from  negroid  traits.  As  among  most  Mediterraneans,  beard  and 
body  hair  are  not  abundant. 

Sixty  per  cent  of  Andalusians  have  pure  brown  eyes,  of  which  the 
majority  are  dark  brown,  although  light  brown  and  mixed-brown  irises 
occur.  Mixed-light  eyes  comprise  30  per  cent  of  the  series,  with  a  prev- 
alence of  greenish-brown  shades,  while  10  per  cent  of  the  whole  sample 
possesses  bluish-gray  eyes,  on  the  gray  rather  than  blue  side.  A  ratio 

117  Another  good  regional  series,  which  is  very  similar,  is  that  from  Caceres. 
Aranzadi,  T.  de,  ASE,  ser.  2,  vol.  3,  1891. 

118  Unpublished  thesis  by  Dr.  Frederick  S.  Hulse,  "The  Comparative  Physical  An- 
thropology of  Andalusians  and  Cubans,"  1934,  Cambridge. 

119  Other  differences  seem  to  be  of  a  technical  nature. 


494  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

of  40  per  cent  of  light  or  incipiently  light  eyes  is  higher  than  one  expects 
to  find  among  racially  pure  Mediterraneans,  and  indicates  the  infusion 
of  Nordic  blood,  from  both  North  European  and  Berber  sources.  Prob- 
ably if  the  rest  of  Spain  were  studied  for  eye  color  in  the  same  way,  higher 
ratios  of  eye  blondism  would  appear  elsewhere,  since  most  of  the  green- 
brown  eyes  in  this  sample  are  predominantly  dark. 

Eyefolds  among  Andalusians  are  practically  lacking.  The  opening  of 
the  eye  lids  is  usually  of  moderate  height,  and  of  horizontal  direction. 
A  very  small  minority  shows  slanting  eyes  reminiscent  of  the  Egyptian 
ideal  of  beauty.  The  eyebrows  are  moderately  thick,  and  eyebrow  con- 
currency occurs  in  70  per  cent  of  the  series;  since  concurrent  eyebrows 
are  rare  among  present-day  North  African  Mediterraneans,  this  suggests 
early  influences  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean,  as  well,  perhaps,  as 
later  ones  from  Arabia.  Browridges  are  characteristically  small  to  medium; 
foreheads  are  of  only  moderate  height  and  breadth,  and  the  forehead 
slope  is,  as  a  rule,  slight;  it  is  lacking  or  vertical  in  roughly  14  per  cent 
of  the  total  group.  On  the  whole,  the  forehead  form  of  these  Andalusians 
is  typically  Mediterranean,  and  often  infantile. 

The  nasion  depression  is  small  to  medium;  the  nasal  root  is  usually 
quite  high  and  of  moderate  breadth;  the  nasal  bridge  is  of  moderate 
height  and  breadth,  and  the  nasal  profile  is  usually  straight.  As  in  the 
total  Spanish  series,  18  per  cent  show  convex  profiles,  while  concavity 
is  limited  to  15  per  cent.  The  nasal  tip  is  absolutely  small  or  medium, 
and  usually  horizontal  or  slightly  depressed.  Nasal  wings  are  usually 
compressed  or  medium.  From  these  data  we  derive  a  picture  of  a  high- 
rooted  nose  with  a  moderate  bridge  height  and  a  straight  profile,  a  thin 
tip,  and  compressed  wings. 

Lips  are  of  medium  integumental  and  membranous  thickness;  really 
thick  lips  are  rare,  and  the  lip  seam  is  usually  difficult  to  observe.  Al- 
veolar prognathism  is  almost  always  absent.  The  chin  is  of  slight  to 
medium  prominence.  The  malars  are  of  moderate  forward  prominence, 
and  are  usually  compressed  laterally,  while  the  gonial  angles  show  usually 
little  or  no  flare.  In  the  external  morphology  of  the  vault,  the  temporal 
region  is  frequently  flattish,  giving  the  skull  an  ill-filled  appearance. 
The  occipital  protrusion  is  usually  moderate,  while  2  per  cent  are  found 
with  no  protrusion,  indicating  an  occiput  of  Armenoid  or  Dinaric  shape. 
Lambdoid  flattening  occurs  in  12  per  cent  of  the  series;  this  low  incidence 
suggests  that  little  if  any  of  the  Afalou  element  from  North  Africa  is 
present  in  Andalusia. 

The  racial  character  of  the  richer,  city-dwelling  Moors  of  Andalusia, 
before  the  time  of  their  expulsion,  may  be  suggested  by  a  study  of  the 
almost  wholly  unmixed  descendants  of  these  emigres  in  Morocco.  In 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  495 

the  city  of  Sheshawen  the  old,  aristocratic  families  are  descended  from 
the  former  aristocrats  of  Granada,  and  have  lived  endogamously  since 
1492.  A  little  Riffian  blood  has  crept  in,  but  aside  from  that  the  She- 
shawen families  remain  an  island  of  Andalusian  Moors  on  Moroccan 
soil. 

A  small,  homogeneous  sample  12°  of  these  people  shows  a  much  closer 
relationship  with  Spain  than  with  Morocco.  They  are  a  little  longer- 
headed  (194.5  mm.),  a  little  more  dolichocephalic  (C.  I.  =  76.5)  and  a 
little  longer-faced  (123  mm.)  than  the  Christian  Andalusians;  the  bigonial 
diameter  of  103  mm.,  although  wide  for  Spain  as  a  whole,  is  of  Andalu- 
sian size.  The  Sheshawen  Moors  have  predominantly  dark  brown  hair 
and  dark  brown  eyes,  with  brunet- white  skin  color.  In  facial  morphology, 
they  are  fully  Andalusian.  The  implication  is  that  the  Moors  in  Spain 
took  more  from  the  population  of  the  peninsula,  in  a  racial  sense,  than 
they  gave.  Our  earlier  conclusion  that  the  Andalusians  are  Mediter- 
raneans of  largely  Neolithic  derivation  is  supported  by  this  unexpected 
evidence. 

Portugal  is,  on  the  whole,  fully  as  Mediterranean  in  race  as  is  Spain 
and,  perhaps,  in  some  respects,  it  is  more  so.121  The  chief  differences  be- 
tween the  two  countries  are:  (1)  that  the  Portuguese  are  almost  uni- 
formly brunet  in  pigmentation  and  (2)  that  there  are  no  regions  in 
Portugal  in  which  brachycephaly  is  as  important  as  in  the  Asturias  and 
Galicia.  In  fact,  Portugal  contains  some  of  the  lowest  cephalic  index 
means  on  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Historically,  Portugal  has  long  been  divided  into  two  parts,  a  northern 
and  a  southern,  with  the  river  Tagus  forming  the  boundary  between  the 
two.  In  pre-Roman  times  the  Lusitanians  lived  in  the  northern  half  of 
the  country,  while  other  tribes  inhabited  the  south.  Later  on,  the  Keltic 
invasions  affected  only  the  north,  as  did  the  inroads  of  the  Germans. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Arabs  and  Berbers  settled  mostly  in  the  south. 
Relations  between  Moslems  and  Christians  lacked,  in  Portugal,  the 
bitterness  manifested  in  Spain,  and  many  Portuguese  Moslems  were 
baptized  at  the  time  of  the  expulsion. 

120  Goon,  G.  S.,  Tribes  of  the  Rif. 

121  Some  of  the  principal  works  on  the  physical  anthropology  of  Portugal  are : 
Barros  e  Gunha,  J.  G.  de,  CEAP,  vol.  2,  Facs.  6,  1931. 

Cardosa,  F.,  Portugalia,  vol.  1,  1899-1903,  pp.  23-56;  vol.  2,  1905-08,  pp.  179- 
186,  517-539. 

Dos  Santos,  J.  R.  Jr.,  TSPA,  vol.  2,  Facs.  2,  1924,  pp.  84-186. 

Mendes  Correa,  A.,  AAPP,  vol.  10,  1915;  AJPA,  vol.  2,  1919,  pp.  117-145. 

Tamagmni,  E.,  CEAP,  vol.  1,  Facs.  3,  1936;  vol.  2,  Facs.  7,  1932;  vol.  2,  Facs.  10, 
1933. 

Themido,  A.  A.,  CEAP,  vol.  2,  Facs.  5,  1931 ;  vol.  2,  Facs.  9,  1933. 

Sant'Anna  Marques,  S.  de,  Portugalia,  vol.  1,  1899-1903,  pp.  427-428. 


496  THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 

As  in  southern  Spain,  the  skin  color  is  evenly  divided  between  a  light 
brown,  45  per  cent,  and  brunet-white,  45  per  cent,  while  pinkish-white 
skins  are  found  in  only  one-tenth  of  the  population.122  Again  as  in  Spain, 
the  prevailing  hair  color  is  dark  brown,  which  amounts  to  68  per  cent 
of  the  total;  blond  and  red  hair  is  limited  to  2  per  cent.  Eye  color,  with 
7  per  cent  of  "blue,"  15  per  cent  of  "medium,"  78  per  cent  of  "dark," 
shows  some  correlation  with  latitude,  which  is  not  as  clear  in  the  cases 
of  skin  color  and  hair  color.  Blue  eyes  run  to  13  per  cent  in  the  north, 
and  as  low  as  1  and  2  per  cent  in  the  south.  Dark  eyes  seem  to  range 
inversely  from  71  per  cent  to  87  per  cent.  Portugal  contains  no  more  than 
the  traditional  25  per  cent  of  incipient  blondism  common  to  many 
groups  of  Mediterraneans. 

Regional  stature  means  in  Portugal  vary  from  162  to  165  cm.,  while 
the  mean  for  the  whole  country  is  163.5  cm.  The  shortest  statures  are 
found  in  the  Tagus  valley;  the  tallest  in  both  the  north  and  the  south. 
The  stature  curve  for  the  entire  country  shows  a  slight  skewness,  with 
concentrations  at  158  to  160  cm.,  and  164  cm.  The  second  peak  is  by 
far  the  greater.  The  inference  is  that  a  short  Mediterranean  type  has 
been  absorbed  by  one  of  moderate  stature.  The  mean  relative  span  of 
the  Portuguese  is  102,  a  normal  Mediterranean  racial  mean,  but  the 
relative  sitting  height  rises  to  a  mean  of  53.2,  which  is  high  for  Mediter- 
raneans and  more  typical  of  Europeans  outside  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 
The  cephalic  index  mean  for  the  entire  nation  is  76.4,  with  two  prominent 
peaks  in  the  distribution  curve,  one  at  74  and  the  other  at  77.  Regional 
variation  is  slight,  with  provincial  means  ranging  from  75  to  78.  The 
most  dolichocephalic  local  groups  live  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
country.  The  heads  of  the  Portuguese  are  large  in  relationship  to  their 
stature,  with  a  mean  head  length  of  194  mm.  and  a  breadth  of  147  mm. 

In  a  large  series  of  modern  Portuguese  crania, 123  while  all  are  typically 
Mediterranean  in  morphology,  a  clear  difference  may  be  seen  between 
several  distinct  types.  In  the  first  place,  the  head  length  has  two  definite 
modes  at  179  mm.  and  186  mm.,  while  the  head  breadth  has  modes 
at  132  mm.  and  141  mm.  The  cephalic  index  has  modes  at  70,  73, 
and  75.  From  this  evidence,  as  from  that  of  stature,  we  are  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  two  or  more  different  Mediterranean  strains  are  involved 
in  the  Portuguese  population.  This  conclusion  is  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  the  orbital  index  of  Portuguese  crania  is  bimodal,  with  modes  at 
85  and  88.  There  is  both  a  low-orbitted  and  a  moderately  high-orbitted 
element  in  this  population.124 

122  Tamagnini,  E.,  CEAP,  vol.  1,  Facs.  3,  1936. 
*23  Barms  e  Cunha,  J.  G.  de,  CEAP,  vol.  2,  Facs.  6,  1931. 
'  i24  Themido,  A.  A.,  CEAP,  vol.  2,  Facs.  5,  1931. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  497 

Returning  to  the  living,  we  find  that  the  upper  facial  index,  the  mean 
of  which  is  54.3  for  the  entire  nation,  shows  regional  differences,  being 
consistently  higher  in  the  north  and  lower  in  the  south.  Two  peaks  at 
49  and  54  are  clearly  differentiated,  and  the  former  is  the  larger.  In 
most  of  Portugal  the  leptene  tendency  is  associated  with  relatively  great 
dolichocephaly,  but  in  the  coastal  regions  of  the  north,  in  Entre  Douro 
and  Minho,  a  leptene  face  is  associated  with  brachycephaly  and  tall 
stature,  indicating  that  in  this  region  there  is  evidence  of  a  submerged 
Dinaric  element  which  may,  presumably,  be  attributed  to  the  early 
metal  age  invasions. 

Detailed  studies  of  small  regional  populations  have  been  made  in  various 
parts  of  Portugal.  A  particularly  interesting  community  is  that  of  Sao 
Pedro  Magodouro  in  a  mountainous  olive-growing  section  of  Braganga, 
in  the  province  of  Tras  os  Montes.125  These  people  are  the  most  dolicho- 
cephalic group  in  Portugal,  and  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  one  end 
type  in  the  Portuguese  population.  Stature  is  short  to  moderate,  with  a 
mean  of  163  cm.;  the  relative  sitting  height  is  51.9;  the  relative  span, 
102.5.  The  head  length  mean  is  193  mm.,  that  of  head  breadth  141 
mm. 5  the  auricular  height  mean,  122  mm.  Thus  the  cephalic  index  of 
73.3  would  be  low  even  for  North  Africa;  the  absolute  length  is  of  a 
normal  Mediterranean  size,  while  the  vault  is  low.  The  face  is  short, 
119  mm.,  and  narrow,  133  mm.,  while  the  bigonial  has  the  relatively 
great  breadth  of  105  mm.  The  nasal  dimensions,  55  mm.  by  35  mm.  are 
typically  Mediterranean,  and  the  length  is  particularly  great  in  relation- 
ship to  vertical  facial  dimensions.  The  nasal  index  of  67  is  moderately 
leptorrhine.  In  almost  all  instances  the  nasal  profile  is  straight.  The 
skin  is  dark,  the  hair  is  dark  brown,  and  the  eyes  are  of  a  medium  brown 
shade.  This  population  conforms,  in  most  respects,  to  Deniker's  Ibero- 
Insular  type,  and  may  be  taken  as  a  relatively  pure  example  of  the  shorter, 
longer-headed  strain  among  the  Portuguese.  A  few  individuals  in  this 
a:roup  show  Nordic  influences,  which  manifest  themselves  in  taller  stature 
and  mixed  or  light  eye  color. 

Other  local  series,  which  represent  the  coastal  regions  of  northern 
Portugal  rather  than  the  interior,  are  relatively  Mediterranean,  and  are 
comparable  metrically  to  Spanish  groups.  Some  of  the  fishing  villages 
along  the  coasts,  however,  contain  locally  differentiated  populations  as 
do  fishing  villages  everywhere;  one,  Povoa  de  Varzin  in  Minho  prov- 
ince,126 is  distinguished  by  a  slightly  greater  than  usual  degree  of  blondism, 
broad  faces,  and  broad  jaws  (bizygomatic  =  133  mm.,  bigonial,  108 
mm.).  Whence  this  broad-faced  strain  is  derived  is  not  known.  It  is 

128  Dos  Santos,  TSPA,  1924. 

126  Cardosa,  F.,  Portugalia,  vol.  2,  1905-08,  pp.  517-539. 


498  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

curious  that  the  Portuguese,  like  the  Andalusians,  are  broader  jawed  than 
most  Mediterraneans,  and  comparable  in  this  respect  to  some  Berbers. 

The  apparent  homogeneity  of  the  Portuguese,  in  a  racial  sense,  masks 
the  presence  of  several  brunet  Mediterranean  strains,  as  Portuguese 
anthropologists  are  well  aware.  One  may  distinguish  tall  Atlanto- 
Mediterraneans,  particularly  in  the  southern  provinces,  as  well  as  the 
small,  extremely  long-headed  type  found  in  Sao  Pedro  Magodouro. 
The  coarser  mesocephalic  strain,  which  dates  back  to  Muge,  may  also 
be  identified. 

Non-Mediterranean  elements  in  the  Portuguese  population  are  rare 
and  of  little  importance.  A  few  Nordics  are  scattered  throughout  but 
are  particularly  concentrated  in  the  north.  Traces  of  Dinaric  blood,  as 
we  have  already  seen,  may  likewise  be  found  on  the  northern  coast. 
Negroid  blood,  introduced  into  Portugal  through  the  medium  of 
freed  slaves,  has  largely  been  absorbed.  The  liberated  negroes  settled 
mostly  in  the  cities,  where  negroes  from  the  Portuguese  colonies  are  still 
to  be  seen  in  some  numbers.  The  liberality  of  the  Portuguese  social 
attitude  toward  persons  of  different  race  has  prevented  the  retention,  as 
in  Arabia  and  the  United  States,  of  a  stigmatized  negroid  class.  On  the 
whole,  the  absorption  of  negroes  by  the  Portuguese  has  had  no  appreciable 
effect  on  the  racial  position  of  the  country.  Portugal  remains,  as  it 
has  been  since  the  days  of  the  Muge  shell-fish  caters,  classic  Mediter- 
ranean territory. 

(16)  THE  WESTERN  MEDITERRANEAN  ISLANDS 

A  study  of  the  Mediterranean  racial  area  in  southwestern  Europe 
would  not  be  complete  without  the  inclusion  of  the  Balearics,  Corsica, 
and  Sardinia.  The  Balearic  Islands  contain  a  population  taller  than  that 
in  most  of  Spain,  but  equally  dolichocephalic;  the  settlement  of  megalith- 
building  Atlanto-Mediterraneans  on  these  small  islands  in  late  Neolithic 
and  early  Metal  Age  times  has  left  a  permanent  imprint  on  the  popula- 
tion.127 The  tall,  long-faced  type  of  Spaniard  so  frequently  seen  in  the 
Guardia  Civil  is  common  here.  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  although  equally 
popular  with  the  megalith-builders,  are  larger  islands  and  are  extremely 
rugged  topographically,  so  that  a  more  numerous  pre-Megalithic  Medi- 
terranean element  was  enabled  to  survive,  and  to  reemerge  as  the  present 
population. 

Corsica  is  extremely  mountainous,  and  the  mountains  rise  directly  out 
of  the  water.  The  Corsicans  of  the  interior  part  of  the  island  have  pre- 

127  References  which  include  the  Balearic  Islands  are : 

Oloriz  y  Aguilera,  F.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  5,  1894,  pp.  520-525;  BRSG,  vol.  36,  1894, 
pp.  389-422. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  499 

.served  a  culture  of  early  Mediterranean  origin  with  little  change;  their 
houses,  their  agriculture,  their  endogamous  marriage  system,  their 
predilection  for  the  blood  feud,  and  their  insistence  upon  personal  freedom 
relate  them  ethnologically  to  the  mountain  Berber  groups  of  North 
Africa.  In  historic  times  Corsica  has  belonged  to  many  nations,  from  the 
Phoenicians  to  the  French,  but  until  the  present  her  allegiance  has  been 
in  most  cases  nominal,  and  throughout  many  changes  of  masters,  the 
islanders  have  preserved  their  own  character.  The  only  actual  immigra- 
tion of  outsiders  recorded  in  recent  times  is  that  of  730  Greeks  from  the 
Peloponnesus  who  settled  in  the  town  of  Carg&se,  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  island,  in  1676.  The  descendants  of  these  Greeks  still  preserve  their 
ethnic  identity,  and  remain  unabsorbed. 

Anthropometric  studies  of  living  Corsicans  128  place  them  in  approxi- 
mately the  same  racial  position  as  the  Portuguese.  *  The  stature  mean 
for  the  island  is  about  163  cm.,  the  cephalic  index,  76.6.  Light  or  light- 
mixed  eyes  are  probably  under  20  per  cent,  while  the  commonest  iris 
color  is  dark  brown,  or  black.  The  hair  color  is  black  or  dark  brown, 
more  frequently  the  latter;  shades  ranging  from  medium  brown  to  blond 
include  1 5  per  cent  of  the  whole. 

In  general,  the  coastal  population,  particularly  in  the  northern  and 
western  parts  of  the  island  and  in  the  towns,  is  taller  and  less  long-headed 
than  that  of  the  more  isolated  interior  villages.  The  coastal  people,  from 
Bastia  to  Ajaccio,  have  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  77;  76  is  the  mean  for 
the  southern  part  of  the  island,  and  75  for  the  interior.  The  Greeks 
of  Carg£se  have  a  mean  of  77.8.  In  Bocognagno,  an  isolated  mountain 
section,  38  per  cent  of  the  recruits  summoned  for  military  service  were 
rejected  on  the  grounds  of  being  shorter  than  154  cm. 

There  is  one  exception  to  this  rule  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  kernel 
of  the  island  are  the  shortest,  longest-headed,  and  darkest,  however — 
that  is  in  the  inaccessible  plateau  region  of  Niolo,  in  the  very  center  of 
the  island,  where  a  tall,  long-headed,  and  prevailingly  blond  group  of 
people  has  been  found.  They  are  apparently  Nordics,  not  unlike  Riffians 
in  appearance,  and  are  a  closely  inbred  local  group.  Whether  they 
represent  the  survival  of  an  ancient  blond  racial  stratum  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean area,  or  are  the  descendants  of  some  early  refugees  to  this  mountain 

128  Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,  ZFMA,  vol.  13,  1910-11,  pp.  439-504;  PCAS,  vol.  13, 
(7  n.  s.),  1909,  pp.  267-279. 

Fallot,  A.,  RDAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  4,  1889,  pp.  641-674;  BMSA,  ser.  6,  vol.  2,  1911, 
pp.  43-54. 

Jaubert,  L,  J.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  4,  1893,  pp.  756-760. 

Mahoudeau,  P.  G.,  REAP,  vol.  16,  1906,  pp.  177-195. 

Mattei,  A.,  BSAP,  vol.  11,  ser.  2,  1876,  pp.  597-619. 

Rocca,  P.,  Les  Corses  devant  ranthropologig. 


500  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

fastness,  cannot  be  determined  without  a  careful,  modern  survey  of 
Corsica.  In  view  of  present  evidence  it  appears  that  the  Gorsicans,  like 
the  North  Africans,  Spaniards,  and  Portuguese,  are  a  blend  of  different 
Mediterranean  strains,  and  that  here,  as  in  the  more  marginal  Berber 
groups  and  in  Portugal,  a  small,  very  long-headed  Mediterranean  type 
is  both  old  and  numerous,  while  later,  taller,  Atlanto-Mediterranean 
forms  are  also  present.  The  Nordic  problem  is  a  local  puzzle  which  awaits 
solution. 

Culturally  and  historically,  Sardinia  resembles  Corsica  closely.  The 
same  intense  Megalithic  activity,  followed  by  Greek  and  Carthaginian 
influences,  and  later  by  Roman  rule,  mark  early  Sardinian  history. 
In  later  times  the  Saracens  obtained  possession  of  the  island,  but  were 
expelled  shortly  afterward.  Spain  ruled  Sardinia  from  roughly  1300 
to  1700  A.D.,  and  Spanish  cultural  influence  is  to  be  seen  in  most  of  the 
cities.  In  Sassari  a  dialect  is  still  spoken  which  includes  Spanish  elements. 
In  1718  A.D.,  when  Sardinia  was  given  to  the  princes  of  Piedmont  in 
exchange  for  Sicily,  the  townsfolk  of  Sassari  were  considered  Spanish, 
and  the  country  folk  pure  Sardinian.  The  language  of  the  Sardinians, 
like  that  of  Corsica,  is  a  form  of  Italian,  but  pre-Italic  languages  were 
spoken  on  the  island  as  late  as  the  time  of  the  Roman  empire.  These 
may  have  dated  back  to  the  period  when  the  Shardana  appeared  as  one 
of  the  western  sea  people  attacking  Egypt  in  Middle  Kingdom  times. 

Anthropometrically,  the  Sardinians  are  a  little  better  known  than  the 
Corsicans.129  They  are,  on  the  whole,  a  little  shorter  than  the  inhabitants 
of  the  more  northernly  island,  with  a  stature  mean  of  162  cm.,  while 
nearly  identical  in  head  form  (76.5).130  The  hair  color  is  designated  as 
black  in  over  half  of  the  Sardinian  groups  measured,  while  hair  blondism 
attains  the  ratio  of  but  1  per  cent.  Mixed  or  light  eyes  run  to  about  1 5 
per  cent.  As  in  Corsica,  many  irises  are  deep  brown  or  black. 

Measurements  and  indices  of  the  head  and  face  related  the  Sardinians 
to  the  smaller  Berber  groups  and  to  the  Portuguese,131  and  this  resemblance 
is  confirmed  by  the  study  of  modern  Sardinian  crania,  which  show  that 
the  Sardinians  are  low-vaulted  dolichocephals  and  mesocephals,  with 
short  faces  and  skeletally  mesorrhine  noses.  Among  Sardinian  crania 

129  Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,   ZFMA,  vol.  13,  1910-11,  pp.  439-504. 

Hawes,  G.  H.,  unpublished  measurements  on  12  Sardinian  soldiers,  measured  in 
Crete.    Permission  for  use  granted. 
Livi,  R.,  Anthropometria  Militare. 
Niceforo,  A.,  ASRA,  vol.  3,  1896,  pp.  201-222. 
d'Hercourt,  G.,  BSAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  5,  1882,  pp.  463-471. 

130  Livi's  cephalic  index  mean  for  Sardinia,  77.5,  is  apparently  one  unit  too  high.  This 
may  be  explained  by  his  use  of  a  craniometric  frame,  instead  of  calipers.    See  Duck- 
Worth,  W.  L.  H.,   ZFMA,  vol.  13,  1910-11. 

181  Detailed  data  are  almost  entirely  limited  to  Hawes's  small  series. 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  501 

are  a  number  which  show  a  combination  of  prognathism,  a  primitive 
condition  of  the  lower  border  of  the  nasal  aperture,  and  extreme  dolicho- 
cephaly.132  Regional  studies  within  the  island  show  that  among  the 
living  population  the  inhabitants  of  the  more  remote  mountain  villages 
are  shorter-statured,  longer-headed,  and  more  purely  brunet  than  are 
those  living  nearer  the  coast.  The  relatively  great  antiquity  of  the  most 
primitive  small  Mediterranean  type  is  indicated,  while  at  the  same  time 
the  Nordic  nucleus  found  in  Corsica  seems  to  be  lacking  here. 

Sardinia  and  Corsica  were  peopled  at  the  beginning  of  the  Neolithic 
by  a  race  of  short-statured,  dolichocephalic,  low- vaulted,  brunet  Mediter- 
raneans, coming  probably  from  several  quarters,  including  the  adjacent 
European  coasts,  North  Africa,  and  the  eastern  Mediterranean.  Subse- 
quent immigrations  of  other  Mediterranean  peoples  have  affected  the 
racial  composition  of  these  islands  but  little. 

(17)   THE   BASQUES 

The  last  contiguous  outpost  of  the  Mediterranean  world  on  the  north 
and  west  is  the  country  of  the  Basques,  which,  since  it  straddles  the 
Pyrenees,  forms  a  zone  of  transition  into  the  brachycephalized  world  of 
central  Europe.  The  Basques  are  people  who,  although  they  lack  political 
identity,  are,  none  the  less,  a  nation.  They  number  about  800,000,  of 
whom  four-fifths  live  in  Spain,  and  the  remainder  in  France.  Their 
country  is  clearly  delimited  by  a  linguistic  boundary,  and  their  ethnic 
solidarity  is  perpetuated  not  only  by  their  language  but  also  by  a  com- 
munity of  archaic  cultural  practices,  by  special  political  privileges  under 
the  Spanish  monarchy,  by  a  distinctive  headgear,133  and  by  the  recogni- 
tion of  a  characteristic  physical  type. 

The  Basque  language,  being  an  agglutinative  non-Indo-European 
form  of  speech,  has  attracted  the  attention  of  theorists  in  great,  and  of 
linguistic  experts  in  small,  numbers.  In  its  grammatical  structure  Basque 
falls  into  the  same  class  as  many  American  Indian  languages,  as  Georgian, 
as  Circassian,  and  as  the  Burushaski  language  of  Hunza.  Lexically  no 
valid  comparisons  have  as  yet  been  made  between  Basque  and  any  other 
language.  Since  Indo-European  languages  were  unquestionably  late 
to  arrive  in  southwestern  Europe,  and  since  Hamitic  languages  were 
apparently  not  indigenous  to  northwestern  Africa,  it  is  not  unreasonable 
that  some  pre-Indo-European,  pre-Hamitic  language  should  survive 
somewhere  on  either  side  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar.  Basque  is  probably 
the  modern  descendant  of  (a)  a  language  or  languages  brought  by  food- 
producing  Mediterraneans  into  Spain  during  the  Early  Neolithic  period; 

»  Duckworth,  ZFMA,  vol.  13,  1910-11. 

133  Distinctive  until  adopted  by  tourists  in  the  1920*s. 


502  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

or  (b)  a  language  or  languages  brought  from  western  Asia  by  seafaring 
peoples  in  pre-Phoenician  times;  or  (c)  a  blend  of  languages  from  both 
sources.  Other  explanations  seem,  in  the  light  of  present  knowledge, 
fantastic.134  Basque  is  certainly  Iberian,  if  by  Iberian  is  meant  all  the 
pre- Aryan  languages  of  the  Iberian  peninsula. 

There  is  historical  evidence  to  indicate  that  in  Roman  times  the  Basques 
lived  farther  south  and  east  in  Spain  than  at  present,  and  that  they  were 
later  pushed  northward  by  Gothic  pressure.  Between  580  and  587 
A.D.,  some  of  them  crossed  the  Pyrenees  into  France,  and  since  that  time 
they  have  been  advancing  steadily  northward  at  a  slow  rate.  It  is  claimed 
by  French  authorities  that  the  Basques  in  France  have  preserved  their 
native  culture  better  than  have  those  in  Spain,  and  that  by  the  same  token 
the  French  Basques  are  the  purer  racially. 

The  Basques  are  people  of  moderate  stature,  with  means  of  164  cm. 
in  Spain  and  166  cm.  in  France.  They  are  lightly  built,  ideally  with 
broad  shoulders  and  narrow  hips,  and  a  conical  thorax.  These  general- 
izations as  to  body  build  are  the  result  of  general  observation  rather  than 
of  anthropometry.  Nevertheless  it  is  likely  that  they  are,  to  a  large 
extent,  founded  on  fact.  The  ideal  Basque  type,  which  is  not  merely  an 
artistic  standard,  but  a  reality,  is  chiefly  identifiable  by  means  of  a  com- 
bination of  facial  features.  The  forehead  is  straight  or  but  slightly  slop- 
ing, the  browridges  weak  or  absent,  the  nasion  depression  slight  or  absent, 
the  nose  thin,  often  aquiline,  with  a  thin  tip,  sometimes  depressed;  the 
forehead  is  broad,  the  mid-face  quite  narrow,  the  mandible  extremely 
slender  and  narrow  through  the  bigonial  region,  and  the  chin  is  narrow 
and  pointed.  The  Spanish  Basques  are  mesocephalic,  with  a  mean 
cephalic  index  of  78,  while  the  French  Basques  are  sub-brachycephalic, 
with  a  mean  of  about  82. 

The  French  Basques  are  by  no  means  all  brunet;  Collignon  finds  22 
per  cent  of  blue  eyes,  44  per  cent  of  "medium,5'  and  34  per  cent  of  dark. 
Black  hair  is  found  in  7  per  cent  of  the  group,  brown  in  77  per  cent,  and 
light  brown  to  blond  in  16  per  cent.  Among  the  Spanish  Basques  the 
incidence  of  blondism  is  somewhat  lower,  but  the  Basques  are  still  light 
when  compared  to  most  other  inhabitants  of  Spain.  The  nasal  profile 

134  My  predecessor,  Professor  Ripley,  devoted  an  entire  chapter  of  his  Races  of  Europe 
to  the  Basques;  Chapter  8,  pp.  180-204.  His  sources  were  the  same  as  those  available 
today,  with  one  important  exception:  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  21,  1929, 
pp.  67—84.  The  reader  is  referred  to  Ripley's  work  for  an  otherwise  complete  bibliogra- 
phy on  this  subject,  as  well  as  for  an  interesting  exposition  and  discussion.  See  also 
Montandon,  G.,  UEthnie  Fran$aise,  pp.  125-137.  The  most  important  anthropometric 
sources  are,  apart  from  Morant: 

Aranzadi,  T.  de,  El  Pueblo  Euskalduna. 

Collignon,  R.,  Les  Basques,  MSAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  1,  1894. 

Oloriz  y  Aguilera,  F.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  5,  1894,  pp.  520-525. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  503 

is  convex  in  some  49  per  cent  of  French  Basques,  as  compared  to  43 
per  cent  of  Spanish  ones. 

The  exact  metrical  position  of  the  Basques  may  best  be  determined 
by  the  study  of  their  crania.135  Morant,  in  a  study  of  76  male  crania 
from  Guipuzcoa,  finds  that  the  Basques  are  not  unusual  in  the  dimensions 
and  morphology  of  the  cranial  vault.  A  length  of  186  mm.,  and  a  breadth 
of  143  mm.,  are  moderate  in  size,  while  the  cranial  index  of  77  is  meso- 
cephalic.  The  basion-bregma  height  of  131  mm.  is  definitely  low.  The 
Basque  crania  closely  resemble  those  of  the  British  Iron  Age  people  and 
of  the  seventeenth  century  Londoners.  They  conform  metrically,  in 
other  words,  to  a  Keltic  Iron  Age  type,  which  was  a  mixture  of  Nordic 
with  Dinaric  elements. 

Facially  this  resemblance  to  British  skulls  is  even  closer;  but  the  Basques 
attain  or  approach  several  European  extremes.  The  mean  bi-malar  face 
breadth,  taken  between  the  lowest  points  of  the  malar-maxillary  sutures, 
is  89.6  mm.,  a  craniological  minimum,  and  the  nearest  approach  to  it 
is  the  dimension  of  90.9  mm.  for  the  Whitechapel  English  crania.  The 
mean  breadth  of  the  nasal  aperture,  22.9  mm.  is  also  an  extreme,  most 
closely  approximated  by  a  Lowland  Scottish  series.  The  bizygomatic 
diameter  of  129  mm.  is  not  extreme,  for  it  is  higher  than  that  of  both 
Sardinian  and  Portuguese  crania.  The  basion-alveon  diameter,  91.9  mm., 
is  the  lowest  mean  known,  and  in  combination  with  other  dimensions 
indicates  an  extremely  orthognathous  condition. 

On  the  whole,  these  craniological  data  indicate  three  facts:  (1)  the 
Basques  are  basically  Mediterranean  (in  the  wider  sense)  racially,  with 
some  brachycephalic  accretion. 

(2)  This  accretion  is  for  the  most  part  Dinaric  and  only  to  a  minor 
extent  directly  Alpine.     Morphologically  the  Basque  crania  show  many 
resemblances  to  those  of  Serbo-Croats  and  of  some  South  Germans.    Col- 
lignon's  comparison  between  French  Basques  and  the  southwestern  French 
makes  this  distinction  clear. 

(3)  The  Basques,  through  inbreeding,  ethnic  solidarity,  and  the  pos- 
session of  a  recognized  national  ideal  type,  have  developed  a  character- 
istic physiognomy,  the  essential  features  of  which  are  nasal  prominence 
and  a  narrowness  of  the  median  sagittal  facial  segment,  and  of  the  man- 
dible. 

Gollignon  believed,  and  Montandon  follows  him,  that  the  French 
Basques  are  freer  from  modern  mixture  than  are  the  Spanish  Basques. 
This  may  perhaps  be  true,  since  neither  the  round-headed  tendency 

ia6  Morant,  1929.  It  is  high  time  that  someone  should  make  a  modern  anthropometric 
survey  of  living  Basques  in  both  France  and  Spain.  Many  of  Collignon's  measurements 
on  the  living  do  not  follow  modern  technical  standards. 


504  THE  ItACES  OF  EUROPE 

of  the  French  Basques  nor  their  relatively  high  incidence  of  blondism 
can  be  wholly  explained  as  local  acquisitions.  The  Basques^  as  a  whole, 
represent  an  ancient  and  subsequently  specialized  mixture  of  Mediter- 
raneans and  Atlanto-Mediterraneans  with  partially  blond  Binaries,  and  it 
is  just  as  possible  that  different  Basque  sub-groups  differed  originally  in 
amount  of  Dinaric  blood  as  that  the  modern  Spanish  Basques  have  been 
altered  through  Spanish  mixture. 

Both  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean  and  Dinaric  elements  mentioned 
were  present  as  early  as  the  Copper  Age  in  North  Central  Spain,  where 
they  were  partially  identified  with  the  early  Bell  Beaker  culture.  The 
Keltic  Iron  Age  racial  type  of  Britain,  which  the  living  Spanish  Basques 
so  closely  resemble,  was  produced  originally  in  southern  Germany  from 
a  combination  of  Nordics  with  Bell  Beaker  or  other  Binaries,  and  im- 
ported into  England  where  Mediterranean  and  Atlanto^Mediterranean 
elements,  as  well  as  some  Bronze  Age  Binaric  factors,  were  already 
present.  The  mixture  of  similar  ingredients  in  different  places  produces 
similar  results.  Seen  in  the  light  of  modern  physical  anthropology,  the 
Basques  are  still  interesting,  and  perhaps  romantic,  but  no  longer  mysteri- 
ous. 

(18)   THE   GYPSIES 

Within  the  greater  confines  of  the  Mediterranean  race  must  be  placed 
one  people  of  non-European  origin,  the  Gypsies.  The  Romanies,  the 
Tziganes,  the  children  of  Little  Egypt,  are  believed,  on  authoritative 
grounds,  to  be  the  descendants  of  one  or  more  pariah  tribes  of  northwestern 
India  who  for  some  unknown  reason  began  to  wander  westward  before 
or  about  the  turn  of  the  present  millennium,  at  about  the  same  time  that 
Lief  Erikson  was  discovering  America. 136 

They  are  believed  to  have  travelled  across  Iran  into  Armenia,  and 
thence  into  the  Asiatic  territory  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  where  they  ar* 
rived  at  some  time  between  1100  and  1200  A.D.;  their  first  appearance  in 
Europe  cannot  be  traced  back  earlier  than  1300  A.D.  A  second  wave 
passed  again  through  Persia  and  the  Armenian  highlands,  but  turned 
southwestward  into  Syria,  Egypt,  and  North  Africa.  The  language  of 

136  See  Gaster,  M.,  article  "Gipsies,"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  thirteenth  edition. 

Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  52,  1922,  pp.  23-42,  contains  an  historical  summary  as 
well  as  anthropometric  data. 

Other  anthropometric  sources  include: 

Gluck,  L.,  WMBH,  vol.  5,  1807,  pp.  403-433. 

Karpeles,  B.,  MAGW,  vol.  21,  1891,  pp.  31-33. 

Kopernicki,  L,  AFA,  vol.  5,  1872,  p.  267. 

Mark,  A.,  and  MaCAuliffe,  L.,  CRAS,  vol.  172,  1921,  pp.  49-50. 

Pittard*  E.,  Anth,  vol.  13,  1902,  pp.  321-328;  vol.  15,  1902,  pp.  177-187;  BSAL, 
vol.  22,  1904,  pp.  207-217;  Les  Peuplu  ies  BMans. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  505 

the  European  Gypsies  is  basically  Indian,  a  derivative  of  Sanskrit  or 
Prakrit,  but  it  contains  also  words  picked  up  in  transit  through  Persia 
and  Armenia,  Words  of  other  languages,  Greek,  Rumanian,  Magyar, 
give  evidence  of  passage  through  European  countries.  In  each  country 
the  Gypsy  speech  has  adapted  itself  to  the  language  of  the  non-Gypsy 
inhabitants;  in  the  far  periphery,  in  England  and  in  Spain,  it  has  be- 
come no  more  than  a  half-language  with  as  many  local  as  Romany  words, 
as  any  reader  of  George  Borrow  will  recognize.137 

In  the  Balkans  and  Hungary  some  of  the  Gypsies  were  made  landed 
serfs  under  the  jurisdiction  of  nobles  and  churchmen,  others  were  given 
special  charter  to  wander;  these  latter  practiced  the  trades  of  tinkers, 
wood  carvers,  gold  panners,  and  minstrels,  while  their  women  exercised 
from  their  first  appearance  their  calling  of  sorceresses  and  fortune-tellers. 
Although  nomadic  from  the  beginning,  the  Gypsies  were  not  especially 
concerned  with  horse  breeding  and  horse  trading  in  eastern  Europe; 
it  was  only  in  the  west,  where  regulations  and  restrictions  kept  them  on 
the  move,  that  this  specialty  was  developed. 

After  about  a  century  in  eastern  Europe,  some  of  them  began  to  wander 
westward,  and  arrived  in  Germany  in  1417,  France  in  1427,  and  England 
in  about  1500  A.D.  Some  passed  on  through  the  Basque  Provinces  into 
Spain,  others  spread  northward  as  far  as  Sweden  and  Finland.  All  said 
that  they  came  from  "Little  Egypt,"  and  must  go  to  Rome  to  expiate 
some  sin  of  their  ancestors.  At  this  time  they  already  travelled  in  wagons, 
whereas  those  in  the  east  had  arrived  as  dwellers  in  black  tents.  It  is 
possible  that  the  spread  of  the  Turks  in  southeastern  Europe  had  impelled 
this  movement  westward,  but  if  so,  the  Gypsies  rode  into  greater  trials 
and  persecutions  than  those  they  were  fleeing.  From  about  1600  A.D. 
onward,  their  treatment  in  western  Europe  was  often  barbarous. 

Counting  Gypsies  is  the  most  arduous  known  form  of  census  taking, 
and  no  estimates  as  to  their  numbers  can  be  accurate.  There  are  perhaps 
nearly  a  million  of  them  in  the  world,  allowing  at  least  100,000  on  either 
side  for  a  probable  error.  Of  these,  over  half  a  million  are  said  to  live  in 
Rumania  and  Hungary.  Spain  has  about  40,000,  Italy  over  30,000,  and 
Russia  nearly  60,000.  Probably  at  least  150,000  live  in  Bulgaria,  Mace- 
donia, and  Yugoslavia,  while  France  has  but  2000,  Germany  the  same 
number,  and  the  British  Isles  about  12,000.  The  total  outside  Europe, 
including  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  Australia,  would  perhaps  amount 
to  about  200,000. 

The  eastern  European  Gypsies  have  for  the  most  part  settled  down, 

137  The  reader,  if  he  does  not  already  know  them,  is  invited  to  join  the  great  company 
of  Borrovians  by  acquainting  himself  with  The  Romano  Lavo-Lil,  Lavengro,  The  Romany 
Rye>  and  The  %\b\e  in  Sjwin, 


506  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  many  have  lost  their  language.  In  Hungary  less  than  10,000  are 
still  nomadic.  In  studying  the  racial  characters  of  the  European  Gypsies, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  nomads,  who  have  in  some 
countries  preserved  their  original  racial  type  with  some  degree  of  purity, 
and  the  settled  Gypsies  who  have  mixed  extensively  with  the  non-Gypsy 
population. 

The  most  noticeable  physical  trait  of  the  Gypsies,  remarked  every- 
where from  their  first  appearance  to  the  present,  is  their  dark  pigmentation. 
In  skin  color  this  is  often  so  dark  as  to  exclude  them,  in  popular  estima- 
tion, from  membership  in  the  white  race.  Out  of  52  Hungarian  Gypsies 
Weisbach  found  38,  or  73  per  cent,  to  have  brown  or  brownish  skin 
color;  the  others,  light  brown  to  yellowish.  Gluck,  in  a  group  of  66  from 
Bosnia,  found  30,  or  45  per  cent,  dark  brown;  6,  or  9  per  cent,  brown; 
27,  or  41  per  cent,  light  brown;  and  only  three  light  in  a  European 
sense.  Lebzelter,  with  observations  on  the  skin  colors  of  36  from  Serbia, 
finds  6  brown,  29  yellowish,  or  yellowish-white,  and  one  olive  or  brunet- 
white.  Nomadic  Gypsies  noticed  by  the  author  in  Albania  seemed  to  be 
all  or  nearly  all  brown,  nearer  dark  brown  than  light;  the  sedentary 
Gypsies  of  Tirana  are  also,  as  a  rule,  brown-skinned,  although  light- 
skinned  individuals  occur  among  them. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  when  the  Gypsies  arrived  in  Europe 
they  were  all  or  nearly  all  brown-eyed;  today  some  90  per  cent  of  Hun- 
garian and  Serbian  Gypsies  still  have  unmixed  brunet  irises,  with  the 
majority  dark  brown  to  black.  The  head  hair  and  the  beard,  as  well, 
are  almost  always  black  among  pure  Gypsies,  fine  in  texture,  very  thick 
on  the  head,  and  uniformly  straight.  Wavy  hair  seems  to  occur  only 
among  Gypsy-European  hybrids.  In  all  groups  studied  in  Hungary 
and  southeastern  Europe,  there  are  a  few  individuals  with  medium  brown, 
light  brown,  or  even  blond  hair,  but  these  may  with  little  doubt  be  con- 
sidered mixtures. 

The  purest  nomadic  Gypsy  groups  are  all  short-statured,  with  means  of 
161  cm.  to  164  cm.;  the  Hungarian  Gypsies  are  taller,  with  a  mean  of 
166.5  cm.;  the  "black"  Bosnian  Gypsies,  living  in  a  country  of  tall  people, 
have  a  mean  of  168  cm.,  while  the  "white"  or  palpably  mixed  Bosnian 
Gypsies,  with  a  mean  of  173  cm.,  are  nearly  as  tall  as  the  Bosnians  them- 
selves. In  France  they  attain  a  stature  of  166  cm.,  as  high  as  that  for 
Frenchmen,  or  higher;  in  England  they  are  presumably  nearly  as  tall 
as  the  English,  as  are  the  Stanleys  and  Coopers  who  live  in  America. 

The  purer  groups  of  Gypsies  have  head  length  means  of  188  to  190 
mm.,  and  breadths  of  145  mm.  or  slightly  over;  their  cephalic  index 
means  range  from  76  among  Black  Bosnian  Gypsies  to  79  among  those 
of  Hungary.  In  France  it  is  also  79,  extraordinarily  low  for  people  living 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  507 

in  so  brachycephalic  a  country.  The  heads  of  the  Gypsies  are  usually 
low-vaulted,  with  a  mean  auricular  height  of  about  120  mm.;  their 
faces  are  small,  with  a  total  face  height  mean  of  120  mm.,  a  bizygomatic 
of  135  mm.,  and  minimum  frontal  and  bigonial  means  of  106  mm. 
Their  facial  index,  88,  lies  on  the  border  of  mesoprosopy  and  lepto- 
prosopy,  and  their  nasal  index,  63,  is  leptorrhine.  Their  nasal  dimen- 
sions, 52  mm.  by  33  mm.,  are  absolutely  small.  The  nasal  profile  is,  as 
a  rule,  straight. 

In  all  facial  features,  as  well  as  in  their  metrical  position,  the  unmixed 
Gypsies  are  standard  members  of  a  small  Mediterranean  racial  type; 
they  could  not  have  acquired  this  constant  racial  character  anywhere 
between  the  Indus  Valley  and  Hungary,  since  all  Mediterranean  forms 
encountered  on  the  way  are  different.  The  nomadic  Gypsies  of  Hungary, 
Rumania,  and  the  Balkans,  are  still  largely  of  this  type;  the  sedentary 
Gypsies  are  gradually  merging  into  the  populations  that  surround  them. 

In  western  Europe  the  Gypsy  is  a  hybrid,  growing  less  Indian  as  one 
moves  westward.  The  English  Gypsies,  in  fact,  to  whose  numbers  have 
been  added  vagrant  Englishmen,  are  in  many  cases  hardly  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  latter.  The  English  Gypsies  of  America,  who  have  given 
up  horses  for  automobiles  and  who  now  sell  the  baskets  made  by  Passama- 
quoddy  Indians,  look  in  some  instances  little  different  from  brunet 
Yankees,  although  their  English  blood  was  accreted  in  England  rather 
than  in  America.  We  have  also  in  our  country,  however,  many  families 
of  Balkan  Gypsies,  who  retain  their  complete  gypsy  racial  character,  and 
who  still  wear  their  colorful  clothing  and  jewelry,  although  they  sleep  in 
trailers  rather  than  in  caravans. 

(19)   CONCLUSIONS 

The  main  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  the  foregoing  study  of  the 
Mediterranean  World,  in  its  stretch,  a  quarter  of  the  way  around  the 
globe,  from  India  to  the  Atlantic,  may,  be  expressed  simply  and  briefly. 
In  this  zone  the  Mediterranean  race  is  the  one  predominant  human 
genetic  factor.  It  abuts  on  the  Veddoid  group  to  the  southeast,  the  negroid 
to  the  southwest,  and  the  world  of  the  descendants  of  hybrid  Upper 
Palaeolithic  hunters  on  the  north  and  on  the  west. 

The  Mediterranean  race,  excepting  those  partially  depigmented 
branches  which  escaped  early  to  the  north  of  the  Mediterranean  home- 
lands and  whose  descendants  we  have  already  studied,  is  characteristi- 
cally brunet,  but  in  varying  degrees,  and  when  unmixed  with  Veddoids 
or  negroids  carries  a  minor  imitative  tendency  to  blondism. 

The  early  divisions  of  the  Mediterranean  race  noted  in  the  skeletal 
material  from  as  far  back  as  the  fourth  millennium  B.C.  are  still  valid. 


508  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

These  divisions  may  be  separated  on  several  bases;  notably,  stature, 
degree  of  dolichocephaly,  and  facial  cast,  which  is  most  easily  expressed 
in  terms  of  the  nasal  profile. 

The  Mediterraneans  living  in  Asia  are  characterized,  in  varying  degrees, 
by  a  prominence  of  the  upper  facial  segment  and  by  a  convexity  of  nasal 
profile;  those  in  Africa  and  Europe  by  a  straighter  facial  plane,  and  a 
straight  nasal  profile.  The  Asiatic  Mediterraneans  tend  to  concurrence 
of  eyebrows  and  heaviness  of  beard;  those  in  Africa  and  Europe  to  a 
separation  of  the  eyebrows  over  glabella,  and  a  moderate  beard  and 
body  hair  development. 

Historically,  short  Mediterraneans  seem  to  have  preceded  tall  ones 
in  their  wanderings  out  of  typically  Mediterranean  territory.  In  view 
of  the  known  antiquity  of  the  tall  varieties,  this  must  be  interpreted 
in  terms  of  geographical  position  rather  than  of  developmental  se- 
quence. 

From  the  metrical  standpoint  the  Mediterranean  race  is  remarkably 
homogeneous.  Different  branches  of  the  Mediterranean  race,  widely 
separated  in  time  and  space,  may  be  identical  or  nearly  identical  in  all 
measurable  characters,  but  may  differ  profoundly  in  such  superficial 
(in  the  literal  sense)  racial  criteria  as  skin  color,  hair  color,  eye  color, 
and  hair  form.  Pigmentation,  within  the  wider  Mediterranean  groups, 
is  of  little  value  in  the  estimation  of  long-range  racial  associations.  The 
pigment  map  of  Europe  is  truly  a  map  of  glaciation,  and  the  racial  types 
found  within  the  inner  zone  of  blondism  have  little  in  common  other 
than  a  paucity  of  melanin.  The  Corded  element  in  the  Nordic,  as  it  is 
isolated,  is  blue-eyed  and  brown -haired;  its  Asiatic  counterpart  is  brown- 
eyed  and  black-haired.  The  Nordic  proper  and  the  smaller  Mediterranean 
element  in  it  which  we  call  Danubian  is  ash-blond  haired  and  gray-  or 
mixed-eyed;  its  Mediterranean  counterparts  elsewhere  are  brown-haired 
and  brown-eyed.  Similarly  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean  strain  among  the 
Irish  and  Scots  is  blue-eyed,  although  the  hair  color  remains  in  many 
instances  dark;  here  iris  and  skin  depigmentation  may  have  progressed 
in  advance  of  the  non-functional  hair  pigment.  What  it  is  that  has  made 
these  races  partially  or  fully  blond,  no  one  at  present  knows.  But  we  do 
know  that  some  of  the  changes  must  have  taken  place  within  the  last 
five  thousand  years,  since  the  separation  of  some  of  the  blond  branches 
of  the  Mediterranean  race  from  their  brunet  counterparts  cannot  go 
back  much  farther. 

The  accretion  of  a  small  amount  of  negroid  blood  by  the  Mediterranean 
stock  causes  a  frizziness  of  hair  form;  a  darkening  of  skin  color,  which 
becomes  extremely  variable;  a  broadening  of  the  nasal  breadth;  an  in- 
crease in  interorbital  and  biorbital  dimensions;  and  often  an  increase  in 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN  WORLD  509 

facial  and  nasal  lengths,  as  well  as  a  tendency  to  nasal  profile  convexity. 
Vault  dimensions  and  body  dimensions  change  little. 

The  accretion  of  Veddoid  blood  causes  a  reduction  in  the  head  size, 
a  tendency  toward  brachycephaly,  an  increase  in  browridges  and  in 
bizygomatic  breadth,  a  narrowing  of  the  lower  face,  expecially  of  the 
mandible,  a  narrowing  of  the  nasal  and  orbital  region,  and  a  prominence 
of  the  nose.  Especially  noticeable  is  the  acquisition  of  thick  ringlet 
curls  as  an  almost  exclusive  hair  form. 

The  accretion  of  northern  Palaeolithic  blood  of  the  Afalou  variety 
causes  an  increase  in  bodily  bulk,  in  heaviness  of  bone,  in  relative  trunk 
size,  and  in  head  size.  It  causes  a  broadening  qf  the  head  and  face,  and 
especially  an  increase  in  the  size  antd  prominence  of  the  mandible.  It 
causes  the  acquisition  of  a  tendency  toward  blue-eyed,  brown?-  or  rufous- 
haired  blondism,  with  freckling,  A  comparable  action  has  already  been 
observed  upon  the  Nordic  branch  of  the  Mediterranean  race  in  northern 
Europe  and  in  Ireland. 

What  happens  to  the  Mediterranean  race  when  it  is  fused  with  central 
European  and  central  Asiatic  Alpine  strains,  and  with  mongoloid  strains 
on  the  plains  of  central  Asia,  will  be  studied  in  the  following  chapter. 


Chapter  XII 

THE   CENTRAL  ZONE,   A  STUDY  IN 
REEMERGENCE 

(1)   INTRODUCTION 

With  the  present  chapter  we  enter  upon  the  last  west-east  drive  in 
our  effort  to  deal  systematically  with  the  racial  geography  of  living 
white  peoples.  We  enter  at  the  same  time  upon  the  most  complex  and, 
from  the  biological  standpoint,  the  most  difficult  aspect  of  the  white 
racial  problem.  The  history  of  Europe  north  of  the  Pyrenees  and  south 
of  the  Baltic  and  of  the  Arctic  fringe  has  been  largely  a  matter  of  the 
penetration  of  food-producing  Mediterranean  peoples  into  territory  held 
by  food-gatherers  of  Mesolithic  cultural  tradition,  the  retreat  and  sub- 
mergence of  the  food-gatherers,  and  their  subsequent  racial  reemergence. 
We  have  already  witnessed  the  same  process  in  the  north,  and  in  Britain, 
especially  Ireland.  We  have  also  witnessed  a  similar  process  in  Morocco 
and  the  Canary  Islands. 

In  northern  Europe  and  in  Ireland,  the  reemergence  was  of  full-sized, 
unaltered  Briinn  and  Borreby  men;  in  North  Africa  of  both  reduced  and 
unreduced  Afalou  survivors.  One  suspects,  in  studying  individual  living 
Irish,  that  the  presence  of  occasional  individuals  of  Alpine  appearance 
may  be  due  to  a  minor  tendency  toward  size  reduction  in  the  Briinn 
stock,  parallel  to  the  reduction  evident  in  some  Riffians. 

In  central  Europe,  we  shall  deal  with  the  Alpine  race,  a  reduced 
Upper  Palaeolithic  type,  which  in  its  pure  form  is  a  medium  to  short- 
statured,  laterally  built,  brachycephalic,  short  and  broad-faced,  short- 
nosed,  relatively  large-jawed,  human  variety.  The  perfect  Alpine  looks 
very  much  like  the  Germanic  concept  of  a  dwarf,  the  small  men  with 
snub  noses  and  long  beards  who  live  in  the  mountains  and  forests,  and 
who  foster  such  poor  unfortunates  as  the  Princess  Snow  White.1 

The  thesis  that  the  Alpine  race  is  an  in  situ  descendant  of  the  Upper 
Palaeolithic  men  of  France  still  remains  unproved.  The  Mesolithic  is 
a  vast  ten-thousand  year  gap  in  our  knowledge  of  the  racial  history 
of  Europe,  and  it  is  still  possible  that  the  Alpine  race  entered  central 
Europe  from  the  east  during  that  time,  or  that  it  was  reenforced  by 

1  The  production  of  Snow  White  and  the  Seven  Dwarfs  by  Walt  Disney  in  1938  has  made 
this  physical  type  familiar,  by  means  of  caricature,  to  almost  the  entire  American  and 
western  European  public. 

510 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  511 

migrations  from  North  Africa.  It  is  also  possible,  and  in  fact  more  than 
likely,  that  the  Alpine  race  represents  a  reemergence  within  a  reemer- 
gence;  that  with  the  post-glacial  climatic  changes  the  shorter-statured, 
brachycephalic,  short-faced,  low-orbitted  element  within  the  heterogene- 
ous Cr6-Magnon  and  Afalou  stocks  asserted  its  selective  superiority 
genetically  over  the  taller,  longer-headed  and  longer-faced  elements, 
and  that  the  Alpine  race  as  such  existed  in  Europe  by  the  end  of  the 
Mesolithic;  later  it  was  pushed  out  and  absorbed  by  the  incoming  Medi- 
terraneans, through  mixture  with  whom  it  subsequently  made  its  second 
reemergence.  One  difficult  feature  of  this  whole  problem  is  that  the  Alpine 
race,  in  combination  with  certain  other  elements,  produces  a  number  of 
special  mixed  forms  which  help  to  complicate  the  racial  picture. 

A  further  complication  is  that  the  geographical  frontier  between  the 
region  of  Alpine  reemergence  and  that  of  Borreby  reemergence  is  not 
clearly  drawn;  the  two  meet  and  overlap  in  the  Low  Countries  and  in 
Germany.  In  the  east,  free  from  Borreby  competition,  the  Alpines 
follow  the  mountain  chain  into  Asia  Minor  and  southern  Turkestan;  on 
the  plains  of  Russia  and  Poland  it  is  a  Lappish  or  Ladogan  element 
which  reemerges. 

The  Mediterranean  race  is  a  foreigner  on  European  soil.  Only  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  and  the  western  Mediterranean  islands,  where  the 
large  Briinn  and  Borreby  hybrids  were  never  important;  only  in  Great 
Britain,  where  geography  yields  little  quarter  to  ancient  survivors;  and 
in  eastern  Norway  and  Sweden,  where  the  land  was  relatively  empty 
before  their  arrival,  could  Mediterraneans  of  either  blond  or  brunet 
pigmentation  survive  as  unaltered  major  populations  on  European  soil. 
Europe  owes  her  civilization  to  the  Mediterraneans,  but  she  owes  her 
blood  and  bone,  to  an  equal  if  not  a  larger  extent,  to  the  people  who 
settled  the  continent  during  the  last  interglacial. 

(2)  FRANCE 

The  racial  history  of  France  is  so  integral  a  part  of  the  racial  history 
of  western  Europe  as  a  whole  that  there  is  little  need  to  review  its  earlier 
phases  in  detail.  The  Neolithic  food-producers  who  first  settled  this 
country  came  largely  from  the  south,  from  Spain  and  also  from  Italy; 
the  Danubian  invasions  affected  France  little,  if  at  all,  in  a  direct  racial 
sense.  Megalithic  invaders  paid  considerable  attention  to  the  whole 
western  shore  of  France,  and  penetrated  up  the  river  valleys  of  the  north, 
while  Brittany  was  their  especial  stronghold.  They  were  not,  however, 
the  first  food-producers  to  arrive,  as  in  Ireland,  Scotland,  and  Denmark; 
hence  their  influence  upon  the  subsequent  population  was  relatively 
slight. 


512  THE  RACES  OF   EUROPE 

Prance  was  a  cultural  backwash  during  the  Bronze  Age;  the  farmers 
of  Neolithic  tradition  tilled  the  valleys  and  plains,  while  hunters  and 
gatherers  of  Mesolithic  inspiration  still  wandered  about  the  infertile 
uplands.  Only  in  the  northeastern  part  of  France,  adjacent  to  southern 
Germany,  was  there  a  Bronze  Age  civilization  of  any  importance.  The 
Iron  Age  brought  with  it  invasions  from  the  north  of  considerable  magni- 
tude; first  the  waves  of  Keltic  peoples,  and  then  of  Germanic,  culminating 
in  the  establishment  of  Charlemagne's  Frankish  empire.  These  invasions 
gave  to  the  whole  north  of  France  a  Kelto-Germanic  racial  cast,  which 
has  penetrated  many  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  Nordic  infusion 
so  produced  has  had  a  lasting  effect  upon  the  French  racial  composition. 

Other  movements  of  importance  were  the  penetration  of  the  Basques 
northward,  as  recorded  in  the  preceding  chapter;  the  arrival  of  the 
Northmen  from  Norway  in  what  became,  under  their  regime,  Nor- 
mandy; the  earlier  arrival  of  Saxons  along  the  coast;  and  the  settlement 
of  Cornishmen  in  Brittany.  In  more  recent  times  the  infiltration  of  Ital- 
ians into  the  Riviera  is  a  racial  movement  of  some  consequence. 

The  Romans  established  themselves  more  firmly  and  with  greater 
success  in  Gaul  than  in  most  of  their  colonies;  the  Romanized  Kelts 
gave  up  their  language  for  a  popular  variety  of  Latin,  as  did  the  Aquita- 
nians  in  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  country,  and  the  Ligurians  in  the 
southeast.  Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews,  and  other  subjects  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire established  themselves  in  Gaul  in  considerable  numbers.  The  Parisian 
spirit  of  internationalism  dates  back  to  the  Roman  occupation.  The  sur- 
vival of  Romance  speech  through  the  blanket  of  Frankish  German  and  of 
Norse  in  Normandy  is  a  tribute  to  the  strength  of  the  Roman  imprint. 

Throughout  her  history,  France  has  absorbed  more  than  she  has 
expanded;  except  for  French  Canada,  she  has  never  had  a  colony  to 
which  Frenchmen  have  gone  in  numbers  to  settle.  In  the  same  sense 
the  territory  of  France  is  greater  than  her  linguistic  boundaries;  on  the 
corners  of  her  domain  are  border  provinces  in  which  new  foreign  tongues 
have  crept  in,  or  in  which  older  ones  have  long  resisted  absorption. 
Italian^  in  the  southeast,  is  new;  Basque  and  Breton  date  to  the  fifth 
century  of  our  era — of  the  two  the  former  is  increasing,  the  latter  slowly 
decreasing;  Catalan  in  the  Roussillon,  so  closely  related  to  Langue 
d'Oc,  is  apparently  static;  in  the  north,  Flemish,  reaching  westward 
from  Belgium,  is  gradually  on  the  decrease,  as  is  German  in  Alsace. 
Although  French  is  spoken  by  thousands  of  educated  persons  outside 
French  territory  as  a  second  language,  it  is  not  an  aggressive  language 
within  France  itself.  The  total  number  of  persons  of  native  French 
citizenship  within  France  whose  mother  language  is  not  French  is  three 
and  a  half  out  of  forty- two  millions.  At  the  same  time  four  other  millions 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  513 

out  of  the  forty-two  are  naturalized  or  unnaturalized  foreigners.  The 
emigration  of  Frenchmen  is  negligible. 

At  the  turn  of  the  twentieth  century,  France  was  probably  the  best 
documented  of  the  larger  European  countries  in  an  anthropometric 
sense.  Since  that  time,  however,  almost  no  further  statistical  information 
has  been  collected;  our  sources  are  the  same  as  those  with  which  Deniker 
and  Ripley  worked.  The  material  consists  almost  entirely  of  detailed 
studies  of  the  distribution  of  a  few  characters,  notably  stature,  the  cephalic 
index,  and  pigmentation.  The  only  new  contribution  that  one  can  make 
lies  in  the  field  of  interpretation.2 

If  we  pass  rapidly  through  the  geographical  distribution  of  stature, 
the  cephalic  index,  and  pigmentation,  we  shall  have  covered  most  of 
the  existing  information  of  an  accurate  nature.  The  mean  stature  of 
the  French  is  about  166  cm.,3  which  is  neither  tall  nor  short,  but  inter- 

2  The  old  material  has  been  ably  summarized  and  interpreted  by  Professor  Georges 
Montandon  in  UEthnie  Frangaise.  His  volume  contains  a  complete  bibliography  of  the 
older  sources.  Chief  among  those  which  have  been  used  in  the  present  section  are : 

Atgier,  E.  A.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  9,  1898,  pp.  617HS37;  ser.  4,  vol.  10, 1899,  pp.  171- 
199. 

Aubert,  RDAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  3,  1888,  pp.  456-468. 

Bouchereau,  A.,  Anth,  vol.  11,  #6,  1900,  pp.  691-706. 

Bouchereau,  A.,  and  Mayet,  L.,  BMSA,  ser.  5,  vol.  6,  1905,  pp.  426-448. 

Carlier,  G.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  4,  1893,  pp.  470-476. 

Carriere,  G.,  Homme,  vol.  2,  1885,  pp.  334-337. 

Garret,  J.,  MDSS,  vol.  21,  1883,  pp.  1-108. 

Chassagne,  A.,  RDAP,  ser.  2,  voL  4,  1881,  pp.  439-447. 

Collignon,  R.,  Anth,  vol.  1,  1890,  pp.  201-224;  vol.  4,  1893,  pp.  237-258.  REAP, 
vol.  7,  1897,  pp.  339-347.  BSAP,  ser.  6,  vol.  3,  1883,  pp.  463-526;  ser.  3,  vol.  10,  1887, 
pp.  306-312;  ser.  4,  vol.  1,  1890,  pp.  736-805.  MSAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  1,  fasc.  3,  1894, 
ser.  3,  vol.  1,  fasc.  5,  1895. 

Debierre,  C.,  BSAL,  vol.  5,  1886-87,  pp.  129-149. 

Durand  de  Gros,  J.  P.,  BSAP,  ser.  2,  vol.  4,  1869,  pp.  193-218. 

Gamier,  M.,  Anth,  vol.  24,  1913,  pp.  25-50. 

Grilliere,  BSAP,  ser.  6,  vol.  4,  1913,  pp.  392-400. 

Herv6,  G.,  REAP,  vol.  11,  1901,  pp.  161-177. 

Hovelacque,  A.,  and  Herve,  G.,  MSAP,  ser.  3/vol.  1,  fasc.  2,  1894,  pp.  1-256. 

Lagneau,  G.,  BSAP,  vol.  6,  1865,  pp.  507-511. 

Lapouge,  G.  V.  de,  BSSM,  1897,  vol.  4,  pp.  235-243. 

MacAuliffe,  L.,  and  Marie,  A.,  Ethnographic,  No.  5,  1922,  pp.  41-48. 

MacAulifTe,  L.,  Marie,  A.,  and  Thooris,  A.,  BMSA,  ser.  6,  vol.  1,  1910,  pp.  307-311. 

Manouvrier,  L.,  BSAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  11,  1888,  pp.  156-173. 

Papillault,  G.  F.,  BMSA,  ser.  5,  vol.  3,  1902,  pp.  393-526. 

Pornmerol,  F.,  BSAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  10,  1887,  pp.  383-397. 

Routil,  R.,   ZFRK,  vol.  5,  1937,  pp.  177-181. 

Topinard,  P.,  RDAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  4,  1889,  pp.  513-530;  JRAI,  vol.  27,  1897,  pp.  96- 
103;  Anth,  vol.  4,  1893,  pp.  579-591. 

France  more  than  almost  any  other  European  country  stands  in  need  of  a  new  and 
complete  anthropometric  survey.  The  older  surveys  suffer  in  the  technical  sense  as  well 
as  in  the  paucity  of  criteria  studied. 

8  Figures  for  1910. 


514  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

mediate  in  relationship  to  other  European  peoples.  France  is  divided 
into  two  principle  stature  zones  by  a  slightly  convex  line  which  passes 
diagonally  from  Cherbourg  to  Marseilles,  with  mean  statures  of  166 
cm.  to  168  cm.  lying  to  the  northeast,  and  those  ranging  between  161 
and  165  cm.  on  the  southwest.  Aside  from  this  general  scheme,  taller 
people  are  found  along  the  larger  river  valleys  than  in  the  hills,  with  one 
principal  exception — the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees, 
from  the  Basques  to  the  Catalan-speakers  of  the  Roussillon,  are  taller 
than  the  people  immediately  north  of  them.  In  the  northeast,  in  the 
taller  region,  there  are  stature  modes  of  164  and  168  cm.4  The  centers 
of  relatively  short  stature  in  France  are:  the  Maritime  Alps,  to  the 
east  of  the  valley  of  the  Rh6ne,  which  acts  as  a  wedge  of  newer  popu- 
lation between  the  mountain  nuclei  on  either  side;  the  Massif  Central, 
the  classic  Alpine  country;  the  Perigord-Limoges  region,  including  the 
Dordogne,  which  is  the  strongest  outpost  of  dolichocephals  in  France;  and 
Brittany. 

It  is  curious  that  the  Keltic-speaking  Bretons  are  among  the  shortest 
people  in  France,  and  are,  in  fact,  seven  centimeters  shorter  than  their 
kinsmen  the  Cornish  who  live  directly  across  the  Channel.  A  detailed 
stature  map  of  Brittany  by  cantons  shows  that  the  jump  from  Cornwall 
is  not  as  abrupt  as  it  appears;  5  around  the  coast  extends  a  thin  band  of 
maritime  cantons  with  stature  in  the  164-165  cm.  class,  which  gives  way 
rapidly  through  a  zone  of  transition  to  an  inner  nucleus  in  which  the 
mean  stature  is  162  cm.  This  evidence,  as  well  as  that  of  the  cephalic 
index,  indicates  that  Cornish  speech  has  survived  in  Brittany  among  a 
people  to  whom  it  is  an  adopted  tongue,  while  it  has  died  out  in  south- 
western England  whence  it  came. 

Stature  has  increased  to  a  certain  extent  in  France  during  the  last 
century,  as  it  has  in  other  parts  of  western  Europe;  one  of  the  most  strik- 
ing examples  of  this  change  is  seen  in  the  mountainous  region  of  Savoie, 
especially  in  the  canton  of  Mt.  Blanc.6  In  the  five  year  period  from 
1807-12,  the  mean  stature  of  some  12,000  men  was  158  cm.  Within 
this  period,  the  stature  seems  to  have  been  static.  Between  1828  and  1837, 
the  recruits  from  this  same  region  had  attained  the  mean  of  162  cm., 
and  in  the  1872-79  interval  they  had  reached  165  cm.  Unfortunately 
there  is  no  more  recent  data  to  trace  the  further  history  of  this  regional 
group.  In  the  rest  of  France,  the  changes  have  been  much  less  marked;  the 
case  of  the  Savoyards  is  apparently  an  example  of  diminishing  isolation. 

One  of  the  most  widely  discussed  subjects  in  French  anthropology  is 
that  of  the  so-called  laches  noires,  the  black  spots  upon  the  stature  map  of 

4  Montandon,  G.,  op.  cit.,  p.  64.  «  Garret,  J.,  MDSS,  1883. 

6  Chassagne,  A.,  RDAP,  1881. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  515 

France.  These  are  regions  in  which  the  people  appear  stunted,  and  whole 
villages  and  whole  cantons  are  characterized  by  stature  means  well  under 
160  cm.  These  dwarfed  areas  seem  definitely  linked  with  poor  living 
conditions  and  general  retrogression.  Broca,  who  studied  such  an  area 
in  Basse  Bretagne,  attributed  this  stunting  to  mineral  deficiency,  since 
it  occurred  mostly  in  regions  of  granitic  soil.7  Collignon,8  who  studied  a 
second  such  spot  in  the  Limousin  Hills,  on  the  corner  of  the  four  depart- 
ments of  Greuze,  Correze,  Charente,  and  Dordogne,  invoked  general 
poverty  and  misery.  His  proof  that  this  stature  reduction  was  environ- 
mental is  seen  in  a  comparison  of  means  between  sub-samples  of  83 
recruits  from  the  canton  of  St.  Pierre  de  Chignac.  Of  these  83,  53  who 
were  born  there  and  had  always  lived  there  had  a  mean  of  159.5  cm.; 
24  who  were  born  in  better  country  but  raised  in  St,  Pierre,  159.9  cm.; 
15  who  were  born  in  St.  Pierre  and  raised  elsewhere,  163.7  cm. 

Bodily  proportions  of  the  French  are  known  to  us  only  through  two 
general  scries  by  Collignon.9  The  French  as  a  group  are  not  notably 
different  from  a  general  European  mean;  a  relative  span  of  104  is  greater 
than  a  Mediterranean  condition,  and  resembles  that  of  the  western  Nor- 
wegians, the  East  Baltics,  and  the  Irish.  The  relative  sitting  height 
mean  of  52.4  is  not  excessive,  nor  are  absolute  shoulder  and  hip  breadths. 
On  the  whole,  the  resemblance  is  with  northern  Upper  Palaeolithic 
survivors  rather  than  Mediterraneans,  which  is  to  be  expected. 

The  data  on  the  cephalic  index  of  the  French,  while  covering  smaller 
series  than  those  for  stature,  are  numerically  fully  adequate,  and  have 
been  frequently  discussed.  France  is  a  brachycephalic  country,  one  of 
the  most  fully  and  intensely  brachycephalic  in  the  world.  The  mean 
cephalic  index  for  the  nation  is  83.6,  according  to  Collignon,  which 
would  be  between  81  and  82  on  the  skull — in  other  words,  it  is  about  the 
same  as  it  was  during  the  Neolithic,  judging  by  the  relatively  abundant 
cranial  material  reviewed  in  Chapter  IV.  Since  most  of  the  post-Neo- 
lithic invaders  of  France,  who  came  in  considerable  numbers,  have  been 
dolichocephalic  or  mesocephalic,  the  present  condition  is  evidence  in 
itself  of  a  prodigious  absorption  and  reemergence. 

Two  large  zones  in  France  are  characterized  by  hyperbrachycephaly; 
indices  of  86  and  over  are  found  in  Auvergne  and  in  Burgundy.  The 
first  center  starts  in  Upper  Gascony  with  the  department  of  Gers,  and 
extends  eastward  and  slightly  northward  through  Tarn-et-Garonne  and 
Lot  in  the  Guyenne,  to  Aveyron,  Cantal,  Loz£re,  and  Haute  Loire.  This 

7  Thus  anticipating  Marett's  work  by  half  a  century. 
Broca,  P.,  BSA,  ser.  2,  vol.  1,  1866,  pp.  700-708. 

8  Gollignon,  R.,  MSAP,  1894. 

9  Gollignon,  R.,  BSAP,  1883;  Anth,  1893. 


516  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

is  the  famous  Massif  Central,  the  granite  country,  the  refuge  area  of 
Alpines  in  their  least  mixed  form.  This  area  of  maximum  brachypephaly 
does  not,  however,  correspond  exactly  with  the  center  of  short  stature, 
which  lies  farther  to  the  north  and  west;  nor  does  it  entirely  merit  the 
name  "Auvergnat,"  because  Auvergne  forms  merely  the  northwestern- 
most  extremity  of  its  distribution.  Furthermore,  it  cannot  be  exactly 
correlated  with  any  single  geological  or  orographical  phenomenon. 
The  second  zone  of  hyperbrachycephaly  lies  to  the  east  and  north  of 
the  first  one;  it  is  found  in  Savoie,  eastern  Burgundy,  the  Franche  Comt6, 
and  Lorraine.  The  inhabitants  of  these  regions  differ  profoundly  from 
those  in  the  first  area,  however;  the  Burgundians  and  Savoyards  are 
much  taller,  and  frequently  blond. 

Long-headed  regional  populations  are  scarce  in  France;  true  dolicho- 
cephals,  with  indices  of  77  or  under,  are  numerous  only  in  the  immediate 
region  of  Perigeux,  in  the  Dordogne.  Low  mesocephals,  with  indices 
of  78  and  79,  cover  a  wider  zone  around  Perigeux,  between  the  rivers 
V6zere  and  Dronne.  Elsewhere  relative  long  headedness,  comprising 
indices  between  78  and  81,  is  found  in  a  number  of  regions:  (a)  the 
Channel  departments,  where  Norman  and  Saxon  blood  is  present,  and 
here  and  there  on  the  coast  of  Brittany.  The  Norwegian  invaders,  with 
a  mean  cephalic  index  of  presumably  77,  have  pulled  the  regional  mean 
down  to  80  and  81  in  most  of  Normandy;  in  Brittany,  however,  the 
Cornish  invaders  gave  the  inhabitants  little  beside  their  language,  (b) 
the  corridor  reaching  from  Orleans  to  Bordeaux,  through  Marche, 
Poitou,  and  Berry;  this  has  been  a  highway  for  invasions  from  the  north 
since  early  times,  (c)  the  Catalan-speaking  region  of  Pyrenees  Orientales. 
(d)  the  lower  Rh6ne  Valley,  from  Lyon  to  the  Mediterranean,  another 
much  frequented  corridor. 

The  rest  of  France,  consisting  of  about  half  of  the  country,  represents  an 
intermediate  condition  in  head  form,  with  normal  brachycephaly,  the 
mean  indices  being  between  82  and  85.  In  view  of  the  skeletal  history 
of  France,  and  of  the  racial  character  of  the  living  French,  it  is  evident 
that  a  moderate  brachycephaly  is  not,  in  this  country,  a  normal  racial 
condition,  but  an  intermediate  or  mixed  one,  between  end  types  which 
are  genetically  capable  of  regmergence. 

In  France  as  in  Norway,  Denmark,  and  many  other  countries,  there 
is  a  tendency  for  the  cities  to  contain  longer-headed  populations  than 
the  surrounding  country  districts;  in  eight  cities  10  the  mean  difference 

10  Bordeaux,  La  Rochelle,  Pau,  Bayottne,  Tarbes,  Rodez,  Milhau,  and  Lyon.  Calcu- 
lated from: 

Bouchereau  and  Mayet,  1905;  Collingnon,  R.,  MSAP,  1894;  Durand  d«  Gros,  J.  P., 
BSAP,  1869. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  517 

between  the  two  is  1.86  index  points.  Since  the  birth-rate  in  the  cities 
is  low,  and  the  cities  drain  the  human  surplus  of  the  surrounding  country 
districts,  there  must  be  a  process  of  selection  at  play,  here  as  elsewhere, 
which  tends  in  the  long  run  to  raise  the  cephalic  index  mean  not  only 
in  the  country  districts,  but  also  in  the  cities  as  well.  This  process  is 
particularly  important  in  France  where  there  has  been  since  the  beginning 
of  the  Neolithic  a  highly  brachycephalic  hinterland  population  to  draw 
from.  In  Brittany  the  change  seems  to  have  been  particularly  profound, 
since  the  Iron  Age  crania  from  this  country  in  no  wise  give  promise 
of  the  present-day  round  headedness.11 

Measurements  of  the  head  and  face,  and  indices  other  than  the  cephalic, 
are  extremely  scanty.12  Fortunately,  however,  they  refer  for  the  most  part 
to  the  more  brachycephalic  element  in  the  French  population,  which 
is  of  especial  interest  here.  In  the  Alpine  region  par  excellence,  where 
the  cephalic  indices  run  to  means  of  85  and  over,  the  head  length  means 
average  about  184  mm.,  and  the  head  breadth  about  158  mm.  The 
vault  height  mean  is  about  126  mm.  These  heads,  with  a  cephalic  module 
of  156  mm.  (HL  +  HB  +  Aur.  Ht.  -7-  3)  are  of  moderate  size  for  white 
people;  they  are  much  sfnaller  than  the  heads  of  the  Borreby  brachy- 
cephals  in  Scandinavia  and  northern  Germany,  and  a  little  smaller  than 
one  finds  among  brachycephals  of  equal  index  position  in  southern  Ger- 
many. They  are,  however,  comparable  in  size  to  those  of  Dinarics  in 
the  Balkans,  and  of  Armenoids  and  Tajiks  in  Asia.  Heads  among  all  non- 
Borreby  brachycephals,  from  France  to  Turkestan,  are  approximately 
equivalent  in  basic  vault  dimensions,  whatever  the  differences  in  contours. 

The  French  Alpine  face,  however,  fails  to  maintain  this  level  of  similar- 
ity. The  foreheads  and  jaws  are  both  moderately  broad,  with  minimum 
frontal  and  bigonial  means  of  about  108  mm.,  as  is  the  bizygomatic  mean 
of  140  mm.  These  lateral  dimensions  exceed  those  of  any  Mediterranean 
group  studied,  and  approach  but  do  not  equal  the  Borreby  position. 
The  French  Alpine  face  breadth  is  equal  to  that  of  Tajiks,  but  less  than 
that  of  some  Dinarics  in  the  Balkans,  and  of  Armenoids. 

»  Vallois,  M.  H.  V.,  Les  Ossemmts  Bretons  de  Kerne, 
12  Three  series  are  most  useful : 

(1)  MacAuliffe,  L.,  Marie,  A.,  and  Thooris,  A.,  BMSA,  1910.     A  series  of  100 
French  soldiers. 

(2)  Hawes,  C.  H.,  a  series  of  51  French  soldiers,  mostly  from  Lozdre,  measured  in 
Crete  in  1905.   This  series  has  not  been  published  previously. 

(3)  Papillault,  G.,  BMSA,  1902.    A  series  of  100  cadavers  measured  in  the  Paris 
morgue.    This  series  is  especially  complete  and  accurate,  but  unfortunately  there  had 
been  some  shrinking  of  soft  parts,  or  else  social  selection  was  important  here,  for  the 
cadavers  are  smaller  in  many  dimensions  than  living  groups. 

Aside  from  these  three  series,  we  have  partial  data  on  22  other  series,  17  by  Collig* 
non,  and  the  others  by  Carlier,  Carri£re,  Grilli£re,  and  Debierre. 


518  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  total  face  height  mean  seems  to  be  about  121  or  122  mm.;  1S  the 
upper  face  height  mean  about  73  mm.  These  figures  agree  closely  with 
those  of  the  Tajiks  of  Turkestan,  who  are  also  for  the  most  part  Alpines; 
but  fall  far  short  of  those  for  Binaries  and  Armenoids.  The  Borreby 
brachycephals  in  the  north  do  not  have  much  longer  faces.  The  French 
Alpines  are  mesoprosopic  and  mesene.  Their  nose  height  mean  is  about 
53  mm.,  and  breadth  about  34  mm.;  the  nasal  index  approximately  64. 
Thus  the  noses  are  absolutely  of  moderate  size,  and  moderately  leptor- 
rhine.  They  are,  again,  close  to  those  of  Tajiks,  and  much  shorter  than 
those  of  Binaries  or  Armenoids. 

To  sum  up  this  material,  the  Alpines  of  France,  in  the  measurements 
and  proportions  of  the  head  and  face,  seem  to  be  smaller  replicas  of 
the  Borreby  people  of  northern  Europe.  They  closely  resemble  the  seden- 
tary Iranian-speaking  Tajiks  of  Turkestan,  with  whom  we  shall  deal  at 
some  length  later,  and  thus  have  possible  relationships  with  a  similar 
people  far  to  the  east.  They  furthermore  differ  greatly  in  facial  dimensions 
and  proportions  from  Binaries  and  Armenoids  in  southeastern  Europe 
and  in  western  Asia.  They  differ  profoundly  from  any  group  of  Mediter- 
raneans studied,  and  show  a  manifest  affiliation  to  the  general  Upper 
Palaeolithic  European  group. 

The  one  region  of  complete  dolichocephaly  in  France,  that  of  the 
Bordogne  country,  is  characterized  by  unusually  large  head  diameters. 
The  mean  head  lengths  of  several  cantons  run  as  high  as  196  and  197 
mm.,  with  the  breadths  at  150  mm.  and  greater.14  The  vaults  are  relatively 
low,  being  about  3  mm.  lower  than  those  of  neighboring  brachycephals. 
The  bizygomatic  means  of  the  long-headed  cantons  are  about  137  mm., 
as  compared  to  140  mm.  for  the  brachycephalic  cantons.  This  unusual 
head  size,  coupled  with  short  stature,  is  unquestionably  indicative  of 
an  isolated  local  type;  but  it  is  too  great  to  refer  wholly  to  a  normal, 
small  Mediterranean,  Early  Neolithic  racial  group.  These  dimensions 
remind  one  of  the  Mesolithic  people  of  Teviec;  and  Ripley  may  not 
have  been  wholly  wrong  when  he  saw  in  the  Bordogne  dolichocephals 
a  survival  from  pre-Neolithic  times.  The  Mesolithic  is  still  a  period  of 
uncertainty  to  the  student  of  race,  but  the  one  thing  that  we  do  know  is 
that  it  was,  like  all  others  before  or  since,  a  period  of  complexity.  The 
Bordogne  dolichocephals  present  a  problem  similar  to  that  of  the  more 
primitive  of  the  brunet  dolichocephals  of  Wales. 

The  pigmentation  of  living  Frenchmen,  like  their  stature  and  cephalic 

18  There  are  no  accurate  total  face  heights  available  for  France.  I  am  basing  this 
figure  on  French  Canadian  convicts  in  American  jails,  who  seem  to  be  of  basic  Alpine 
type.  This  material  is  taken  from  Hooton's  extensive  criminal  survey. 

14  Collignon,  R.,  MSAP,  1894. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  519 

indices,  was  subjected  to  extensive  investigation  during  the  last  century, 
and  there  is  no  modern  scale  material  for  use  in  determining  absolute 
standards.  The  most  recent  work,  that  of  MacAuliffe  and  Marie  on 
6625  men  from  France  as  a  whole,15  finds  but  4  per  cent  of  black  and  near- 
black  hair  color,  23  per  cent  of  dark  brown,  43  per  cent  of  medium  brown, 
14  per  cent  of  light  brown,  12  per  cent  of  various  degrees  of  blond,  and 
some  4  per  cent  of  reddish- brown  and  red.  The  virtual  absence  of  truly 
black  hair  is  notable,  as  well  as  the  high  degree  of  rufosity.  The  charac- 
teristic French  hair  color  is  a  dark  to  medium  brown,  which  often  has  a 
reddish  glint;  this  color  is  typical  of  the  Alpine  race  in  its  French  mani- 
festation. 

The  regional  distribution  of  hair  color  in  France  follows  closely  that 
of  stature.  Although  the  position  of  the  French  in  regard  to  hair  pig- 
mentation is  intermediate  between  blond  and  black,  the  diagonal  line 
from  Mont  St.  Michel  to  Orleans,  Lyons,  and  the  Italian  border  divides 
the  country  into  a  northeastern  quadrant,  in  which  the  hair  is  somewhat 
lighter  than  medium,  and  a  southwestern,  in  which  it  is  somewhat 
darker.  High  ratios  of  black  and  very  dark  brown  hair  are  found  not  in 
the  typically  Alpine  country,  but  along  the  slope  of  the  Pyrenees,  in 
Catalan-speaking  country,  and  on  the  Mediterranean  seacoast.  Blond 
hair  is  commonest  along  the  Channel,  in  regions  settled  by  Saxons  and 
Normans,  in  Burgundy  and  the  country  bordering  Switzerland,  and  down 
the  course  of  the  Rhone.  In  northern  France  it  seems  to  follow  upstream 
the  rivers  which  empty  into  the  Channel.  The  hair  color  of  the  depart- 
ments occupied  by  Flemish  speakers,  and  of  others  directly  across  the 
Channel  from  England  in  Normandy,  seems  to  be  nearly  as  light  as  that 
in  the  southern  English  counties;  the  coastal  cantons  of  Brittany  are 
lighter  than  the  inland  ones,  and  approximate  a  Cornish  condition. 
In  the  same  way,  the  northeastern  French  departments  are  probably 
as  light-haired  as  some  of  the  provinces  of  southern  Germany.  Truly 
light  hair  is  uncommon  enough,  and  so  placed  geographically  that  it 
may  be  in  large  part  attributed  to  the  Keltic  and  Germanic  migrations. 
But  the  hair  of  the  pre-Keltic  inhabitants  of  France  can  by  no  means 
have  been  wholly  or  even  largely  black;  the  intermediate  brown  hair 
shade  of  the  Alpines,  with  its  rufous  and  incipiently  blond  tendencies, 
must  be  ancient  in  France;  it  is  comparable  to  the  slightly  blonder  hair 
color  range  of  the  Borreby  type,  with  its  tendency  to  rufosity. 

Eye  color  observations  on  the  French  are  equally  abundant  and  equally 
difficult  to  equate  to  standard  shades  and  degrees  of  pigment.16  Pure 

15  MacAuliffe,  L.,  and  Marie,  A.,  Ethnographic,  1922.    Older  surveys  which  cover 
France  geographically  are  those  of  Topinard  and  of  Collignon, 

16  Most  of  the  French  observers  use  the  terms  "marron"  and  "chatain"  to  designate 


520  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

dark  eyes  are  apparently  found  among  roughly  25  per  cent  of  French- 
men;17  the  departmental  range  runs  from  14  per  cent  in  Morbihan 
(Brittany)  to  Basse  Pyrenees  and  Gers,  with  41  per  cent  and  42  per  cent, 
and  thence  to  the  very  dark-eyed  departments  of  Bouches  du  Rh6ne 
(57  per  cent),  and  Alpes  Maritimes  (59  per  cent).  Out  of  87  departments, 
49  have  between  20  per  cent  and  30  per  cent  of  "dark"  eyes. 

The  distribution  of  eye  color  in  France  follows  roughly  that  of  stature 
and  hair  color,  but  is  less  regular  than  either.  Light  eyes  are  especially 
numerous  in  the  northeast,  in  the  region  of  Keltic  and  Germanic  in- 
fluence, and  in  northwestern  France,  along  the  Channel  from  Flanders 
to  Brittany.  Topinard  finds  25  per  cent  of  blue  eyes  in  these  northern 
and  eastern  departments.  In  the  Pyrenean  departments,  and  along  the 
Riviera,  these  blue  eyes,  which  probably  include  light-mixed  shades, 
sink  below  15  per  cent,  but  never  below  10  per  cent.  Even  in  the  de- 
partments where  there  is  little  historical  or  skeletal  evidence  of  Nordic 
influence,  there  is  always  a  large  minority  element  of  eye  blondism.  On 
the  whole,  the  distribution  of  eye  color  differs  from  that  of  hair  color  in 
one  particular:  light  eyes  are  relatively  common  in  western  France, 
especially  in  Brittany,  in  regions  of  dark  hair  color;  while  light  hair  is 
commoner  in  eastern  France  than  the  ratio  of  light  eyes  would  warrant 
were  the  two  strictly  correlated.  France  repeats  on  a  lesser  scale  the  hair 
and  eye  color  disharmony  of  northern  Europe,  The  reason  is  the  same 
in  both  areas;  the  eye  blondism  is  partly  Nordic,  partly  of  Palaeolithic 
or  Mesolithic  derivation,  while  the  really  light  hair  is  largely  Nordic. 

The  foregoing  summary  of  the  detailed  regional  distributions  of  somatic 
characters  among  Frenchmen  has  made  it  clear  that  France,  while  more 
than  anything  else  an  Alpine  country,  is  differentiated  into  a  number  of 
racial  sub-areas.  At  the  same  time  it  is  evident  that  in  France  as  a  whole, 
a  number  of  distinct  racial  types  may  be  easily  distinguished  among 
individuals.  Starting  on  the  regional  basis,  we  have  observed  that  the 
northern  part  of  France,  including  the  Channel  departments  and  those 
stretching  eastward  as  far  as  Burgundy,  contains  a  population  character- 
ized by  moderately  tall  stature,  a  variable  but  slightly  fairer  than  inter- 
mediate degree  of  blondism,  and  a  variable,  sub-brachycephalic  or 
brachy cephalic  head  form.  This  population  obviously  contains  strong 
vestiges  of  the  Nordic  invasions  of  Kelts  and  Germans,  but  in  it  fully 

the  commoner  shades  of  brown  eye  color,  presumably  meaning  dark  brown  and 
light  brown,  although  Topinard  pointed  out  that  the  only  "chatain"  that  resembled  a 
human  eye  color  was  one  with  a  worm  in  it.  Topinard  ant!  others  observed  eye  color 
by  standing  at  a  distance  and  observing  the  total  tone,  although  Bertillon  advocated  an 
accurate  system  which  took  into  account  the  anatomy  of  the  iris. 

17  This  figure  is  obtained  by  combining  MacAuliffe  and  Marie's  "chatain"  and 
"marron  pur";  Topinard's  "dark"  class  gives  the  same  figure. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  521 

qualified  Nordics  of  Keltic  or  Germanic  aspect  are  rare.  They  are  much 
commoner,  however,  in  French  Flanders,  and  in  Normandy.  Portrait 
material  indicates  that  the  Nordic  element  was  especially  strong  among 
the  old  French  nobility. 

In  northeastern  and  eastern  France,  in  the  region  where  relatively 
tall  stature,  relatively  light  hair  and  eye  color,  and  extreme  brachycephaly 
coincide,  this  partial  Nordicism  passes  into  a  Dinaric  or  Dinaric-like 
condition.  Here  the  cephalic  index  is  as  high  as  in  the  central  Alpine 
country;  the  heads,  furthermore,  are  no  larger,  and  a  Borreby element  can- 
not be  induced  to  explain  the  difference  in  stature  and  pigmentation.  We 
must  remember,  however,  that  in  the  Neolithic  period  the  stature  of  ex- 
treme brachycephals  in  this  region  was  moderately  tall,  and  that  the  accom- 
panying Mediterranean  crania  were  associated  with  much  shorter  stature. 

It  would  seem  that  the  infusion  of  Nordic  blood  produced  by  the  Keltic 
and  Germanic  invasions  helped  to  maintain  this  original  stature  level, 
or  to  reenforce  it,  while  at  the  same  time  adding  considerably  to  the 
local  blond  increment.  A  study  of  Savoyards  on  the  basis  of  head  form, 
head  size,  stature,  and  pigmentation18  demonstrates  that  in  a  local 
group  with  a  mean  stature  of  170  cm.,  there  is  no  evidence  of  Borreby 
head  size,  and  that  two  related  elements  seem  to  account  for  almost  all 
of  the  sample;  a  Dinaric  and  a  Noric,  the  latter  being  a  blond  brachy- 
cephal  of  general  Dinaric  morphology.  The  unavoidable  inference  is 
that  the  original  Alpine  type  has  absorbed  not  only  Neolithic  Mediter- 
ranean factors,  but  also  Iron  Age  Nordics,  in  such  proportions  that  the 
Alpine  cephalic  index  level  has  been  preserved,  but  that  the  facial  char- 
acters have  to  a  certain  extent  been  taken  over  from  the  Nordics.  In 
other  parts  of  northern  France,  in  the  Seine  and  Marne  valleys,  for  ex- 
ample, the  Alpine  element  has  not  been  strong  enough  to  produce  such 
a  phenomenon  consistently,  although  it  has  done  so  with  individuals. 

If  the  tall,  relatively  light-pigmented  hyperbrachycephals  of  north- 
eastern France  have  absorbed  some  Nordic  blood  without  change  of 
cephalic  index,  then  it  is  possible  that  the  shorter,  darker  ones  of  south- 
central  France  have  absorbed  various  quantities  of  Mediterranean, 
since  Mediterraneans  have  been  present  in  this  region  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Neolithic,  if  not  earlier.  Among  the  French  Alpines  convex 
noses  are  common,  and  an  approach  to  the  Dinaric  facial  appearance; 
one  wonders  if  this  is  not  partly  due  to  the  absorption  of  Mediterranean 
blood.  Alpine  facial  types  of  the  classic  variety,  with  a  straight  or  con- 
cave nasal  profile,  combined  with  the  Alpine  abundance  of  beard  growth, 
and  the  stiff  but  wavy,  unruly  Alpine  hair,  are  by  no  means  found  among 
all  Frenchmen  who  are  metrically  Alpine. 

»  Routil,  R.,  ZFRK,  vol.  5,  1937,  pp.  177-181. 


522  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

Here  and  there  one  sees  a  Frenchman  of  general  Alpine  type  whose 
facial  features,  due  largely  to  peculiarities  of  nose  form  and  to  malar 
prominence,  approach  a  Lappish  or  mongoloid  condition.  The  same 
may  be  seen  occasionally  in  North  Africa  among  Berbers.  This  must  be 
attributed  not  to  mongoloid  invasions,  but  to  the  relationship  between 
Lapps  and  other  incipient  mongoloids  and  Upper  Palaeolithic  Europeans 
in  the  Pleistocene.  Ainu-looking  Alpines  are  commoner  than  incipiently 
mongoloid  ones. 

Montandon,  a  keen  observer  of  the  French  racial  scene,  proposes  the 
following  racial  proportions  for  the  French  nation:  Nordic,  1  per  cent; 
Sub-Nordic,  30  per  cent;  Dinaric-like,  15  per  cent;  relatively  pure 
Alpine,  30  per  cent;  Small  Mediterranean  ( I bero- Insular),  10  per  cent; 
Atlan to-Mediterranean  (Litoral),  10  per  cent;  Basque  type,  1  per  cent; 
others,  3  per  cent.  Although  the  Alpine  increment  receives  only  30  per 
cent,  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  the  Sub-Nordic  as  in  the  Dinaric- 
like  category,  there  is  a  strong  Alpine  element;  furthermore,  the  Atlan  to- 
Mediterraneans  of  the  Pyrenees  and  the  Riviera  are  strongly  tinged 
with  Alpine.  If  Collignon's  head  diameters  are  correct,  then  the  small 
Mediterraneans  of  the  Dordogne  are  not  pure  Neolithic  descendants, 
but  have  absorbed  a  much  older  non-Alpine  racial  entity. 

The  final  conclusions  derived  from  this  survey  are  as  follows.  France, 
notwithstanding  her  brilliant  contributions  to  civilization  and  the  inter- 
national character  which  she,  as  a  great  cultural  center,  has  assumed, 
was  a  culturally  retarded,  marginal  area  from  the  end  of  Mesolithic  times 
until  the  Iron  Age.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  remained,  since  the  end  of 
the  Pleistocene,  a  marginal  or  refuge  area  from  the  racial  standpoint 
also,  since  the  invasions  of  brunet  Mediterraneans  and  of  Nordics  have 
together  been  less  important  here  than  in  most  European  countries.  In 
France  the  Alpine  race,  a  smaller-sized  and  less  blond  replica  of  the 
northern  Borreby  race,  has  reemerged  as  the  principal  racial  element 
and  can  be  seen  in  a  relatively  pure  form.  France  is  essentially  an  Alpine 
nation. 

(3)   BELGIUM 

Belgium,  with  its  11,755  square  miles,  is  a  small  country,  but  it  is  one 
which  is  important  in  European  history  as  the  meeting  place  of  the  Ger- 
manic north  and  the  territories  whose  cultures  and  languages  have  been 
determined  by  contact  with  Rome.  With  686  persons  per  square  mile, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  thickly  populated  countries  of  Europe — its  total 
population  of  8,092,004  persons  (1930  census)  being  much  greater  than 
those  of  many  sovereign  states  many  times  its  area. 

This  population  has  more  than  doubled  in  the  last  century;  for  in 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  523 

1831  it  was  3,785,814.  This  increase  was  due  not  to  immigration,  but 
wholly  to  internal  reproduction.  Belgium  is,  of  course,  one  of  the  most 
highly  industrialized  countries  of  Europe — her  soil  is  rich  in  natural 
resources,  and  heavy  industries  dependent  on  the  abundance  of  mineral 
wealth  are  especially  developed  here.  Industrialism  is,  however,  nothing 
new  to  Belgium,  for  during  the  Middle  Ages  and  succeeding  centuries, 
Flanders  was  the  textile  center  of  Europe. 

Belgium  has  only  42  miles  of  seacoast,  which  consists  of  sandy  beach 
and  dunes,  with  the  shore  going  off  so  shallow  that  there  are  no  natural 
harbors — all  older  seaports,  such  as  Antwerp,  Ghent,  and  Bruges,  having 
been  located  inland  on  waterways.  At  the  back  of  this  sandy  shore  is  a 
belt  of  flat  country  which  is  for  the  most  part  flush  with  the  level  of  the 
sea  or  only  a  little  above  it;  but  for  the  natural  barrier  of  the  dunes  and  for 
man-made  reinforcements,  large  parts  of  this  land  would  be  inundated 
at  every  exceptional  equinoctial  tide.  This  flat  area  is  the  plain  of  Flanders, 
famous  for  centuries  as  the  battleground  of  Europe.  Here  the  Romans 
fought  Belgae  and  Germans;  here  the  Spaniards  and  Austrians  struggled 
in  their  time  for  possession  of  the  Low  Countries;  here  Napoleon  met  his 
Waterloo,  which  has  a  good  Flemish  name;  and  here,  during  the  World 
War,  Flanders  suffered  its  latest,  but  probably  not  its  last,  invasion. 

In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  the  plain  of  Flanders  was  a  swamp,  im- 
penetrable save  to  those  who  lived  or  sought  refuge  in  it;  it  could  never 
have  held  a  large  permanent  population.  During  the  Dark  and  Middle 
Ages  a  systematic  drainage  of  the  land  and  the  building  of  dykes,  com- 
bined with  the  natural  action  of  the  wind  and  waves  blowing  off  the 
North  Sea,  made  it  a  fertile  plain  eminently  habitable  by  man.  Its 
intensive  settlement,  therefore,  dates  largely  from  the  last  centuries  of 
the  first  Christian  millennium. 

Bordering  the  plain  of  Flanders,  on  drier  ground,  there  stood  in  Roman 
times  a  dense  forest  which  served  to  reenforce  the  barrier  of  tidal  swamps 
and  salt  marshes.  This  forest,  called  Sylva  Carbonaria  by  the  Romans, 
was  an  extension  of  the  Ardennes  Forest  of  northern  France,  and  served 
as  a  barrier  between  those  few  Belgae  who  lived  in  moist  freedom  on 
the  marshes,  and  the  upland-dwelling  Belgae  and  Gauls  who  adopted 
Roman  speech,  and  became  Walloons — the  word  Walloon  being  a  cognate 
of  the  German  Welsch,  or  English  Welsh,  a  word  which  the  early  Germanic 
peoples  applied  to  all  strangers,  much  as  the  Greeks  used  the  word 
barbaroi.  The  Walloon  country  is  topographically  differentiated  from 
the  Flemish  plain;  although  its  highest  elevation  is  2200  feet,  it  is  covered 
with  many  hills  and  small  valleys,  and  is  forested,  while  the  plain  is 
almost  treeless. 

The  Romans  first  learned  of  the  Low  Countries  in  the  time  of  Caesar, 


524  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

who  found  Keltic-speaking  peoples  in  possession  of  all  regions  south 
and  west  of  the  Rhine,  as  far  as  Gaul,  and  this  Keltic  country  thus  in- 
cluded all  of  Belgium  and  much  of  the  modern  Netherlands.  In  15  A.D. 
this  country  became,  by  imperial  decree,  Romanized  Gallia  Belgica. 

About  300  A.D.  the  Franks  began  swarming  over  the  Rhine  into  Roman 
territory,  and  gradually  worked  their  way  southward  and  westward. 
They  took  over  the  land  as  they  went,  except  for  the  coastal  strip  north 
from  the  Scheldt  to  the  Ems,  which  became  Frisian  property.  The 
Frisians  were  allies  of  the  Saxons,  who  had  given  the  Franks  the  urge  to 
migrate  by  driving  them  out  of  their  former  homes;  hence  the  Frisians 
and  the  Franks  were  enemies. 

Modern  Flemish,  the  permanent  linguistic  heritage  of  the  Prankish 
invasions  of  Belgium,  is  a  branch  of  the  west-Germanic  language  group, 
which  includes  three  main  divisions:  (1)  English  (2)  Frisian  (3)  Modern 
German  dialects.  The  third  category  includes,  as  well  as  modern  Platt- 
deutsch,  both  Flemish  and  Dutch.19  In  the  sixth  century  certain  sound 
shifts  took  place  in  German,  starting  in  the  mountains  to  the  south  and 
spreading  north.  The  dialects  which  took  over  these  shifts  became  High 
German,  while  those  which  retained  their  old  form  are  Low  German. 
Owing  to  this  conservatism,  the  latter  are  closest  to  Frisian  and  to  English. 
Flemish  is  a  modification  through  Saxon  and  Frisian  influences  of  Low 
Franconian,  the  speech  brought  into  Belgium  by  the  Franks.  When  the 
Franks  entered  the  plain  of  Flanders,  they  found  it  nearly  empty  of  people, 
hence  it  is  no  wonder  that  their  speech  took  root  there.  In  the  then  more 
populous  Walloon  country  Latin  soon  reemerged  at  the  expense  of  Frank- 
ish,  and  has  survived  in  the  medium  of  an  archaic  Langue  d'Ouil  dialect. 

When  the  comparative  tranquillity  of  the  Middle  Ages  arrived, 
Flanders,  drained  and  populous,  the  most  important  of  all  the  Low 
Countries,  then  included  some  of  what  is  now  northwestern  France,  the 
Belgian  provinces  of  East  and  West  Flanders,  and  the  Dutch  province 
of  Zeeland. 

Mediaeval  Flanders  was  important  because  of  its  chartered  towns 
with  their  skilled  craftsmen,  whose  fame  was  renowned  all  over  Europe. 
The  most  important  of  these  towns  were  Ghent,  Bruges,  and  Ypres — 
those  which  arose  in  Antwerp,  Brabant,  and  Limburg  were  later,  as  were 
the  Dutch  towns.  During  the  thirteenth  century  these  Flemish  towns  had 
an  industrial  population  of  100,000  to  200,000  people,  most  of  whom 
were  supported  by  weaving.  There  was  a  strong  trade  connection  with 
England,  whence  they  obtained  their  wool.  In  1400  A.B.  Flanders  was 
the  richest  spot  in  Europe  and  probably  in  the  whole  world,  and  it  is  no 

19  Priebsch,  R.,  "German  Language,"  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  thirteenth  edition, 
vol.  11,  pp.  778-783. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  52$ 

wonder  that  it  excited  the  greed  of  foreign  princes,  who  were  willing  to 
spill  much  blood  in  order  to  seize  its  fat  revenues. 

This  picture  of  a  fertile,  prosperous,  and  populous  Flanders  accords 
ill  with  our  previous  portrayal  of  a  swampy  refuge,  such  as  it  was  at  the 
time  of  the  Roman  arrival.  Although  Flanders  is  much  less  affected  by 
floods  than  are  the  Netherlands  proper,  still  these  have  been  of  importance 
in  Flemish  history.  Dykes  had  to  be  built  before  Flanders  could  be 
fully  occupied,  and  even  these  dykes  could  not  insure  permanent  safety. 
The  twelfth  century  was  an  especially  evil  period  in  both  Holland  and 
Flanders;  there  were  great  disasters  in  both  regions,  and  in  1111  A.D. 
many  Flemish  families  moved  to  England  to  reside  permanently  and 
comfortably  above  high  water.  It  was  during  the  century  after  this 
series  of  inundations  that  Flanders  attained  its  peak  of  prosperity. 

During  the  sixteenth  century.  Protestantism  spread  into  the  Low 
Countries  out  of  Germany,  and  became  common  in  what  is  now  the 
Netherlands,  whereas  it  failed  to  dislodge  Catholicism  in  the  present 
Belgium.  The  attempts  of  Charles  V  and  Philip  II  of  Spain  to  suppress 
the  heresy  merely  served  to  spread  it;  the  gentle  ministrations  of  the  Duke 
of  Alva  and  his  executioners  killed  thousands,  but  there  were  many 
thousands  more  who  survived.  These  inquisitorial  activities  had  the 
effect  of  drawing  a  sharp  line  between  a  Protestant  North  and  a  Catholic 
South  where  the  present  boundary  separates  Holland  from  Belgium. 
It  was  not  geography,  nor  a  difference  in  culture  or  in  language,  but  an 
accident  of  religion  consolidated  by  persecution  that  caused  the  separa- 
tion of  Flemish  Belgium  from  the  Netherlands.  Since  the  time  of  Caesar 
we  have  witnessed  a  southward  movement  of  political  and  linguistic 
boundaries;  in  57  B.C.  both  were  identical  with  the  Rhine.  Migrations 
and  gross  population  shifts  have  pushed  the  Germanic-Romance  lin- 
guistic frontier  southward  to  a  natural  barrier,  where  it  has  remained 
constant  for  many  centuries. 

The  skeletal  prehistory  of  Belgium,  for  all  practical  purposes,  starts 
with  the  Neolithic  and  concerns  itself  almost  entirely  with  the  Walloon 
country.  Here  there  was  a  strong  brachycephalic  concentration  during 
the  Neolithic,  and  some  low-vaulted,  short-statured  Mediterranean  groups 
as  well;  on  the  whole,  the  concentration  of  brachycephals  was  greater 
in  Belgium  than  in  most  of  France.  The  Neolithic  brachycephals  of  the 
Walloon  country  were  as  large-headed  as  the  Ofnet  people,  and  thus 
approached  the  Borreby  type  in  vault  dimensions,  but  their  faces  were 
smaller  than  those  of  the  latter.  The  Belgian  Bronze  Age  and  the  pre- 
Frankish  Iron  Age  are  practically  unknown  skeletally,  but  the  Franks 
are  well  represented.  They  belonged  almost  uniformly  to  a  low- vaulted 
mesocephalic  Nordic  type,  identical  with  that  of  the  Iron  Age  Kelts. 


526  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

A  cranial  series  of  modern  age,  not  mentioned  in  the  earlier  chapters, 
is  of  particular  interest.  This  is  the  Saaftingen  series  of  56  male  and  38 
female  skulls,20  taken  from  a  Flemish  cemetery  on  an  island  which  is  now 
submerged  at  high  tide.  The  date  of  this  cemetery  is  roughly  1500  A.D. 
The  crania  are  uniformly  brachycephalic,  with  a  cranial  index  range  of 
79  to  92  for  the  male  specimens,  and  77  to  92  for  the  female.  The  mean 
cranial  index  for  the  males  is  85.7.  In  size  and  in  vault  conformation  they 
may  readily  be  identified  as  pure  Borreby  type  skulls.  This  identification 
extends  to  the  facial  dimensions  and  indices;  the  orbits  are  low,  the  nose 
mesorrhine,  the  face  (136  mm.),  and  the  jaw  (104  mm.)  wide.  The  problem 
of  the  racial  character  of  the  few  inhabitants  of  the  Flemish  marshlands 
from  Neolithic  to  Frankish  times  is  perhaps  solved;  the  swampy  shores  were 
apparently  the  home  of  a  southwestward  extension  of  the  Danish  Borreby 
people,  who  merged  with  Alpines  in  the  highlands,  and  who,  on  their 
own  marshes,  maintained  their  racial  identity  in  isolated  spots  until  almost 
modern  times. 

Data  on  living  Belgians  are  limited  for  the  most  part  to  the  conventional 
surveys  of  stature,  head  form,  and  pigmentation,  as  in  France.  The 
Belgians  as  a  nation  are  men  of  medium  stature,21  and  the  same  is  true 
of  both  the  Flemings  and  the  Walloons.  In  the  1880-82  conscript  classes, 
Houz6  found  a  mean  stature  of  166.1  cm.  for  Flemings,  and  of  164.8  cm. 
for  Walloons.  In  those  years  the  linguistic  boundary  was  also  a  stature 
boundary,  since  the  tallest  Walloon  province  was  shorter  than  the  shortest 
Flemish  province.  In  the  1902-07  classes,  this  difference  had  largely  dis- 
appeared, since  the  mean  for  Flemings  was  166.2  cm.,  and  that  for 
Walloons  165.8  cm.  Belgian  convicts  measured  in  1920  had  a  stature 
mean  of  167.4  cm.  for  Flemings,  167.3  for  Walloons.  Thus  regional  stature 
differences  in  Belgium  have  been  largely  obliterated  during  the  last  half 
century, 

Since  the  present  stature  level  is  about  that  of  the  Neolithic  Belgian 
brachycephals  and  of  the  Belgae  and  Franks,  any  increase  must  be  con- 
sidered in  the  light  of  a  return  to  an  earlier  level  after  an  intervening 
period  of  depression,  as  in  Scandinavia.  Flanders  was  for  centuries  a 
recruiting  ground  for  soldiers.  Furthermore,  adverse  industrial  conditions 
have  been  endemic  there  longer  than  in  any  other  European  country. 
Both  factors  may  have  tended,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  to  lower  the  mean 
stature  both  environmentally  and  by  selection.  On  the  whole  the  present- 
day  Belgians  are  a  little  taller  than  Frenchmen,  shorter  than  English 

20  DePauw,  L.,  and  Jacques,  V.,  BSAB,  vol.  3,  1884,  pp.  191-260. 

21  Sources  on  Belgian  stature  are : 

Houze,  E.,  BSAB,  vol.  6,  1887,  pp.  278-304. 

Vervaeck,  L.}  BSAB,  vol.  28,  1909,  pp.  1-60;  vol.  34,  1920,  pp.  50-90. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  527 

and  Dutchmen,  and  about  the  same  as  southwestern  Germans.  Both 
Flemings  and  Walloons  are  moderately  thick-set  in  bodily  build ; 22  their 
shoulders  are  broad,  and  their  relative  sitting  height  (53.5)  great.  Their 
arms,  however,  are  not  long,  and  their  relative  span,  103,  is  of  an  average 
European  position. 

The  cephalic  index  seems  to  follow  the  linquistic  cleavage  to  a  greater 
extent  than  does  stature.23  In  the  Flemish-speaking  country  the  mean 
index  of  Limburg,  the  easternmost  province,  is  78.9;  this  rises  regularly 
from  east  to  west,  reaching  80.5  in  West  Flanders.  In  the  Walloon  coun- 
try the  lowest  mean  is  80.7  for  Namur;  Liege  and  Hainaut  have  means  of 
81.1  and  81.4;  Walloon  Brabant  of  82.3.  The  province  of  Luxemburg,  the 
southeasternmost  of  the  kingdom,  has  a  mean  of  83.4.  In  the  Flemish 
country,  the  lowest  indices  are  those  nearest  Germany;  the  highest  are 
near  the  coast,  where  prc-Frankish  brachycephalic  populations  have 
been  absorbed.  The  mean  cephalic  index  of  all  Flemings  is  79.4;  of  all 
Walloons  82. 0.24  The  Flemings  are  on  the  whole  mesocephals,  the  Wal- 
loons, except  for  the  Luxemburg  people,  sub-brachycephals;  the  last 
named  are  the  only  true  brachycephals. 

The  heads  of  all  these  people,  except  for  the  Luxemburg  sample,  are 
extremely  large.  The  mean  head  length  of  Flemings  is  194  mm.,  for 
Walloons  191.4  mm.  Only  the  Luxemburg  group  has  a  mean  of  under 
190  mm.  If  one  selects  the  individuals  from  the  different  provincial 
samples  with  cephalic  indices  of  82  and  over,  so  as  to  eliminate  the  in- 
fluence of  dolichocephals  and  mesocephals,  and  seriates  for  head  lengths 
and  breadths,  one  finds  mean  lengths  of  190-192  mm.  for  all  provinces 
except  Luxemburg,  where  the  mean  is  186  mm.;  the  mean  breadths  of 
these  selected  heads  are  160  mm.  and  over,  except  for  Luxemburg,  where 
the  mean  is  157  mm.  The  significance  of  this  exercise  is  clear.  Among 
both  Flemings  and  Walloons,  the  major  brachycephalic  element  is  of 
Borreby  size,  while  in  Luxemburg  only  is  truly  Alpine  brachycephaly 
in  the  French  sense  predominant.  The  head  length  and  breadth  means 
of  the  major  group  are  nearly  as  great  as  those  of  the  Baltic  island  of 
Fehmarn,  the  modern  Borreby  concentration  point,  while  those  of  Luxem- 
burg are  similar  to  the  dimensions  of  French  brachycephals.  The  modern 
Walloons  retain  in  unaltered  form  the  cranial  characters  of  their  brachy- 
cephalic Neolithic  ancestors.  Today  as  during  the  Neolithic,  they  form  a 

22  Vervaeck,  L.,  BSAB,  vol.  34,  1919,  pp.  138-144. 

MacAuliffe,  L.,  and  Marie,  A.,  CRAS,  Paris,  1921,  vol.  172,  pp.  284-286. 
*3Hous6,  E.,  BSAB,  vol.  7,  1888,  pp.  177-205;  vol.  16,  1897,  pp.  78-89. 
MacAuliffe  and  Marie,  loc.  cit. 

Provincial  means  cover  series  of  26  to  61  individuals,  and  are  too  small  to  be  com- 
pletely reliable. 

24  All  available  series  have  been  pooled,  making  362  Flemings  and  366  Walloons. 


528  THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 

southwestern  periphery  of  the  Borreby  racial  area,  the  center  of  which 
lies  actually  well  to  the  south  of  Denmark. 

The  pigmentation  map  of  Belgium  25  follows  the  same  general  pattern 
of  the  stature  and  cephalic  index  distributions.  The  Flemings  are  fairer 
than  the  Walloons,  but  not  by  much.  Beddoe  found  54  per  cent  of  Flem- 
ings to  have  light  eyes,  as  against  50  per  cent  for  Walloons;  dark  eyes 
totalled  33  per  cent  among  the  former,  37  per  cent  among  the  latter.  Both 
are  well  on  the  light  side  of  intermediate  in  eye  color.  The  Flemings  have 
52  per  cent  of  medium  brown  hair,  and  1 8  per  cent  of  lighter  shades,  as 
against  37  per  cent  of  brown  and  13  per  cent  of  light  among  the  Walloons. 
The  difference  is  not  great,  but  it  is  consistent,  and  both  groups  are  again 
of  intermediate  pigmentation.  Among  schoolchildren  who  still  show  their 
infantile  dominance  of  light  hair,  50  per  cent  or  over  in  every  province 
show  both  hair  and  eye  blondism;  in  the  Walloon  provinces  the  ratio 
falls  under  55  per  cent,  in  the  Flemish  provinces  it  ranges  between  55 
per  cent  and  68  per  cent.  Since  latent  blondism  may  be  detected  more 
easily  among  children  than  among  adults,  the  conclusion  is  that  the  Bel- 
gians of  both  linguistic  groups  contain  both  blond  and  brunet  genetic 
factors;  with  the  former  slightly  more  important  in  the  case  of  the  Wal- 
loons, and  considerably  more  in  the  case  of  the  Flemings. 

The  Flemings  are  as  light  as  most  of  the  regional  English  populations; 
the  Walloons  on  the  whole  are  lighter  than  most  of  the  French.26 

An  individual  study  of  the  inhabitants  of  a  small,  isolated  Flemish 
village,  Mendonck,  in  the  canton  of  Lochristy  in  the  province  of  East 
Flanders,  shows  us  that  local  concentrations  of  the  lowland  Borreby  racial 
type,  as  seen  at  Saaftingen,  have  not  yet  been  completely  dissolved.  The 
mean  stature  of  60  males  is  170.3  cm.;  the  cephalic  index  81.2,  with  head 
lengths  and  breadths  of  192  mm.  and  156  mm.  The  bizygomatic  diameter 
is  139  mm.  These  men  are  thus  tall,  sub-brachycephalic,  and  broad- 
faced;  in  pigmentation,  74  per  cent  have  light  skins  which  will  riot  tan  or 
have  not  tanned,  having  turned  red  on  the  exposed  parts,  like  many 
English  integuments.  The  eyes  are  15  per  cent  blue,  73  per  cent  mixed, 
and  12  per  cent  brown;  since  Houze  followed  Bertillon's  method,  these 
figures  may  be  considered  accurate.  The  hair  is  listed  as  blond,  63  per 
cent;  light  brown,  6  per  cent;  dark  brown,  31  per  cent.  In  other  words, 
they  are  intermediate  in  hair  and  eye  color,  but  on  the  light  side.  Occip- 

25  Beddoe,  J.,  The  Races  of  Britain. 
Claerhout,  J,,  BSAB,  vol.  29,  1910,  pp.  1-55. 
Houz6,  E.?  BSAB,  vol.  16,  1897,  pp.  78-89. 

MacAuliffe,  L.,  and  Marie,  A.,  Ethnographic,  vol.  5,  1922,  pp.  41-48. 
Vanderfcindere,  L,,  BSRB,  vol.  3,  1879,  pp,  409-449. 

28  Direct  comparisons  may  be  made  between  Flemish  and  English  through  Beddoe's 
work,  between  Walloons  and  French  through  that  of  MacAuliffe  and  Marie. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  529 

ital  flattening  is  common;  the  nasal  profile  is  usually  straight,  and  the 
nasal  tip  often  snubbed. 

Houze"'s  regressions  make  it  clear  that  there  are,  in  this  Mendonck 
population,  two  clearly  distinguishable  types,  a  Prankish  Nordic,  with  a 
stature  of  about  167  cm.,  and  leptorrhine;  and  a  Borreby  type  with  a 
stature  of  171  cm.,  and  a  messorrhine  tendency.  The  tall  brachycephals 
have  a  heavy  body  build,  a  broad  face,  a  deep,  heavy  jaw,  short  upper 
facial  segment,  and  heavy  browridges.  The  Nordic  type  runs  more  to 
prominence  and  length  of  nose  and  upper  face,  and  less  to  bony  eminences 
in  general.  It  is  a  more  delicate,  less  massive  type. 

The  conclusions  derived  from  this  study  are  not  that  the  Flemings  are 
Nordics  and  the  Walloons  Alpines,  as  has  been  frequently  stated.  The 
Flemings  are,  in  fact,  a  people  who  are  largely  Nordic,  and  who  derived 
their  Nordic  blood  from  their  linguistic  ancestors,  the  Franks.  The  Nordic 
sub- type  of  the  Franks  is  that  of  the  Keltic  Iron  Age.  They  have  absorbed, 
especially  in  western  Flanders,  a  certain  amount  of  Borreby  blood  by 
intermarriage  with  the  earlier  inhabitants  of  the  Flemish  plain,  who  lived 
there  in  small  numbers  before  this  plain  had  been  dyked  and  drained. 
The  Walloons  are  the  descendants  of  the  large-headed  highland  popula- 
tion of  the  Neolithic,  which  was  of  mixed  Alpine  and  Borreby  derivation. 
To  this  has  been  added  a  Nordic  accretion,  and  the  actual  metrical  differ- 
ences between  Flemings  and  Walloons,  while  consistent,  are  not  great. 
Only  the  inhabitants  of  the  province  of  Luxemburg  may  be  called  Alpines 
in  the  strict  sense,  and  their  relationship  is  clearly  with  Lorraine  and 

Burgundy. 

(4)   THE  NETHERLANDS  AND   FRISIA 

In  the  days  when  the  country  south  of  the  Rhine  was  Keltic,  those  por- 
tions of  the  present  kingdom  of  Netherlands  which  lie  north  of  that  river 
were  occupied,  along  the  coast  and  on  the  islands,  by  Frisians,  and  to  the 
east  of  the  Zuyder  Zee  by  a  Frankish  tribe,  the  Batavii.  Farther  to  the 
north  and  east  lived  the  Saxons,  south  of  whom  was  the  main  home  of  the 
Franks.  Troubles  between  the  Saxons  and  Franks  impelled  the  latter  to 
cross  the  Rhine  and  dislodge  the  Belgae;  at  the  same  time  some  of  the 
Saxons  settled  in  the  northern  Netherlands,  in  the  Groningen  country. 
Thus  the  northern  half  of  the  Netherlands  had  been  Germanic  territory 
since  the  earliest  settlement  of  Germanic  peoples  in  the  country  between 
the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe,  which  dates  back  to  at  least  500  B.C.;  27  the 
southern  half  shares  its  Germanic  history  with  Flanders. 

Linguistically  the  Netherlands  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  greater 
area,  in  which  modern  Dutch,  a  Frankish  derivative  closely  related  to 
Flemish,  is  spoken;  and  the  lesser  area  in  which  the  idiom  is  Frisian. 

37  Reche,  O.,  VUR,  vol.  4,  1929,  pp,  129-158,  193-215. 


530  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Frisian  is  a  waning  language,  since  it  is  not  official  in  any  country.  It 
once,  however,  was  spoken  all  along  the  North  Sea  coast  from  western 
Flanders  to  Denmark,  /ft  present  it  is  spoken  only  on  the  Frisian  Islands 
and  in  the  Dutch  province  of  Friesland,  as  well  as  in  a  small  section  of 
Schleswig-Holstein.  The  Frisian  Islands  belong  partly  to  the  Netherlands, 
and  partly  to  Germany.  In  the  present  section  we  shall  overstep  political 
frontiers  in  order  to  treat  the  Frisians  as  an  ethnic  unit. 

The  geography  of  the  Netherlands  has  not,  in  historic  times,  been  static; 
Dutch  history  has  been  an  endless  struggle  between  the  inroads  of  the 
sea  over  gradually  sinking  land  and  human  ingenuity. 28  Before  the  Nether- 
landers  undertook  the  task  of  dyke-building,  their  ancestors  made  use  of  a 
less  effective  engineering  device,  the  terp,  or  artificial  habitation  platform. 
The  Iron  Age  farmers  built  these  flat  mounds  out  on  land  subject  to 
flooding;  on  the  terps  they  erected  their  houses,  and  in  them  buried  their 
dead.  At  the  times  of  the  two  semi-annual  equinoctial  floods,  they  crowded 
their  livestock  and  all  their  perishable  belongings  on  the  tops  of  these 
edifices. 

Although  the  terps  would  withstand  ordinary  floods,  every  now  and 
then  came  an  inundation  which  swept  over  their  tops  and  destroyed  much 
life  and  property.  One  such  flood,  dated  by  historians  at  350  B.C.,  is 
believed  to  have  isolated  the  West  Frisian  Islands  from  the  mainland,  and 
to  have  let  the  sea  into  the  erstwhile  fresh-water  lake,  which  from  then 
on  became  the  Zuyder  Zee.  The  Cimbri,  the  first  Germanic  invaders  of 
Italy,  are  supposed  to  have  migrated  en  masse  from  the  Low  Countries 
after  this  great  flood,  and  their  account  of  it  greatly  impressed  the  Romans. 
From  then  on  disasters  of  this  kind  continued  until  the  building  of  ade- 
quate dykes  during  the  Middle  Ages.  Of  all  the  Lowlanders,  including 
the  Flemings,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Frisians,  the  Frisians  have  taken  the 
greatest  losses,  and  have  had  much  of  their  land  washed  out  from  under 
their  feet. 

The  total  of  pre-Iron  Age  skeletal  material  from  the  Netherlands  is 
small,29  but  from  what  there  is,  coupled  with  a  general  knowledge  of  local 
archaeology,  we  may  deduce  that  in  the  Neolithic  period  the  southern 
provinces  of  Limburg  and  North  Brabant  were  culturally  and  racially 
connected  with  Belgium,  while  in  the  northern  and  coastal  provinces  the 
Danish  and  North  German  cultures  found  a  southern  extension.  Later 
the  Bell  Beaker  people  used  the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  as  a  route  of  entry  into 
southern  Germany,  and  also  as  a  point  of  departure  for  Britain.  It  is 
likely  that  some,  at  least,  of  the  Borreby  blood  which  the  Bell  Beaker 
people  absorbed  before  their  departure  for  England  came  from  this 

28  Van  Over-loop,  M.,  BSAB,  vol.  6,  1887,  pp.  35-53. 

»  Van  den  Brock,  A.  J.  P.,  MEM,  vol.  6,  1930,  pp.  401-417. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  531 

source.  With  the  expansion  of  the  Germanic  peoples  into  the  portion  of 
the  Netherlands  lying  north  of  the  Rhine,  the  coastal  fringe  of  Borreby 
people  broke  into  isolated  groups,  and  many  of  these  early  inhabitants 
were  absorbed.30  The  arrival  of  the  Germanic  settlers,  and  the  erection  of 
the  terps,  which  date  from  about  500  B.C.  to  800  A.D.,  provided  the  first 
real  skeletal  evidence  of  consequence.31 

There  are  two  main  areas  in  which  terps  were  built;  along  the  coast  of 
Friesland  and  along  that  of  Groningen.  The  two  areas  are  not  contiguous,' 
being  divided  by  the  inlet  known  as  Lauwers  Zee.  The  former  is  called 
Friterpia,  the  latter  Groterpia.  The  crania  from  both  these  regions  are 
typically  Nordic  in  the  early  Germanic  sense;  the  Friterpians,  with  a 
mean  cranial  index  of  73.7,  were  slightly  longer  headed  than  the  Groter- 
pians,  whose  mean  is  75.4.  Both  of  these  skeletal  groups  are  moderately 
high-vaulted,  with  mean  basion-bregma  Jieights  of  136  mm.;  in  this 
dimension  as  in  those  of  the  face,  they  resemble  very  closely  the  crania 
of  the  early  Anglo-Saxons  who  invaded  England.  Some  of  the  Friterpian 
skulls  are  very  low-vaulted,  and  show  evidence  of  deformation;  this  is 
still  practiced  on  the  island  of  Marken  in  the  Zuyder  Zee,  where  the 
picturesque  head-dress  so  admired  by  tourists  is  said  to  be  the  effective 
agent.32  In  both  groups  most  of  the  individual  skulls  are  of  classic  Ger- 
manic type;  some,  however,  are  mesocephalic,  and  incline  morphologi- 
cally in  the  direction  of  the  Briinn  race,  or  of  the  Borreby.  These  latter  are 
commoner  in  Groterpia  than  in  Friterpia.  Part  of  this  Palaeolithic  strain 
may  have  been  brought  in  by  the  Germanic  ancestors,  part  absorbed 
locally. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  the  cranial  form  of  the  inhabitants  of  Groterpia 
and  Friterpia,  who  had  by  now  come  down  off  their  terps,  changed 
gradually.  The  West  Frisians  from  Friterpian  country  grew  less  dolicho- 
cephalic, until  their  mean  cranial  indices  rose  to  77 ;  the  Groningen  people 
retained  their  lead  of  a  single  index  point,  with  78.  These  changes  in- 
volved the  vault  almost  entirely,  and  had  little  effect  on  the  face. 

A  series  of  crania  from  Zuid  Beveland,  the  largest  island  of  the  province 
of  Zeeland,  comes  from  a  section  of  the  island  which  was  swamped  by 
floods  in  1530  and  1532;  they  date  from  the  period  immediately  before 
this  disaster.  These  skulls  are  markedly  brachycephalic,38  and  support 

80  The  evidence  for  the  early  existence  of  a  coastal  fringe  of  Borreby  people  reaching 
from  Denmark  to  Flanders  consists  largely  of  survivals.   Owing  to  the  subsidence  of  the 
land  along  this  shoreline,  much  of  the  early  skeletal  evidence  must  lie  under  water. 

81  Folmer,  H.  C.,  AFA,  vol.  26,  1900,  pp.  747-763. 
Nyessen,  D.  J.  H.,  The  Passing  of  the  Frisians. 
Reche,  O.,  VUR,  1929. 

n  Barge,  J.  A.  J.,  PIIA,  session  3,  Amsterdam,  1927,  pp.  63-71. 
»3  Sasse,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  6,  1873,  pp.  76-83. 


532  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

the  evidence  of  Saaftingen  that  the  Scheldt  region  was  a  pocket  of  sur- 
vival for  round-headed  coastal  people  well  through  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  living  Netherlanders,  as  is  to  be  expected,  belong  more  to  a  Nordic 
type  than  to  any  other,  while  large-headed  brachycephals  form  an  im- 
portant minority.  The  stature  of  Dutch  conscripts  has  increased  from 
164  cm.  in  1863-67,  to  171  cm.  in  1921-25. 34  At  its  present  level  Dutch 
stature  shows  marked  regional  values;  Limburg,  which  extends  southward 
between  Belgium  and  Germany  as  a  Dutch  appendage,  has  a  mean  of 
168  cm.,  comparable  to  that  of  Flemings.  North  Brabant's  mean  is  169 
cm.,  and  Zeeland's  170  cm.  The  coastal  provinces  north  of  the  Rhine 
are  taller  than  those  inland;  the  tallest  being  Friesland,  with  a  mean  of 
172cm. 

The  mean  cephalic  index  of  the  Netherlands  is  80.3.  The  regional 
variation  is  slight,  but  geographically  significant;  the  West  Frisian  Islands 
have  indices  of  79,  and  in  general  the  northern  coast  is  the  longest-headed 
part  of  the  country,  while  the  southern  and  eastern  provinces  have  higher 
means.35  The  general  picture  of  the  Dutch  as  a  predominantly  Nordic 
people  who  have  absorbed  a  certain  amount  of  Upper  Palaeolithic 
European  blood  is  substantiated  by  a  detailed  study  of  70  Netherlanders 
measured  both  at  home  and  in  America.36  This  group,  with  a  mean 
stature  of  173  cm.  and  a  cephalic  index  of  79,  fits  almost  exactly  into  the 
metrical  category  of  the  British  and  of  Americans  of  British  descent. 
The  dimensions  of  the  head  and  face  are  definitely  Nordic,  with  a  sug- 
gestion of  the  Palaeolithic  strains  in  a  number  of  measurements,  notably 
the  bigonial  mean  of  108  mm. 

The  pigmentation  of  the  Dutch  as  a  group  is  predominantly  blond;  the 
inhabitants  of  the  provinces  north  of  the  Rhine  may  be  included  in  the 
lightest  zone  of  Europe.37  South  of  the  Rhine,  brown  and  dark-mixed 
eyes,  which  are  rare  in  the  north,  rise  to  30  per  cent  and  over  of  the  popu* 
lation,  and  are  especially  numerous  in  Zeeland  and  Limburg.  The  com" 
monest  hair  color  among  the  Dutch  is  brown,  of  light  to  medium  shade, 
but  golden  blondism  is  common  in  the  north,  especially  in  Frisian  country. 
The  Frisians  have  been  studied  in  more  detail  than  the  rest  of  the 

34  Van  den  Brock,  A.  J.  P.,  KAWA,  vol.  30,  #6,  1927,  pp.  685-694;  PUA,  session  3, 
Amsterdam,  1927,  pp.  211-215. 

«6  Barge,  J.  A.  J.,  MEM,  pp.  284-285. 

Van  den  Broek,  A.  J.  P.,  MEM,  vol.  6,  1930,  pp.  401-417. 

Sasse,  J.,  BNAV,  1913,  pp.  8-11. 

The  recent  government  survey  of  the  C.  I.  in  the  Netherlands  should  soon  make  it 
possible  to  treat  this  subject  with  greater  clarity. 

36Steggerda,  M.,  AJPA,  vol.  16,  1932,  pp.  309-337. 

87  Beddoe,  J.,  The  Races  of  Britain,  p.  203. 

Bolk,  L.,  BSAP,  ser.  5,  vol.  5,  1905,  pp.  578-586. 

Reche,  O.,  VUR,  vol.  4,  1929,  pp.  129-158,  193-215. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  533 

Netherlander;  the  consideration  of  this  group  leads  us  outside  Dutch 
territory,  however,  for  the  Frisians,  like  the  Basques,  are  an  ethnic  unit 
but  not  a  nation,  They  differ  from  their  neighbors  not  only  in  language, 
but  also  in  a  number  of  cultural  traits  which  they  possess  in  common. 
There  are  three  groups  of  Frisians;  the  West  Frisians,  who  occupy  the 
province  of  Frisia  in  the  Netherlands  and  the  islands  from  Texel  to  Rot- 
turneroog,  which  stretch  between  the  point  of  North  Holland  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Ems;  the  East  Frisians,  who  live  on  the  islands  lying  between 
the  Ems  mouth  and  the  Weser,  from  Borkum  to  Wangeroog;  and  the 
North  Frisians,  who  live  partly  on  the  mainland  of  Schleswig-Holstfein> 
between  Tdnder,  which  is  now  in  Denmark,  and  Husum,  and  partly  on 
the  islands  of  Norstrand,  Pell  worm,  and  the  Halligen.  The  islanders  of 
Sylt,  Fohr,  and  Amrum  are  only  half  Frisian;  their  dialect  contains  Saxon 
elements,  and  the  islanders  consider  themselves  more  Saxon  than  Frisian. 

The  earliest  known  home  of  the  Frisians  was  the  island  chain  of  the 
present  West  and  East  Frisia,  and  the  adjacent  portions  of  the  mainland. 
The  North  Frisians  migrated  to  their  present  location  about  800  A.D., 
partly  taking  over  abandoned  country,  and  partly  absorbing  the  earlier 
inhabitants,  the  Ambrones,  whose  name  has  been  preserved  in  that  of  the 
island  of  Amrum.  All  of  the  Frisian  Islands  have  suffered  from  sinking 
and  erosion;  many  islands  have  disappeared  and  others  undercut  to 
fractions  of  their  earlier  area. 

The  Frisians  were  important  historically  for  a  few  centuries  between  the 
Anglo-Saxon  invasion  of  England  and  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  to  whom 
they  submitted  in  785  A.D.  During  this  period  they  were  far-wandering 
seafarers,  and  engaged  in  trade  with  all  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
North  Sea,  and  were  especially  active  in  the  slave  trade.  The  development 
of  the  Viking  sea  power  farther  north  began  only  after  the  collapse  of  the 
Frisian  hegemony. 

All  three  Frisian  groups  have  been  subjected  to  careful  anthro  pome  trie 
study;  in  North  Frisia  the  Wiedingharde  and  Bokingharde  mainlanders,38 
in  East  Frisia  the  Spiekeroog  islanders,39  and  in  West  Frisia  the  Terschell- 
ittg  islanders,40  have  been  thoroughly  investigated.  In  all  three,  the  anthro- 
pornetric  results  are  much  the  same.  They  are  all  tall,  with  mean  statures 
of  170  cm.  or  over;  all  groups  run  long-legged,  with  relative  sitting  height 
means  of  51,  broad-shouldered  and  wide-spanned,  with  relative  spans  of 
106  and  107. 

They  are  very  large-headed,  with  mean  head  lengths  of  194  mm.  to 
198  mm.,  and  breadths  of  155  mm.  to  159  mm.  The  West  and  East 

88  Sailer,  K,,  JNVH,  vol.  16,  1929,  pp.  119-139. 

39  Ruhnau,  K.,  ARGB,  vol.  16,  1925,  pp.  378  ff. 

40  Sasse,  J.,  BNAV,  1913,  pp.  8-11. 


534  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Frisians  are  mesocephalic,  with  mean  cephalic  indices  of  79.5;  the  North 
Frisians  are  sub-brachycephalic,  with  means  of  81.5.  The  vault  heights 
run  from  123  to  125  mm.,  moderate  in  view  of  the  great  length  and  breadth 
dimensions.  The  faces  are  large,  with  minimum  frontal  diameter  means 
of  108-112  mm.,  bizygomatics  of  140-143  mm.,  and  bigonials  of  108-110 
mm.  The  faces  are  quite  long  (125-130  mm.)  in  the  West  and  East  Fri- 
sian samples,  and  shorter  (120-124  mm.)  in  North  Frisia.  Noses  are  large, 
and  extremely  leptorrhine.  The  nasal  profile  is  straight  or  wavy  in  about 
half  the  individuals;  concave  in  15  per  cent,  and  convex  in  35  per  cent. 
The  hair  is  blond  to  medium  brown,  especially  the  latter  (Sailer-Fischer 
chart  A-O),  in  over  60  per  cent,  except  for  the  North  Frisian  parish  of 
Bokingharde,  where  it  is  darker;  red  hair  runs  as  high  as  7  per  cent  on 
Spiekeroog.  The  eyes  are  pure  blue  or  light-mixed  in  70  per  cent  to  80  per 
cent  of  instances.  The  Frisians  are  among  the  blondest  people  in  the  world. 

Metrically  and  morphologically,  the  Frisians  belong  for  the  most  part 
to  a  well-marked  type,  which  is  very  Nordic  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word, 
but  which,  in  the  sense  employed  in  this  book,  is  something  different. 
The  Germanic  Nordic  element  is  without  doubt  strong,  but  the  excessive 
size  of  head  and  face,  and  particularly  the  facial  breadths,  make  it  clear 
that  the  old  Upper  Palaeolithic  elements,  Briinn  as  well  as  Borreby,  have 
been  incorporated  in  quantity.  In  view  of  the  great  facial  lengths  and 
the  ruggedness  and  angularity  of  the  facial  profile  typical  of  Frisians,  and 
of  their  spare  body  build,  one  is  led  to  postulate  an  excess  of  Corded  fac- 
tors as  well. 

The  West  and  East  Frisians  conform  most  frequently  to  the  ideal  Frisian 
form,  a  long,  angular,  large-boned  type  with  large  hands  and  feet,  a  large, 
bony  head  and  face,  with  a  prominent  jaw,  thin  lips,  a  long,  straight  nose, 
heavy  browridges,  and  a  high  forehead.  In  late  middle  age  the  features, 
sharply  cut  in  youth,  tend  to  grow  coarser,  and  the  body  heavy.  In  North 
Frisia,  where  the  Frisian  settlement  is  younger  than  elsewhere,  shorter, 
smaller-framed  men,  hook-nosed,  with  retreating  foreheads,  and  often  with 
darker  hair  and  eye  color,  form  a  second  type,  which  is  palpably  Dinaric 
and  may  be  a  survival  of  the  Bronze  Age.  In  all  Frisian  countries,  but  par- 
ticularly in  North  Frisia,  a  third  type  is  found  as  a  minor  element,  a  familiar 
Borreby  derivative;  it  consists  of  tall,  heavy  men,  whose  bodies  tend  to 
fat,  with  round,  red  faces,  and  noses  which  are  often  snubbed  or  concave. 
This  type  is  frequently  very  blond,  and  fairer-haired  than  the  more  usual 
Frisian  type.  In  North  Frisia  its  especial  frequency  is  attributed  to  Jutish 
infusion  from  the  North.41 

The  study  of  the  Frisians  leads  us  to  the  conclusion  that  the  survival  of 
overgrown  Upper  Palaeolithic  types  in  quantity  is  not  confined  to  Norway 
41  Lehmann,  O.,  VUR,  vol.  1,  1926,  pp.  7-19. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  535 

and  Ireland,  but  is  equally  in  evidence  along  the  Dutch  and  German  shores 
of  the  North  Sea.  In  all  of  the  so-called  Nordic  racial  area  of  northwestern 
Europe,  a  relatively  complex  racial  situation  is  encountered  in  which 
classical  Nordic  elements  are  rarely  found  in  as  stable  a  form  as  in  eastern 
Norway  and  in  Sweden.  Among  Frisians,  at  least,  there  is  evidence  that 
the  Briinn  and  Borreby  elements,  and  the  Corded  as  well,  have  tended 
to  reemerge  and  to  form  local  recombinations.  The  study  of  the  Frisians 
will  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  racial  problems  of  northern  Germany. 

(5)    GERMANY 

The  racial  history  of  Germany  is  long  and  complicated,  and  Germany 
in  its  present  geographical  form  (even  before  the  annexation  of  Austria 
and  the  Sudetenlands),  has  never  been  a  unit  in  the  racial  sense.  In  the 
political  sense  its  unity  dates  back  only  to  Frederick  the  Great  and  Bis- 
marck; its  modern  social  solidarity  only  to  Hitler.  Its  Palaeolithic  racial 
history  is  inseparable  from  that  of  the  rest  of  Europe,  its  Mesolithic  history 
limited  to  the  discovery  of  the  brachycephalic  crania  of  Ofnet  and  Kauf- 
ertsberg,  and  of  the  Borreby-type  skulls  dredged  from  the  Baltic  clay  and 
peat.  During  the  Neolithic,  racial  and  cultural  influences  came  to  Ger- 
many from  many  quarters;  the  Michelsberg  culture  in  the  Rhineland  was 
a  northern  Schweinhirtenkultur  periphery,  while  in  Saxony  and  Thuringia 
Danubian  pioneers  pushed  their  clearings  to  the  west.  Silesia  and  north- 
eastern Germany  later  became  great  Corded  headquarters,  while  under 
the  combined  Corded  and  Megalithic  tutelage,  the  "Nordic"  culture  arose 
in  all  of  northern  Germany,  and  its  influences  spread  to  the  Danube. 
With  the  arrival  of  metal,  or  before  it,  the  Corded  people  had  become  im- 
portant in  Saxo-Thuringia,  and  the  Bell  Beaker  people  appeared  soon  after 
on  the  Rhine.  Thus  before  the  onset  of  the  Bronze  Age  the  German  stage 
already  held  a  full  complement  of  dramatis  personae,  some  of  whom  were 
destined  to  give  curtain  calls,  and  others  to  be  thrus^into  the  wings  before 
the  end  of  the  first  act. 

The  cast  included  members  of  the  following  racial  types:  a  small,  low- 
vaulted  Mediterranean  of  North  African  provenience,  commonest  in  the 
upper  Rhineland,  where  it  still  appears  sporadically;  the  ordinary  Danu- 
bian Mediterranean,  the  Megalithic  Atlanto-Mediterranean,  the  Corded, 
the  Borreby,  probably  the  Alpine,  and  the  Bell  Beaker  Dinaric.  Further- 
more, a  considerable  trace  of  the  Briinn  race  remained  in  solution  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  the  country.  Before  the  appearance  of  the  full 
Bronze  Age,  the  Corded  and  Danubian  elements  had  taken  the  center  of 
the  stage  on  the  plains,  while  Dinaric,  Borreby,  and  Alpine  brachycephals 
occupied  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Alps.  During  the  Bronze  Age  the 
Corded  people  became  particularly  important  in  Saxo-Thuringia,  while 


536  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Aunjetitz  Nordics  were  the  principal  people  farther  east,  and  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Bell  Beaker  people  were  in  control  of  the  upper  Rhine.  Eastern 
Germany,  along  with  much  of  Poland  and  parts  of  Ukraine,  became  the 
center  of  the  Urnfields  cultures,  and  at  the  same  time  a  Nordic  center, 
from  which  cremation  spread  in  the  Late  Bronze  Age. 

In  the  early  Iron  Age  Hallstatt  Nordics  spread  into  southern  Germany; 
in  Wurttemburg,  Bavaria,  and  the  Bavarian  Palatinate  are  many  Nordic 
skulls  in  association  with  the  brachycephalic  crania  of  the  earlier  inhabi- 
tants. Throughout  the  Hallstatt  Iron  Age,  however,  the  highland  zone  of 
southern  Germany,  despite  Nordic  infusions,  clung  to  its  brachycephalic 
population,  although  on  the  plains  farther  north,  pure  long  heads  held 
complete  sway,  In  the  Hallstatt  cemeteries  of  Switzerland,  the  majority 
of  the  crania  are  brachycephalic,  while  in  Austria,  a  Hallstatt  Nordic 
nucleus,  the  mountain  regions  kept,  even  at  the  height  of  the  Hallstatt 
efflorescence,  a  strong  basic  population  of  Dinaric  brachycephals. 

The  Kelts,  who  arose  in  southwestern  Germany  and  who  spread  thence 
during  the  La  Tene  Iron  Age,  may  have  come  originally  from  the  Urn- 
fields  country  during  the  Bronze  Age,  but  their  acquisition  of  a  round- 
headed  element  took  place  in  Germany.  The  Helvetii,  the  principal 
Keltic  people  of  Switzerland,  bore  the  brachycephalic  head  form  of  their 
pre-Keltic  predecessors. 

Following  the  northward  movement  of  some  Nordic  people  in  a  late 
Bronze  Age  or  Hallstatt  stage  of  culture,  and  under  Hallstatt  inspiration, 
the  Germanic  racial  and  cultural  amalgam  arose,  with  its  center  in 
Scandinavia,  and  its  southern  periphery  including  the  lowlands  which 
stretch  from  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  across  to  the  southern  Baltic  shore. 
The  Germanic  Nordic  type  which  occupied  this  southern  area,  and  which 
was  well  exemplified  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Frisians,  was  a  combination 
of  ordinary  Iron  Age  Nordics  with  Briinn  and  Borreby  elements,  and  with 
a  larger  ratio  of  Cowded  than  the  original  Nordic  formula  required.  It 
was  a  heavier,  coarser  type  than  the  Nordic  which  took  root  in  eastern 
Norway  and  in  central  Sweden,  but  perhaps  not  at  that  time  quite  as 
much  so  as  that  which  developed  in  western  Norway,  and  which  it  most 
closely  resembled.  We  have  already  studied  its  closest  living  representa- 
tives in  both  England  and  Frisia. 

The  Germanic  peoples  who  participated  in  the  Volkerwanderung  were 
divided  into  two  groups,  both  on  the  basis  of  language  and  on  that  of 
chronology;  the  East  Germans,  including  the  Goths,  Vandals,  Gepidi, 
and  Burgundians,  expanded  early  in  the  Christian  era  and  moved  well 
beyond  modern  Germanic  borders,  and  hence  do  not  concern  us  here. 
The  West  Germans,  including  the  Angles,  Saxons,  Frisians,  and  the 
Germans  proper,  were  later  to  spread  and  were  less  theatrical,  but  pro- 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  537 

duced  more  lasting  results.  It  was  the  Germans  proper  in  particular,  the 
Franks,  the  Chatti,  whose  descendants  are  the  Hessians,  the  Bajuvars  or 
Bavarians,  the  Alemanni,  and  the  Thuringians,  who  settled  most  of 
modern  Germany.  Those  Franks  who  did  not  push  on  to  Belgium  and 
France  occupied  southwestern  Germany,  the  Chatti  settled  in  the  modern 
Hesse,  the  Alemanni  went  to  Switzerland  and  Austria,  the  Bajuvars  to 
Bavaria,  the  Thuringians  to  Thuringia  and  Bohemia.  The  Germanic 
settlement  of  Austria  was  a  complicated  process,  involving  Alemanni, 
Bajuvars,  Lombards  (who  were  West  Germans),  and  Goths,  as  well  as 
some  Huns  and  Slavs. 

The  Chatti  and  the  Thuringians  preserved  their  original  Nordic  head 
form  for  some  time  in  their  new  territories,  but  the  Bajuvars  incorporated 
a  number  of  indigenous  brachycephals  into  their  ethnic  body,  while  the 
Alemanni,  both  in  Baden  and  Switzerland,  early  lost  their  Germanic 
racial  identity  by  physical  absorption  into  the  previously  Keltic-speaking 
local  populations.  We  have  already  seen  that  those  Franks  who  moved 
to  Belgium  kept,  in  Flanders,  much  of  their  Nordic  character. 

The  Slavs,  who  for  a  few  centuries  after  their  westward  expansion 
occupied  much  of  the  lowland  country  of  central  and  eastern  Germany, 
were  at  that  time  dolichocephalic  or  mesocephalic  for  the  most  part,  and 
resembled  the  earlier  Kelts  in  their  usual  physical  type,  while  falling  into 
the  general  Nordic  category.  For  this  reason  the  subsequent  brachy- 
cephalization  of  much  of  this  area  cannot  be  attributed,  at  least  wholly, 
to  them. 

The  movement  of  the  Saxons  southeastward  into  the  present  Saxony 
and  onward  to  the  Sudetenlands  was  a  later  phenomenon  than  the  Volker- 
wanderung,  but  really  an  extension  of  it.  The  same  is  true  of  the  eastward 
expansion  of  Germans  beyond  Germanic  borderlands,  which  began  about 
the  twelfth  century.  The  Drang  nach  Osten  is  an  ethnic  movement  of  some 
antiquity,  caused  by  vital  demographic  forces,  and  not  a  modern  political 
affair.  The  linguistic  map  of  central  and  eastern  Europe  is  spattered  with 
patches  which  designate  German  villages  and  whole  German  sections, 
in  Czechoslovakia,  Poland,  Hungary,  Jugoslavia,  Rumania,  and  the 
Ukraine,  and  reaching  as  far  as  the  Volga  German  colony  on  the  border 
of  Asia.  Place  names  such  as  Leipzig,  Worms,  and  Neu  Danzig  give  ample 
evidence  that  these  colonies  had  their  origins  in  different  parts  of  Germany. 
These  German  exiles  remain  unabsorbed  in  their  new  countries,  and  their 
fidelity  to  German  speech  and  German  culture  presents  a  difficult  political 
problem.42 

In  view  of  the  history  of  Germany,  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  modern 

42  See  Keiter,  F.,  Russlanddeutsche  Bauern, 
Hermann,  A.,  Die  deutschen  Bauern  des  Burgerdandes. 


538  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

German  people  should  be  divided  regionally  on  a  racial  basis.  Since  the 
only  part  of  the  Reich  which  is  old  Germanic  country  is  the  extreme  north- 
west, one  should  expect  to  find  early  Germanic  racial  types  in  the  numer- 
ical ascendancy  in  that  region  alone,  but  their  occurrence  as  individuals 
is  to  be  expected  everywhere,  and  is  so  found.  The  tremendous  slaughter- 
ing of  Saxons  by  the  Franks,  the  devastating  wars  which  took  place  in 
Germany  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the  Thirty  Years  War  and  the  Hun- 
dred Years  War,  the  campaigns  of  the  Swedes  and  of  Napoleon,  the  con- 
stant drainage  of  German  manpower  as  mercenaries  in  armies  far  afield, 
have,  when  added  together,  formed  a  selective  force  of  great  magnitude. 
In  many  campaigns  whole  villages  have  been  destroyed,  whole  populations 
massacred  and  replaced.  Germany,  especially  the  German  plains,  has 
suffered  much  from  war,  and  this  suffering  has  given  the  older  elements  in 
the  population,  those  socially  least  affected  by  war  in  the  sense  of  survival, 
full  opportunity  to  reemerge,  an  opportunity  of  which  they  have  availed 
themselves.  The  temporary  ascendancy  of  North  German  Nordics  in 
most  of  Germany  during  the  centuries  which  followed  the  settlement  of 
the  West  Germanic  tribes  was  not  of  long  duration. 

The  problem  of  South  German  brachycephaly  is  a  part  of  the  general 
racial  problem  of  the  Alpine  highland  region,  and  cannot  be  separated 
from  a  consideration  of  the  same  subject  in  Switzerland  and  Austria. 
Cranial  collections  from  Bavaria,  from  Switzerland,  and  from  the  Tyrol 
all  show  the  same  characteristics  in  varying  proportions.  All  are  pre- 
dominantly if  not  wholly  brachycephalic,  with  cranial  index  means  ranging 
from  82  to  86;  all  fall  metrically  into  the  moderate  vault  Alpine-Dinaric 
class,  and  all  contain  both  planoccipital  and  curvoccipital  skulls.43  There 

43  The  literature  on  this  subject  is  exhaustive,  and  only  a  few  references  can  be  given 
here.  Some  of  the  most  important  works  are : 

Frizzi,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  39,  1909,  pp.  1-65.   KDGA,  vol.  41,  1910,  pp.  5-8. 

Hofler,  M.,  RAUB,  vol.  4,  1881,  pp.  85-97. 

Holl,  M.,  MAGW,  vol.  14,  1884,  pp.  77-116;  vol.  15,  1885,  pp.  41-76;  vol.  17,  1887, 
pp.  129-152;  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  1-24. 

Muhlmann,  W.  E.,  ZFMA,  vol.  30,  1932,  pp.  382-405. 

Pittard,  E.,  REAP,  vol.  8,  1898,  pp.  86-94,  pp.  223-231;  vol.  9,  1899,  p.  186;  vol.  10, 
1900,  p.  136;  vol.  20,  1910,  pp.  24-27. 

Pittard,  E.,  and  Reverdin,  L.,  ASAG,  vol.  4,  1920,  pp.  107-127,  287-330. 

Ranke,  J.,  BAUB,  vol.  5,  1884,  pp.  53-205;  vol.  12,  1897,  pp.  127-164. 

Reicher,  M.,  ZFMA,  vol.  15,  1913,  pp.  421-562. 

Ried,  H.  A.,  BAUB,  vol.  18,  1911,  pp.  1-112. 

Rutimeyer,  L.,  and  His,  W.,  Crania  Helvetica. 

Shapiro,  H.  L.,  APAM,  vol.  31,  1929,  pp.  1-120. 

Tappeiner,  F.,  ZFE,  vol.  31,  1899,  pp.  201-236. 

Toldt,  C.,  MAGW,  vol.  40,  1910,  pp.  67-100,  197-230. 

Wacker,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  44,  1912,  pp.  437-524. 

Wettstein,  E.,  ^iir  Anthropologie  und  Ethnographic  des  Kreises  Dissentis. 

Zuckerkandl,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  14,  1884,  pp.  117-128. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  539 

can  be  no  other  interpretation  of  this  material,  which  covers  several 
thousands  of  well-documented  crania,  than  that  they  are  the  skulls  of 
Alpines  and  of  Binaries,  two  variant  brachycephalic  racial  types  which 
formed  the  predominant  population  of  the  Alpine  mountain  system  before 
the  Germanic  migrations  and  which  have  survived  all  invasions  to  which 
they  have  been  subjected.  The  series  of  South  German  crania  of  varying 
date  show  that  this  reemergence  has  taken  place  gradually  and  consistently 
from  the  time  of  the  Frankish  conversion  to  Christianity  to  the  present. 

One  exception  to  this  rule  that  the  principal  cranial  types  are  Alpine 
and  Dinaric  is  found  in  a  series  of  skulls  of  sixteenth  to  eighteenth  century 
date  from  various  cemeteries  in  Baden.44  These  are  brachycephalic,  with 
a  mean  cranial  index  of  83,  but  possess  the  great  cranial  length  of  189  mm. 
Other  measurements  and  indices  show  that  these  crania  are  broad-faced 
and  low-orbitted,  and  belong  for  the  most  part  to  a  Borreby  category. 
One  will  recall  that  the  brachycephaly  of  this  same  region  during  the 
Bronze  Age  was  also  partly  of  a  Borreby  type,  in  mixture  with  Beaker 
Binaries.  Baden  is  on  the  northwestern  periphery  of  the  Alpine  world. 

Modern  anthropometric  research  on  the  living  in  Germany  has  taken 
the  form  of  intensive  studies  of  small,  often  isolated  villages  and  districts, 
rather  than  large,  sweeping  surveys.  Since  the  villages  and  districts 
studied  have  been  selected  so  as  to  represent  the  most  varied  populations 
in  Germany,  a  review  of  some  of  the  most  distinctive  will  suffice  to  show 
the  racial  character  of  the  principal  divisions  of  the  country. 45 

Before  starting  this  review,  however,  it  may  be  advisable  to  point  out 
that  in  all  parts  of  Germany  the  mean  cephalic  index  is  80  or  higher,  with 
two  exceptions;  among  the  East  Frisians  already  studied,  and  among  the 
Hessians  and  the  occupants  of  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Rhine  in  Rhenish 
Prussia  as  far  north  as  Busseldorf . 46  In  both  these  regions  the  mean  is  79. 
Along  the  southern  Baltic  shore,  from  Mecklenburg  to  East  Prussia,  the 
mean  is  82, 47  so  that  no  Nordic  population  in  a  strict  sense  may  be  said 
to  exist  there.  The  lowest  cephalic  indices  in  Germany  are  western  in 
distribution,  rather  than  northern,  and  are  contiguous  with  the  relatively 
long-headed  populations  of  Flanders  and  the  Netherlands. 

Tall  stature  is  characteristic  of  most  Germans;  it  is  concentrated,  how- 
ever, in  the  northwestern,  western,  and  southern  parts  of  the  country,  and 

u  Miihlmann,  W.  E.,  ZFMA,  1932. 

46  Anthropometric  research  in  Germany  has  been  so  extensive  since  the  World  War 
that  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  complete  or  even  representative  bibliography.    Perhaps 
the  most  notable  contribution  has  been  the  series  of  monographs  entitled  Deutsche  Ras- 
senkunde,  edited  by  E.  Fischer,  and  published  by  Gustav  Fischer  in  Jena.    The  series 
was  started  in  1929;  at  the  time  of  writing,  16  volumes  had  appeared. 

«Huck,  M,,  Anth,  vol.  29,  1918-19,  pp.  459-504. 

47  Parsons,  F.  G.,  JRAI,  vol.  49,  1919,  pp.  20-35;  Klenke,  W.,  Die  Deutsche  und  ihre 
Nachbarvolker. 


540  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

is  less  marked  in  the  center  and  east.  Briinn,  Borreby,  and  Dinaric  statures 
are  all  tall,  and  the  local  form  of  Alpine,  like  that  of  northeastern  France,  is 
not  short.  Moderate  statures  come  largely  from  eastern  European  sources. 
The  Germans  as  a  nation  are  blond  or  of  light-mixed  pigmentation. 
There  is  a  decrease  in  blondism  from  north  to  south,  culminating  in  the 
mountains  of  Bavaria  where  the  hair  is  characteristically  dark  and  the 
eyes  mixed.  From  the  distributional  standpoint  the  most  remarkable 
thing  about  Germany  in  a  racial  sense  is  the  large  head  size  typical  of 
much  of  the  country,  and  of  the  north  and  west  in  particular. 

The  samples  studied  in  northwestern  Germany  may  be  divided  into 
two  groups,  Fehmarn  Island48  and  all  others.49  The  island  of  Fehmarn, 
lying  in  the  Baltic  south  of  the  Danish  archipelago,  some  fifteen  miles 
across  the  Fehmarn  Belt  from  the  Danish  island  of  Laaland,  is  separated 
from  the  Schleswig-Holstein  mainland  by  a  narrow  sound.  The  popula- 
tion of  Fehmarn  is  derived  from  an  old  Wendish  element,  dating  from  the 
time  of  the  Slavic  expansion,  to  which  have  been  added  Low  Saxons  and 
immigrants  from  Dithmars,  the  southwestern  coast  of  Schleswig-Holstein, 
just  south  of  North  Frisia.  There  is  also  without  doubt  a  considerable 
survival  of  genetic  factors  from  the  pre- Wendish  occupants.  In  modern 
times  the  Fehmarn  people  have  been  moderately  isolated,  enough  so  to 
have  developed  and  preserved  a  local  type  of  their  own. 

This  type,  in  brief,  is  the  nearest  living  approximation  to  the  Borreby 
race  of  the  Mesolithic.  The  Fehmarners  are  very  tall  (173.6  cm.),  broad- 
shouldered,  wide-spanned,  but  at  the  same  time  long-legged;  their  heads 
are  of  prodigious  size,  with  a  mean  length  of  194  mm.,  breadth  of  162 
mm.,  and  heights  of  129  mm.  Despite  the  great  length,  which  exceeds 
that  of  long-headed  Nordics,  the  cephalic  index  mean  is  83.6,  fully 
brachycephalic.  The  face  is  as  large  proportionately  as  the  vault;  the 
three  principal  breadths,  minimum  frontal,  bizygomatic,  and  bigonial, 
being  respectively  110  mm.,  145  mm.,  and  112  mm.  In  view  of  these 
excessive  diameters,  the  total  face  height  of  122  mm.  is  relatively  short, 
and  the  facial  index  is  euryene.  The  nose  is  moderately  large  (56.5  mm. 
by  35.3  mm.),  and  the  nasal  index  leptorrhine  (62.4).  It  is  safe  to  predict 
that  no  regional  population  of  any  numerical  size  will  be  found  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  which  will  exceed  the  cranial  and  facial  dimensions 
of  the  Fehmarners. 

Fifty  per  cent  of  the  Fehmarn  males  studied  were  thick-set  and  heavy- 
bodied;  a  lateral  or  somatic  constitutional  type  is  common  here.  One- 

48  Sailer,  K.,  Die  Fehmaraner. 

49  Keiter,  F.,  Schwansen  und  die  Schlei. 

Klenke,  W.,  and  Scheldt,  W.,  Niedersachsische  Bauern* 

Sailer,  K.,  Suderdithmarsische  Geestbevolkerung* 

Scheldt,  W.,  and  Wriede,  H.,  Die  Elbinsel  Finkenwdrder. 


THE   CENTRAL   ZONE  541 

fourth  of  the  group  has  a  straight,  presumably  flattish  occiput,  despite  the 
great  vault  length;  a  planoccipital  cranial  form  is  a  strong  minority  trait. 
Half  of  the  noses  have  straight  or  wavy  profiles;  30  per  cent  have  convex, 
and  20  per  cent  concave.  The  photographs  indicate  that  heavy  brow- 
ridges  and  exceptionally  sloping  foreheads  are  common. 

The  hair  is  brown  as  a  rule  among  adults;  54  per  cent  could  be  classed 
as  dark  brown  (Fischer  #27,  4-7);  the  rest  are  divided  between  golden  and 
ashen  shades  of  light  brown  and  blond.  The  hair  as  a  rule  darkens  steadily 
throughout  life;  at  the  onset  of  senility,  80  per  cent  of  all  non-white  hair 
observed  was  dark  brown,  as  against  7  per  cent  at  the  age  of  6  years.  By 
contrast,  the  eyes  are  very  light;  less  than  3  per  cent  have  brown  or  dark- 
mixed  shades  (Martin  #1-6);  78  per  cent  have  eyes  which  are  pure  light 
or  almost  entirely  so  (Martin  #13-16).  This  combination  of  very  light 
eyes  with  brown  hair  is  typical  of  Palaeolithic  survivors  in  northern 
Europe,  rather  than  of  Nordics. 

The  Fehmarners,  although  quite  variable  individually,  cannot  readily 
be  divided  into  distinct  sub-types,  since  the  prevailing  Borreby  strain  has 
permeated  the  small,  endogamous  population  thoroughly.  Correlations 
indicate  the  presence  in  small  numbers  of  a  more  brachycephalic  element 
characterized  by  darker  eyes  than  the  total  group,  and  by  a  convex  nasal 
profile;  this  may  be  a  Bell  Beaker  Dinaric  survival,  but  if  so  it  is  almost 
completely  absorbed.  There  seems  to  be  little  evidence  of  a  classical 
Nordic  type  in  this  large-headed,  coarse-featured  group;  what  Nordic 
blood  has  entered  into  the  blend  has  been  recombined  or  bred  out. 

The  other  northwest  German  groups  which  have  been  intensively 
studied  include  the  Low  Saxon  farmers  living  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Weser  and  the  Elbe,  the  southern  Dithmars  population  which  occupies  the 
North  Sea  coast  between  the  Elbe  mouth  and  North  Frisia,  the  inhabitants 
of  Finkerwarden  Island  in  the  Elbe,  and  the  population  of  the  Schwansen 
district  and  of  the  neighborhood  of  the  Schlei,  the  inlet  connecting  the  city 
of  Schleswig  with  the  Baltic.  These  four  groups  are  very  much  alike;  they 
all  resemble  the  Frisians,  as  described  in  the  last  section;  they  are,  how- 
ever, less  dolichocephalic,  and  fall  in  general  between  the  Frisians  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Fehmarn  islanders  on  the  other.  They  are  lighter- 
haired  than  the  latter,  and  somewhat  smaller  in  facial  breadths.  In  bodily 
build  they  run  to  less  extreme  constitutional  types,  being  less  frequently 
thick-set  than  the  Fehmarners.  As  among  the  Fehmarners,  however, 
there  is  a  tendency  for  a  shorter-statured,  rounder-headed,  smaller-headed, 
darker-pigmented,  more  frequently  concave-nosed  and  more  leptorrhine 
element  to  segregate  itself.  This  type,  which  is  Dinaric,  may  in  part  have 
been  introduced  by  general  population  movements  in  modern  times 
from  South  to  North  Germany.  In  Schleswig,  the  farmers  tend  to  a 


542  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

longer-legged,  longer-headed  type  than  the  fishermen  on  the  Baltic  coast 
who  resemble  more  closely  the  Fehmarners. 

Northwestern  Germany,  therefore,  from  the  Dutch  border  to  Denmark 
and  the  Baltic,  is  the  home  of  a  medley  of  racial  types  in  which  the  Briinn 
and  Borreby  races  seem  most  prominent,  with  the  latter  concentrated  in  the 
island  of  Fehmarn  and  among  the  fishermen  of  the  Baltic  shore  of  Schles- 
wig.  The  Nordic  race  was  once  important  here,  as  was  its  component  the 
Corded,  but  both  have  been  largely  absorbed  into  the  earlier  types,  which 
never  yielded  ground  strongly,  even  in  the  time  of  the  early  Germanic 
efflorescence. 

Before  turning  to  South  Germany,  let  us  examine  two  rural  populations 
from  central  Germany,  one  from  the  Vogelberg  in  Upper  Hesse,50  the 
other  from  a  group  of  villages  inhabited  by  the  so-called  Keuperfranken, 
in  Middle  Franconia,51  who  derive  their  name  from  the  red  marl  of  the 
district  in  which  they  live,  just  southwest  of  Niirenberg. 

The  Vogelbergers  are  tall  men,  with  a  mean  stature  of  169  cm.  and  at 
the  same  time  brachycephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  82.8.  Their 
district  lies  off  the  edge  of  the  relatively  long-headed  section  of  Hesse.  In 
general  metrical  character,  they  are  intermediate  between  the  north- 
western Germans  already  studied  and  the  people  of  the  southern  mountain 
country. 

Their  heads  are  both  long  and  broad,  their  vault  heights  great,  and  the 
facial  breadths  are  as  great  as  in  most  of  the  North  German  series  with 
the  exception  of  Fehmarn.  In  their  pigment  character  they  arc  likewise 
intermediate.  The  hair  color  is  for  the  most  part  light  brown  to  medium 
brown,  with  a  high  incidence  (4  per  cent)  of  red;  the  beards  are  said  to 
be  very  frequently  rufous.  The  eyes  are  for  the  most  part  light-mixed, 
with  10  per  cent  of  pure  browns.  The  skin  is  freckled  in  15  per  cent  of  all 
men  examined,  and  among  66  per  cent  of  children;  heavy  freckling  is  an 
infantile  character  which  decreases  regularly  with  age.  Here  freckles  are 
linked  with  red  hair,  and  are  more  often  associated  with  blond  hair  than 
with  brown.  Sixty  per  cent  of  the  Vogelberg  seems  to  possess  blond  or 
light-mixed  complexion,  while  only  9  per  cent  can  be  called  completely 
brunet 

These  Vogelbergers  belong  to  a  number  of  different  types  common  else- 
where in  Germany.  Some  of  them  are  apparently  standard  Nordics,  but 
the  heavier,  coarser  featured  types  of  North  Germany  are  commoner,  and 
there  is  a  strong  minority  of  South  German-looking  Dinarics.  Eighteen 
per  cent  of  straight  occiputs  indicates  the  presence  of  this  group  clearly. 

Members  of  the  second  central  German  group,  the  Keuperfranken  of 
middle  Franconia,  are  shorter,  with  a  mean  stature  of  166  cm.  Their 

80  Richter,  B.,  Burkhards  und  Kaulstoss.  n  Sailer,  K.,  Die  Keuperfranken. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  543 

heads  are  smaller,  and  their  cephalic  index  higher  (mean  C.  I.  =  84.8). 
Their  faces  are  shorter  and  narrower;  whereas  the  bizygomatic  mean  of 
the  Vogelbergers  is  143  mm.,  a  dimension  suggestive  of  northern  Germany, 
that  of  the  Keuperfranken  is  140  mm.,  more  nearly  an  Alpine  or  Dinaric 
dimension.  The  pigmentation  is  darker  here  than  in  the  Vogelberg  region, 
with  nearly  20  per  cent  of  brown  eyes,  and  a  great  majority  of  dark  brown 
and  brown  head  hair. 

Middle  Franconia  lies  definitely  south  of  the  Borreby-Brunn  racial 
frontier;  its  inhabitants  belong  mostly  to  the  Alpine  and  Dinaric  races, 
with  many  intermediate  forms.  The  Noric  type,  a  blond  brachycephal 
with  incipiently  Dinaric  facial  features,  seems  to  be  relatively  common, 
and  is  probably  a  Nordic  brachycephalized  through  Alpine  and  Dinaric 
mixture.  A  few  individuals,  not  numerous  enough  to  influence  the  mean 
of  the  group  statistically,  seem  to  have  retained  a  completely  Nordic 
appearance.  These  are  commoner  among  the  Protestants  than  the  Cath- 
olics of  the  district;  the  Protestants  are  taller,  longer-headed,  narrower- 
nosed,  more  frequently  convex-nosed,  lighter-eyed,  and  blonder-haired; 
they  are  newer  in  the  region  than  the  Catholics,  and  have  not  yet  been 
completely  modified  or  absorbed. 

The  population  of  the  Alpine  borderlands  of  southern  Germany  may 
be  studied  by  reference  to  three  special  examples;  the  farmers  from  Reich- 
enau  Island  in  Lake  Constance,  and  the  nearby  mainland  villages  of  Woll- 
mattigen  and  Dettingen;  62  the  villagers  of  Genkingen  in  the  Swabian 
Alps;  53  and  Bavarians  from  Miesbach,  some  twenty  miles  south  of 
Munich  in  Upper  Bavaria.64 

The  first  two  of  these  groups  are  descendants  of  the  Alemanni  and 
preserve  evidence  of  this  ancestry  in  their  dialects  and  culture.  The  Lake 
Constance  farmers,  representing  the  westernmost  of  the  South  German 
mountain  peoples,  have  a  mean  stature  of  169  cm.,  placing  them  in  the 
same  height  category  as  the  Vogelbergers,  but  are  somewhat  shorter  than 
most  of  the  North  Germans.  Their  ,heads  are  moderately  long,  with  a 
mean  length  of  189  mm.,  and  a  cephalic  index  of  82,  which,  while  brachy- 
cephalic,  is  low  for  southern  Germany.  These  people  are  for  the  most  part 
dark  brown  or  brown-haired,  with  a  very  small  minority  of  hair  blondism. 
Their  eye  color  is  predominantly  mixed,  and  pure  dark  eyes  are  found  in 
18  per  cent  of  the  group.  They  are  long-faced,  with  a  mean  facial  index 
of  91,  and  the  very  leptorrhine  mean  nasal  index  of  59.  They  seem  to  be 
largely  Dinaric,  with  a  minor  element  of  Alpine  and  a  few  big,  thick-set 
Borreby-like  individuals.  The  latter  may  well  be  remnants  of  the  old  pre- 

62  Scheldt,  W.,  Alemanische  Bauern. 

88  Breig,  A.,  Sine  anthr apologise 'he  Untersuchung  einer,  schwdbische  Alb. 

64  Ried,  H.  A.,  Miesbacher  Bevolkerung. 


544  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Bronze  Age  populations,  or  remnants  of  the  North  German  invasion,  more 
permanent  than  the  accompanying  Nordic  element. 

While  the  group  just  mentioned  lives  in  the  Rhine  Valley,  on  a  high- 
road of  migration,  the  Swabians  of  Genkingen  live  in  an  isolated  mountain 
environment.  They  are  almost  exclusively  Dinaric  and  Noric,  especially 
the  former;  there  are  few  individuals  who  are  typically  Alpine,  and  only 
two  men  out  of  208  investigated  were  dolichocephalic.  Seventy  per  cent 
have  convex  nasal  profiles,  48  per  cent  have  steep,  flattened  or  uncurved 
occiputs.  Since  the  planoccipitals  comprise  nearly  half  the  group,  the 
Dinaric  character  of  this  population  is  manifest.  The  more  typical  Bi- 
naries have  pronounced  naso-labial  folds,  heavily  built  chins,  high  orbits  as 
shown  by  a  great  palpebral  opening,  and,  of  course,  the  expected  nasal 
character.  Their  stature  is  above  that  for  the  mean  of  the  group,  and  their 
body  build  lean  and  spare.  The  relative  span  of  the  whole  group  is  107, 
the  relative  sitting  height  51.8.  The  blonder  Noric  sub-group  is  not  as 
tall  as  the  more  brunet  Binaries  proper,  and  does  not  show  an  equal 
accentuation  of  nasality  and  of  the  accompanying  facial  features.  About 
36  per  cent  of  the  Genkingen  people  is  estimated  to  belong  to  this  Noric 
class,  which  is  rounder-headed  (C.  I.  =  84.5)  than  the  total  population 
(C.  I.  «  83.0).  Typical  Alpines,  of  intermediate  pigmentation,  are  in  the 
minority,  as  they  are  in  all  Binaric  populations — no  Binaric  or  Armenoid 
group  has  ever  been  found  without  them. 

Genkingen  was  settled  by  the  Alemanni,  but  before  that  it  was  already 
occupied  by  a  settled  population;  the  Alemanni  gave  it  its  name  and 
Germanic  character.  The  Alemanni  were  Germanic  Nordics,  as  skeletal 
remains  from  local  graves  amply  testify.  When  standard  additions  to  the 
cranial  means  are  made  to  allow  for  soft  parts,  the  restored  Alemanni  are 
some  7  mm.  longer-headed,  9  mm.  narrower-headed,  5  mm.  narrower 
in  minimum  frontal  breath,  and  5  mm.  narrower-faced  than  the  present 
Genkingen  people.  Genkingen  is  a  typical  Alemanni  street  village,  with 
all  the  houses  built  along  one  main  thoroughfare;  the  house  type  is  purely 
Alemannic,  the  dialect,  the  customs,  and  local  cultural  peculiarities  are 
typically  Alemannic.  The  Alemanni  were  established  there  in  the  fifth 
and  sixth  centuries,  and  never  moved  out;  no  one  else  has  ever  moved  in, 
in  the  sense  of  an  invasion  or  migration.  Yet  the  means  of  the  Alemanni 
head  and  face  dimensions  barely  fall  within  the  ranges  of  the  living 
population. 

The  answer  to  this  apparent  enigma  lies  in  three  facts,  the  failure  of  the 
Alemanni  to  exterminate  the  earlier  population,  which  was  presumably  of 
a  Keltic  Iron  Age  type,  the  gradual  penetration  of  new  family  lines  from 
over  the  mountains,  and  the  transformation  by  mixture  of  Nordics  into 
Norics.  At  present  there  are  24  family  names  in  the  village;  of  them,  3 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  545 

first  appeared  in  the  sixteenth  century,  8  in  the  seventeenth,  5  in  the 
eighteenth,  7  in  the  nineteenth,  and  1  in  the  twentieth.  Although  some 
of  the  names  may  have  been  brought  from  neighboring  villages,  it  is 
said  that  most  of  them  came  from  the  south.  Since  only  one-eighth  of 
patrilineal  lines  present  in  Genkingen  were  there  before  1600,  and  since 
the  newcomers  were  mostly  from  an  Alpine  and  Dinaric  racial  center,  the 
problem  of  the  change  in  head  form  in  southern  Germariy  ceases  to  be 
perplexing,  especially  when  one  remembers  that  Genkingen  is  one  of  the 
most  conservative,  most  stable  villages  of  southern  Germany.  The  Nordic 
element  has  been  partly  bred  out,  partly  absorbed,  and  in  absorption  it 
has  taken  the  Noric  form,  which  is  actually  an  element  of  importance  in 
the  population. 

The  third  group,  that  of  the  Upper  Bavarian  Miesbachers,  is  descended 
not  from  Alemanni,  but  from  Bajuvars.  Its  history  is  presumably  similar 
to  that  of  other  South  German  villages.  The  modern  inhabitants  are  tall, 
with  a  mean  stature  of  170  cm.,  very  brachycephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic 
index  of  85,  and  of  medium  head  size.  Their  faces  are  broader  and  shorter 
than  those  of  the  modern  Alemanni,  and  their  noses  less  leptorrhine. 
Dark  brown  hair  is  predominant,  blond  hair  is  in  the  small  minority,  and 
the  eye  color  is  brown  in  30  per  cent  of  the  group,  while  the  skin  color  is 
a  brunet-white  in  over  50  per  cent.  These  people  form  one  of  the  most 
brunet  populations  in  Germany. 

These  Bavarians  are  mostly  Alpines  and  Binaries,  with  a  little  Nordic 
admixture;  individually,  a  number  of  Atlanto-Mediterranean  dolicho- 
cephals  or  mesocephals  may  be  observed.  On  the  whole,  the  Bavarians 
are  more  Alpine,  both  metrically  and  morphologically,  than  most  of  the 
population  of  the  eastern  Alps;  they  resemble,  in  their  facial  characters, 
some  of  the  French  Alpines  more  closely  than  they  do  the  Swiss  or  Austrians. 
Southern  Bavaria  must  be  considered  a  minor  nucleus  of  the  Alpine  race 
in  central  Europe. 

In  Saxony,  Thuringia,  and  throughout  eastern  Germany,  the  racial 
situation  is  somewhat  different.  As  an  example  of  a  relatively  conservative 
Saxon  population,  we  may  study  the  inhabitants  of  Questenberg,  a  village 
located  in  an  isolated  valley  of  the  southern  Harz  Mountains  of  Saxony.55 
The  Questenbergers  have  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  82.4,  which  is  low  for 
eastern  Germany,  and  the  head  size  is  intermediate  between  that  of  the 
South  Germans  and  of  those  in  the  northwest.  Compared  to  the  southern 
Germans,  these  Saxons  are  very  light  in  skin,  hair,  and  eye  color;  the  pre- 
dominant hair  color  is  a  medium  brown  while  the  eyes  are  mostly  pure 
light  or  light-mixed,  and  dark  eyes  are  limited  to  about  5  per  cent.  The 
noses  of  the  Questenbergers  are  as  a  rule  high  and  narrow,  and  frequently 

66  Grau,  R.,  Die  Qitestcnberger* 


546  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

convex.  These  Saxons  fall  as  a  group  into  the  Noric  racial  type;  brunet 
Binaries  are  rather  uncommon  here,  as  are  morphologically  typical 
Alpines.  It  seems  most  reasonable  to  regard  these  people  as  the  descend- 
ants of  Iron  Age  Nordics  who  have  been  partially  brachycephalized  by 
Alpine  and  Dinaric  admixture. 

Turning  farther  east  to  Silesia,  we  encounter  a  comparatively  new 
German  population.  Silesia,  overrun  by  the  Slavs,  was  resettled  by  Ger- 
man colonists  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  colonists  were  mostly 
Thuringians  and  Upper  Saxons,  with  a  few  from  the  Upper  Rhine 
country. 66  They  came  from  a  region  which  is  today  largely  Noric,  Dinaric, 
and  Alpine,  but  which  at  the  time  of  their  exodus  was  still  considerably 
Nordic. 

A  sample  drawn  from  Friedersdorf  in  the  Sudeten  lands  of  German 
Silesia  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  this  eastern  German  population.57  The 
stature  is  only  moderate,  with  a  mean  of  166  cm.;  the  head  is  of  Alpine  or 
Dinaric  size  and  definitely  smaller  than  those  of  North  or  West  Germans, 
while  the  cephalic  index  of  86.5  is  hyperbrachycephalic.  The  facial  and 
upper  facial  indices  are  too  low  for  Dinarics,  and  fall  into  an  Alpine 
category;  the  noses,  like  those  of  the  Bavarians,  are  usually  straight  in 
profile,  and  only  moderately  leptorrhine  (N.  I.  =  67).  Like  the  Saxons, 
these  people  are  not  infrequently  blond.  Medium  brown  hair  is  the 
commonest  color;  20  per  cent  of  eyes  are  brown,  while  most  of  the  others 
are  light  and  light-mixed. 

The  racial  diagnosis  of  these  people  shows  them  to  be  largely  Alpine 
in  type,  with  a  number  of  brachycephalized  Nordics,  a  few  Dinarics,  and 
an  important  minority  of  snub-nosed  eastern  European-looking  brachy- 
cephals.  The  presence  of  these  last  indicates  that  in  Silesia  we  have  already 
entered  the  eastern  European  racial  area.58 

Northeastern  Germany,  from  Mecklenburg  over  to  East  Prussia,  is  a 
region  of  great  blondism,  in  which  northwestern  German  types,  especially 
the  Borreby,  gradually  merge  into  the  racial  forms  found  in  Lithuania  and 
White  Russia.  Von  Hindenburg,  an  East  Prussian  par  excellence,  was  an 
ideal  example  of  a  Borreby-East  Baltic  combination  typical  of  his  own 
class  and  country. 

To  summarize  the  data  on  the  physical  anthropology  of  Germany  it 
seems  necessary  to  stress  the  relative  absence  of  conventional  Nordics 
comparable  to  those  found  in  eastern  Norway,  in  Sweden,  and  in  England. 
Such  Nordics  may  be  seen  almost  everywhere  in  Germany  as  individuals, 
but  nowhere  as  a  large  element  in  the  population.  The  Northwest  Ger- 

66  Klenke,  W.,  ZFRK,  vol.  3,  1936,  pp.  56-68. 

67  G6llner,  H.,  Yolks-  und  Rassenkunde  der  Bevolkerung  von  Friedersdorf ". 
M  See  Klenke,  ZFRK,  1936. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  547 

mans  represent  for  the  most  part  a  reemergence  of  Briinn  and  Borreby 
types  which  have  absorbed  the  Iron  Age  Nordic  group  almost  completely, 
as  well  as  the  old  North  German  Corded  concentration.  The  southwestern 
Germans  are  the  most  nearly  Nordic  of  all,  but  have  strong  Briinn  and 
Borreby  accretions.  The  southern  Germans,  from  southern  Baden  to 
eastern  Bavaria,  are  basically  Alpine,  with  strong,  often  predominant, 
Dinaric  tendencies,  and  a  large  purely  brunet  minority.  In  central 
Germany  an  intermediate  condition  between  the  North  German  and  the 
South  German  extremes  is  found.  In  southeastern  Germany,  from  Saxony 
to  Silesia,  while  the  head  form  is  extremely  brachycephalic,  the  pigmenta- 
tion is  usually  light,  and  the  head  size  small  in  comparison  with  the  north- 
ern and  western  parts  of  the  country.  The  racial  type  which  is  most 
characteristic  here  is  the  Noric,  a  blond  Dinaric  form  resulting  from  a 
brachycephalization  of  Iron  Age  Nordics  through  direct  or  indirect  Alpine 
admixture.  In  Silesia,  to  the  same  elements  may  be  added  a  broad-faced, 
snub-nosed,  brachycephalic  strain  which  we  have  already  observed  among 
Finns  and  Baits,  and  which  will  be  studied  in  further  detail  in  Poland  and 
Russia.  The  northeastern  Germans  are  for  the  most  part  blond  brachy- 
cephals,  varying  in  type  from  Borreby  to  East  Baltic,  and  especially  the 
latter. 

Germany,  by  and  large,  is  a  country  in  which  a  variety  of  pre-Mediter- 
ranean  racial  types  have  experienced  a  maximum  reemergence,  and  in 
which  Mediterranean  and  Nordic  elements  have  experienced  a  differential 
alteration  in  response  to  Alpine  mixture.  In  its  blended  Noric  form,  the 
Nordic  has  survived  in  greater  numbers  than  the  low  percentage  of  the 
unmixed  form  would  indicate. 

(6)    SWITZERLAND   AND   AUSTRIA 

To  the  south  of  the  South  German  ethnic  region  lie  Switzerland  and 
Austria;  the  former  contiguous  to  Baden  and  the  latter  to  Bavaria. 
Northern  and  central  Switzerland  form  an  extension  of  the  Alemannic 
settlement  area  already  studied  in  Baden  and  the  Swabian  Alps,  while 
western  Switzerland  is  old  Burgundian  territory.  The  southeastern  cantons 
lie  on  the  periphery  of  the  Germanic  advance,  and  contain  linguistic  and 
cultural  vestiges  of  the  old  Romanized  Rhaetians. 

In  a  geographical  sense,  Switzerland  is  almost  entirely  composed  of 
three  great  valleys,  forming  the  head  waters  of  the  Rhine,  of  its  tributary 
the  Aar,  and  of  the  Rh6ne.  Each  of  these  rivers  includes  a  large  lake  in 
part  of  its  course;  the  Rh6ne  has  Lake  Geneva,  the  Aar  Lake  Neuchatel, 
and  the  Rhine  Lake  Constance.  The  main  chain  of  the  Alps  lies  on  the 
southern  Swiss  border;  thus  most  of  the  country  is  open  only  to  the  north- 
ward and  westward.  However,  part  of  the  Grisons  empties  into  the  Danube, 


548  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

and  the  canton  of  Ticino  lies  in  the  drainage  of  the  Po.  The  waters  of 
Switzerland,  therefore,  empty  into  the  North  Sea,  the  western  Mediter- 
ranean, the  Adriatic,  and  the  Black  Sea;  Switzerland  truly  forms  the 
nucleus  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Four  languages  are  spoken  in  present-day  Switzerland,  of  which  three — 
French,  German,  and  Italian,  have  long  been  official.  The  fourth,  a 
provincial  Latin  derivative,  spoken  by  the  descendants  of  the  Romanized 
Rhaetians,  includes  the  dialects  of  Ladin  and  Romansch,  and  has  only 
recently  acquired  its  legal  status.59  Other  groups  speaking  this  language 
live  in  the  Tyrol  and  in  northeastern  Italy.  Of  the  four  million  Swiss,  71 
per  cent  speak  German,  21  per  cent  French,  6  per  cent  Italian,  and  slightly 
more  than  1  per  cent  speak  Ladin  and  Romansch.  French  predominates 
in  the  west,  in  the  cantons  of  Vaud,  Neuchatel,  Geneva,  Freiburg,  and 
Valais;  Italian  in  Ticino;  and  German  elsewhere.  Ladin  is  spoken  in  the 
Engadine,  and  Romansch  in  the  Bunder  Oberland,  both  in  the  canton 
of  Grisons. 

The  country  is  likewise  divided  on  a  religious  as  well  as  linguistic  basis, 
with  58  per  cent  of  Protestants,  and  the  rest  mostly  Catholic.  Protestants 
are  most  numerous  in  the  north  and  west,  Catholics  in  the  south  and  center. 
In  general,  the  French-speaking  territory  is  prevailingly  Protestant,  the 
Italian-speaking  territory  Catholic,  while  both  persuasions  are  evenly 
partitional  among  the  German  speakers.  There  is  no  clear  correlation 
between  language  and  religion.  Divided  by  language  and  by  religious 
belief,  the  Swiss  likewise  preserve  strongly  differentiated  local  cultural 
traits,  which  vary  greatly  from  canton  to  canton.  Despite  these  differences, 
Switzerland,  owing  to  geographical  and  historical  causes,  remains  a  very 
closely  integrated  nation.  As  Montandon  has  remarked,  its  very  diversity 
in  these  respects  has  without  doubt  done  much  to  inculcate  in  the  Swiss 
their  neutral  and  international  character.60 

The  present-day  Swiss  are  also  divided  to  a  certain  extent  in  a  racial 
sense.  Those  living  in  the  northern  and  western  valleys  resemble  the 
populations  found  in  southwestern  Germany,  where  a  combination  of 
moderately  tall  stature,  low  brachycephaly,  and  moderately  light  pig- 
mentation indicate  a  Nordic  survival  of  racial  elements  in  Alpine-Dinaric 
racial  territory.  The  southern  and  eastern  Swiss,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
darker  and  rounder-headed  and  show  less  of  this  northern  lowland 
influence.61 

w  In  June,  1938.   See  Lansel,  Peider,  The  Raeto-Romans, 

80  Montandon,  G.,  DEthnie  Fran$aise,  pp.  182-195.  This  contains  an  excellent  sum- 
mary of  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  living  Swiss. 

61  An  extensive  survey  of  Swiss  recruits  carried  on  between  1927  and  1932  under  the 
direction  of  Dr.  Otto  Schlaginhaufen  has  at  the  time  of  writing  received  only  prelimi- 
nary publication.  The  survey  covers  35,000  recruits  from  all  parts  of  Switzerland,  and 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  549 

The  mean  stature  of  35,000  recent  Swiss  recruits  is  168.6  cm.,  a  figure 
comparable  to  that  of  southern  and  western  Germans.  It  has  risen  greatly 
in  recent  years,  since  the  mean  for  the  1884-91  period  was  163.5  cm.  There 
are  three  areas  in  which  tall  stature  is  commonest;  the  country  around 
Geneva  and  Lake  Neuch£tel,  and  western  Valais;  the  very  north,  from 
Basel  to  Lake  Constance;  and  the  eastern  Grisons.  Elsewhere  local 
variability  is  great;  the  shortest  stature  occurs  in  parts  of  Bern,  and  in 
Appenzell-Innerrhoden  in  the  northwest.  In  the  1880's  the  stature  in  the 
two  Appenzells  was  at  the  160  cm.  level;  by  1930  it  had  risen  to  165  cm.  in 
Appenzell-Innerrhoden  and  to  166  cm.  in  Appenzell-Ausserrhoden.  Areas 
of  depression,  laches  noires  in  the  French  sense,  seem  to  have  been  ironed 
out;  low  stature  in  Switzerland  is  directly  environmental  and  not  racial. 

In  the  1927-32  survey  the  mean  cephalic  index  of  81.3  was  found  for 
all  of  Switzerland.  This  low  figure  comes  as  a  surprise  to  the  majority  of 
anthropologists,  who  have  long  considered  Switzerland  to  be  the  center 
and  homeland  of  the  Alpine  race  in  Europe.  The  Alpine  race,  however,  is 
much  more  concentrated  today  in  France,  in  northern  Italy,  in  Bavaria, 
and  in  southern  Albania  than  it  is  in  Switzerland.  The  cantons  range  from 
79.6  in  Basel  city  to  83.7  in  Ticino;  in  general  a  line  drawn  from  the 
western  end  of  Lake  Constance  to  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Geneva  will 
divide  the  mesocephals  and  near-mesocephals  of  the  northwest  from  the 
sub-brachycephals  and  brachycephals  of  the  southeast. 

One  reason  why  the  discovery  that  the  Swiss  as  a  nation  are  only  sub- 
brachycephalic  is  so  surprising  is  that  most  of  the  published  cranial 
series  have  mean  cranial  indices  varying  from  82  to  87.  With  few  excep- 
tions these  are  drawn,  however,  from  the  southern  and  eastern  cantons, 
from  small  local  populations  in  the  roundest-headed  part  of  Switzerland. 
Still,  Pittard's  total  mean  for  several  hundred  crania  from  Valais  is  84.5, 
as  contrasted  with  a  cephalic  index  of  82.2  on  the  living.  This  discrepancy 
may  be  partly  technical  and  partly  due  to  regional  selection,62  but  one  is 
tempted  to  believe  that  the  great  increase  in  stature  in  recent  times  has 
been  accompanied  by  a  lowering  of  the  cephalic  index. 

The  mean  cranial  and  facial  diameters  of  the  living  Swiss  strongly 
suggest  that  the  non-Alpine,  non-Dinaric  elements  in  the  population  are 
Nordic  and  Mediterranean,  especially  the  former,  and  not  Briinn  or 
Borreby,  as  in  northern  and  much  of  western  Germany.  The  mean  head 

includes  detailed  measurements  and  observations.  Its  final  publication  should  supplant 
all  previous  studies  of  a  general  nature.  Preliminary  notices  which  present  summaries 
and  portions  of  these  data  include:  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  BSGA,  vol.  13, 1936-37,  pp.  7- 
11;  BIKB,  1936,  pp.  507-511. 

62  As  one  moves  up  the  Rhdne  Valley  within  the  canton  of  Valais,  the  mean  G.  I.  on 
the  living  increases,  from  80  at  Sion  to  83  higher  up.  Bedot,  M.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  6, 
1895,  pp.  486-494;  ser.  4,  vol.  9,  1898,  pp.  222-236. 


550  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

length  for  Swiss  males  is  189  mm.,  the  breadth  154  mm.;  the  total  face 
height  is  122  mm.,  the  bizygomatic  137  mm.  The  facial  index  mean  is  89, 
that  of  the  nasal  index  63. 63  Fifty-eight  per  cent  have  straight  or  wavy 
nasal  profiles,  16  per  cent  concave,  and  only  25  per  cent  convex.  Thus 
the  Alpine  and  Nordic  nasal  forms  outweigh  the  Dinaric. 

The  Swiss  are  on  the  whole  as  blond  as  most  West  and  South  Germans, 
and  less  so  than  North  Germans.  About  50  per  cent  of  recruits  have  dark 
brown  hair  (Fischer  #4-5)  while  the  rest  have  for  the  most  part  medium  to 
light  brown  shades.  Brown  and  dark- mixed  eyes  are  found  in  one- third 
of  the  group.64  On  the  whole  central  and  northern  Switzerland  are  the 
blondest,  and  in  these  regions  small  localities  may  be  extremely  blond; 
light  pigmentation  is  geographically  associated  with  German  speech. 
Italian  and  Romansch-speaking  centers  are  the  most  brunet,  while  the 
French-speaking  cantons  are  intermediate.  In  the  northern  cantons  ash- 
blond  hair  (Fischer  #22-26)  is  common,  and  is  largely  identified  with 
Noric  and  sub-Nordic  types.65 

The  principal  results  of  this  survey  of  Switzerland  are:  the  discovery 
that  the  Alpine-Dinaric  racial  complex  is  centered  to  the  south  and  to 
either  side  of  the  Republic;  the  determination  that  a  large  Nordic  element 
has  survived  here  in  solution,  only  partly  brachycephalized  by  Alpine  and 
Dinaric  mixture;  the  further  determination  that  Switzerland  has  been 
entirely  or  almost  entirely  free  from  Briinn-Borreby  intrusion. 

Austria,  which  lies  to  the  east  of  Switzerland,  and  which  is  now  politi- 
cally a  part  of  Germany,  is  almost  wholly  contained  within  the  drainage 
of  .the  upper  Danube.  Vorarlberg,  however,  forms  part  of  the  uppermost 
segment  of  the  Rhine  basin,  while  the  southern  Tyrol,  at  present  under 
Italian  sovereignty,  lies  over  the  Alpine  watershed  in  the  drainage  of  the 
Adige.  Austria  in  the  political  sense  is  entirely  Germanic  in  language,  ex- 
cept for  the  presence  of  a  few  Slovenes  in  the  Biirgenland;  in  the  Italian 
Tyrol  there  are  German,  Italian,  and  Ladin-speaking  communities.  Like 
Switzerland,  Austria  faces  northward,  with  the  Alpine  watershed  at  her 
back;  this  northward  exposure  is  largely* 'responsible  for  the  retention  of 
Austria's  Germanic  character  from  the  days  of  the  Volkerwanderung. 
While  Switzerland's  face  is  turned  more  specifically  to  the  northwest  than 
to  the  true  north,  Austria's  orientation  is  rather  to  the  northeast;  thus  in  a 
sense  the  two  upland  areas,  with  the  Rhine-Danube  watershed  between 

M  Regional  data  will  be  found  in : 

Schwerz,  F.,  NDSN,  vol.  45,  sec.  2,  1910. 

Zbinden,  F.,  AFA,  vol.  38,  1911,  pp,  280-317. 

«  Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  BSGA,  vol.  3,  1926-27,  pp.  21-36. 

66  Zbinden,  F.,  AFA,  vol.  38,  1911,  pp.  280-317.  I  am  using  Usub-Nordic"  here  in 
Montandon's  sense,  to  designate  a  Nordic  partially  brachycephalized  by  Alpine  ad- 
mixture. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  551 

them,  are  isolated  from  each  other.  While  the  first  Neolithic  civilization 
of  Switzerland  came  up  the  Rh6ne  from  the  western  Mediterranean  and 
Spain,  that  of  Austria  was  derived  from  the  east  by  way  of  the  Danube. 
These  differences  have  been  obscured  by  some  subsequent  events,  and 
strengthened  by  others;  still  the  ultimate  distinction  remains. 

The  present  Austria  consists  of  seven  provinces;  Vorarlberg,  Tyrol, 
Salzburg,  Carinthia,  Styria,  Upper  Austria,  and  Lower  Austria;  to  these 
will  be  added  for  present  purposes  the  Trentino,  or  Italian  Tyrol.  All 
of  these  regions  have  been  subjected  to  anthropometric  study,  and  the 
racial  situation  in  Austria  may  be  stated  without  ambiguity. 

Lower  and  Upper  Austria,  which  are  both  situated  directly  in  the 
Danube  Valley,  and  both  of  which  include  the  southern  foothills  behind 
the  alluvial  plain,  stand  on  a  highroad  of  migration  and  occupy  one  of 
the  most  fertile  and  desirable  areas  of  Europe.  They  lie  within  the  prob- 
able area  of  development  of  one  branch,  at  least,  of  the  Nordic  race; 
Danubians,  Corded  people,  Bell  Beaker  folk,  all  contributed  to  the  racial 
amalgam  of  the  ages  of  Bronze  and  Iron;  the  Germanic  and  Slavic  invasions 
of  the  present  era  have  furnished  additional  increments.  Slavic  influence 
has  been  greater  in  Lower  than  in  Upper  Austria,  but  secondary  to  the 
Germanic  in  both. 

The  population  of  the  two  Austrias  belongs,  with  that  of  Switzerland, 
in  an  Alpine-Dinaric-Nordic  category.66  The  mean  cephalic  indices  of 
the  various  districts  range  from  80.8  in  Hernals,  just  west  of  Vienna,  to 
84.8  in  Waidhofen,  also  in  Lower  Austria.  In  general,  the  districts  lying 
north  of  the  Danube  in  both  provinces  have  higher  means  than  those  on 
the  southern  bank;  they  approach  the  higher  brachycephaly  of  Bavaria  and 
of  Bohemia.  Lower  and  Upper  Austria  form  a  relatively  long-headed 
interlude  between  the  brachycephalic  nucleus  just  mentioned  and  that 
of  the  Tyrol. 

The  stature  of  these  two  provinces,  Lower  and  Upper  Austria,  ranges 
about  the  mean  of  167-168  cm.,  with  little  regional  variation.  Brown 
hair  occurs  in  over  40  per  cent  of  the  group,  and  one-third  have  been 
classed  as  blond.  Eyes  are  for  the  most  part  blue  or  gray  with  accompany- 
ing mixtures,  and  browns  account  for  some  24  per  cent  of  the  total.  Pair 
or  light-mixed  complexion  types  are  commoner  than  brunet  ones.  The 
ash-blond  hair  with  gray  or  mixed  eyes  combination  is  frequent,  and  is 
associated  not  only  with  a  few  pheno typically  pure  Nordics,  but  also  with 
the  much  commoner  Noric  form.  The  Dinaric  type  emerges,  in  sorting, 
as  the  tallest  but  not  the  most  brachycephalic  element.  Of  the  four  most 
easily  recognizable  types  in  these  provinces,  Noric,  Alpine,  Dinaric,  and 

«  Brezina,  E.,  and  Wastl,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  59,  1929,  pp.  19-38,  311-322. 
Weisbach,  A.,  MMSC,  vol.  11,  1892;  MAGW,  vol.  24,  1894,  pp.  232-246. 


552  THE  RAGES  OF  EUROPE 

Nordic,  the  first  is  probably  the  commonest.  Thus  altered  and  unaltered 
Nordics  must  account  for  well  over  half  the  population.  The  Nordic 
element  must  be  derived  as  much  from  a  local  Hallstatt  as  from  a  Germanic 
source. 

In  the  three  provinces  of  Salzburg,  Carinthia,  and  Styria,  the  racial 
situation  is  much  the  same  as  in  Lower  and  Upper  Austria.67  In  Salzburg 
there  are  fewer  brown  eyes  (20  per  cent)  and  the  Noric  element  appears 
particularly  important;  unaltered  Nordics  are  common  only  in  Lower 
Austria.  In  South  Styria  and  in  Garinthia  the  stature  approaches  the 
170  cm.  level,  blondism  slightly  decreases,  and  a  Dinaric  type  becomes 
commoner. 

On  account  of  its  reputation  as  a  Dinaric  racial  center,  the  Tyrol  has 
been  the  subject  of  many  special  investigations.68  The  Tyrol  in  the  geo- 
graphical and  ethnic  sense  includes  the  upper  valley  of  the  Inn,  which 
served  historically  as  a  highroad  of  Germanic  invasion  over  the  Alps, 
and  the  smaller  mountain  valleys  on  either  side  of  the  Alpine  chain.  A 
branch  of  the  Inn,  the  river  Wipp,  leads  directly  to  the  Brenner  Pass  and 
down  into  Italy.  The  Tyrol  was  not  settled  until  the  Metal  Age;  the  first 
inhabitants  who  came  in  any  numbers  were  Atlanto-Mediterraneans  from 
northern  Italy,  and  Binaries  both  from  southern  Germany  and  from 
Italy.  In  Hallstatt  times,  however,  the  population  increased,  and  the 
Rhaetians,  later  to  become  Romanized,  developed  as  an  ethnic  unit  under 
Hallstatt  cultural  tutelage.  The  Ladin  speakers  of  the  side  valleys  of  the 
Italian  Tyrol  are  today  in  most  respects  good  representatives  of  the  pre- 
Roman  Rhaetians,  while  the  Germanicizing  and  Italicizing  of  the  others 
has  been  only  partial  in  all  respects  other  than  in  language.  The  Dinaric 
racial  type  has  had,  in  the  Tyrol,  a  complete  continuity  from  the  Bronze 
Age  to  the  present. 

The  living  Tyrolese  are  moderately  but  not  extremely  tall;  valley  means 
range  from  167  cm.  to  172  cm.  They  are  brachycephalic,  with  means 
varying  between  82  and  87.  On  the  whole  the  Italian  speakers  are  the 
least  brachycephalic,  and  the  Ladin  speakers  and  some  of  the  German 

67  Keiter,  F.,  MAGW,  vol.  43,  1933,  pp.  293-319. 

Ploy,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  38,  1908,  pp.  324-347. 

Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  25,  1895,  pp.  69-84;  vol.  28,  1898,  pp.  195-213;  vol.  30, 
1900,  pp.  79-99. 

88  Principal  works  on  the  living  includes: 

Knobl,  G.,  MAGW,  vol.  43,  1933,  pp.  320-325. 

Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  59,  1929,  pp.  209-228. 

Tappeiner,  F.,  Studien  zur  Anthropologie  Tirol$>  Innsbruck,  1883;  ZFE,  vol.  12,  1880, 
pp.  269-288. 

Toldt,  C.,  MAGW,  vol.  21,  1891,  pp.  69-78,  also  Supplement.  . 

Much  more  has  been  done  on  the  craniology  of  the  Tyrolese  than  on  the  living  popu- 
lation. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  553 

speakers  the  most  so,  while  the  greatest  brachycephaly  lies  on  the  Italian 
side  of  the  divide.  The  Tyrolese  are  typically  intermediate  in  pigmenta- 
tion; brown  hair  is  commonest,  although  on  the  German  side  a  large 
minority  is  blond;  among  Italian  speakers  black  hair  rises  to  over  20 
per  cent.  Among  German  speakers  brown  eyes  run  to  roughly  20  to  30 
per  cent;  among  Italian  speakers  they  approach  40  per  cent.  The  Ladiner, 
who  are  among  the  roundest-headed,  are  definitely  the  darkest;  with  over 
45  per  cent  of  dark  eyes,  and  over  75  per  cent  of  black  and  brown  hair. 
There  is,  in  all  the  Tyrol,  a  strong  minority  of  brunet  or  swarthy  skin  color, 
which  rises  to  50  per  cent  among  the  Ladiner. 

The  cranial  and  facial  dimensions  of  the  Tyrolese 6e  resemble  those  of 
the  Swiss,  except  that  the  vault  lengths  are  shorter  and  the  facial  breadths 
greater.  The  head  length  mean  for  brachycephals  with  a  mean  cephalic 
index  of  85.8,  is  185  mm.,  the  breadth  159  mm.;  the  minimum  frontal, 
bizygomatic,  and  bigonial  diameters  are  109  mm.,  142  mm.,  and  109  mm.; 
the  face  height  is  126  mm.,  and  the  nasal  dimensions  are  58  mm.  by  36 
mm.;  the  facial  index  87,  the  nasal  index  63.  The  only  real  differences 
between  the  Tyrolese  and  the  rest  of  the  Austrians  He  in  a  shorter  head 
length  mean  and  a  broader  jaw. 

Toldt,70  in  a  study  of  710  modern  Tyrolese  crania,  of  which  83  per  cent 
are  brachycephalic,  finds  47.5  per  cent  of  the  whole,  or  over  half  of  the 
brachycephalic  specimens,  to  be  planoccipital;  the  ratio  for  the  different 
valleys  inhabited  by  German  and  Italian  speakers  varies  from  23  per  cent 
to  54  per  cent,  but  it  rises  to  70  per  cent  in  the  crania  from  the  Ladin- 
speaking  districts. 

Planoccipital  Tyrolese  crania  differ  from  their  curvoccipital  neighbors 
in  but  a  few  measurements,  although  the  morphological  differences  are 
greater.  In  the  planoccipital  crania,  the  distance  from  glabella  to  inion  is 
nearly  as  great  as  the  maximum  length;  in  curvoccipital  skulls  the  differ- 
ence between  these  two  diameters  is  considerable.  In  the  planoccipital 
crania,  the  mean  post-auricular  length  is  75.9  mm.;  the  mean  for  the 
curvoccipital  crania  is  82.4  mm.  An  index  between  the  nasion-basion 
length  and  the  post-basion  base  length  of  the  skull  is  approximately  60  to 
70  in  the  planoccipital,  and  88  to  100  in  the  curvoccipital,  crania.  Thus 
the  differences  between  Alpine  and  Dinaric  skulls  lies  not  so  much  in  total 
vault  diameters  or  in  facial  dimensions  as  in  the  measurements  which 
indicate  that  the  ear  hole  and  foramen  magnum  lie  to  the  rear  in  the 
planoccipital  crania,  and  that,  owing  to  the  steepness  of  the  occipital  bone, 
lambda  stands  relatively  forward.  The  metrical  peculiarities  of  the  Binaries 
are  more  easily  determined  on  the  crania  than  on  the  living. 

89  Frizzi,  E.,  MAGW,  vol.  39,  1909,  pp.  1-65. 
*»  Toldt,  C.,  MAGW,  vol.  40,  1910,  pp.  67-100. 


554  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

Before  leaving  Austria  we  may  mention  the  racial  position  of  the  in- 
habitants of  the  Walserthal  in  Vorarlberg,  a  high  valley  draining  into 
the  Rhine.71  The  Walserthal  is  the  scene  of  a  Germanic  thrust  directly 
from  the  north,  of  the  same  nature  as  those  which  affected  Switzerland; 
the  living  Walser,  who  are  blonder  than  the  Tyrolese,  are  metrically 
comparable  to  the  populations  already  studied  in  Baden  and  the  Swabian 
Alps,  rather  than  to  the  Alpo-Binaric  group  in  its  purer  form. 

(7)    ITALY 

Italy,  one  of  the  most  clearly  demarcated  geographical  units  in  Europe, 
is  a  country  of  considerable  racial  variability.  Although  the  Mediter- 
ranean race  is  strongly  represented  in  it,  Italy  belongs  only  partially  to 
the  Mediterranean  world,  for  much  of  it  is  more  typically  Alpine  racial 
territory.  Unfortunately,  it  is  impossible  to  trace  the  early  prehistory  of 
the  Alpines  in  Italy,  since  our  knowledge  of  the  Palaeolithic  and  Mesolithic 
periods  there  is  still  obscure.  The  primary  racial  impulse  of  the  early 
Neolithic,  however,  is  known.  This  was  the  immigration  of  small  Mediter- 
raneans in  great  numbers,  coming  largely  if  not  entirely  by  sea;  these  first 
food-producers  were  followed  by  more  competent  navigators,  Atlanto- 
Mediterraneans,  who  settled  chiefly  in  the  north  and  in  the  islands,  and 
Binaries  from  the  eastern  Mediterranean  in  search  of  metal.  Some  of  these 
Binaries  penetrated  the  Alpine  Valleys  while  others  settled  in  the  Po 
Valley  and  in  central  Italy.  The  movement  of  highly  cultured  peoples 
from  the  east  into  Italy  continued  into  historic  times,  and  included  the 
settlement  of  the  Etruscans  in  Tuscany,  and  of  the  Greeks  in  Sicily  and  in 
the  southern  end  of  the  peninsula. 

As  early  as  the  Bronze  Age  there  were,  however,  counter-movements 
from  the  north,  including  the  invasions  of  the  early  Italici,  ancestors  of 
Oscans  and  Umbrians,  Latins  and  Faliscans,  and  also  the  arrival  of 
Illyrian  tribes  in  northern  and  eastern  Italy.  Whereas  the  movements  by 
sea  had  brought  in  Mediterraneans  of  different  kinds,  some  short  and  some 
tall,  some  straight-nosed  and  others  beaked  in  a  Near  Eastern  manner,  as 
well  as  Binaries,  the  movements  from  the  north  introduced  Nordics  of  two 
varieties;  the  classic  Hallstatt  type,  and  the  Keltic  Iron  Age  type  which 
was  later  to  form  the  basic  racial  element  among  the  Roman  patricians. 
Further  invasions  from  the  north,  of  Kelts  and  of  Germans,  had  only 
local  influence. 

More  important  perhaps  than  many  of  these  invasions  was  the  effect 
of  the  Roman  industrial  system,  which  relied  on  involuntary  labor,  and 
which  necessitated  the  introduction  of  slaves  of  all  known  races  and 

71  Wacker,  R.,  ZFE,  vol.  44,  1912,  pp.  437-524. 
Weidenrcich,  F.,  BSGA,  vol.  4,  1927-28,  pp.  5-6. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  555 

countries  by  the  thousands.  Although  some  of  these  slaves  were  prevented 
by  ill  usage  and  by  segregation  from  propagating,  the  majority  without 
doubt  reproduced,  and  with  their  emancipation  under  Christianity 
blended  readily  into  the  local  populations.  Other  strangers  who  were  not 
slaves  moved  to  Italy  in  great  numbers;  as  traders,  craftsmen,  soldiers,  and 
visitors  attracted  to  the  center  of  civilization.  Thus  through  her  r61e  as 
mistress  of  the  world  Rome  accumulated  and  assimilated  a  heterogeneous 
population. 

That  this  population  was  by  no  means  purely  or  even  predominantly 
Mediterranean  is  shown  by  the  study  of  the  skulls  of  Pompeiians,72  victims 
of  the  eruption  which  turned  their  city  from  a  metropolis  into  a  museum. 
These  crania,  with  a  mean  cranial  index  of  80,  represent  a  population 
which  had  acquired  a  racial  character  of  its  own  despite  its  mixed  origin, 
and  in  which  the  Alpine  element  was  the  most  important.  The  vaults  are 
of  moderate  size,  as  are  the  faces;  the  mean  nasion-menton  height  of  119 
mm.  is  too  low  to  suggest  a  strong  Dinaric  element,  which  the  mesorrhiny 
typical  of  the  group  also  precludes.  A  series  of  100  modern  crania  from 
Bologna,73  with  a  mean  cranial  index  of  83.5,  is  almost  purely  Alpo- 
Dinaric,  with  the  latter  element  in  a  position  of  prominence.  The  Dinaric 
race  is  common  in  northern,  but  not  in  southern  Italy,  and  this  distinction 
has  been  true  since  the  Bronze  Age. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  physical  anthropology  of  living  Italians  is  based 
largely  upon  the  work  of  Livi,74  who  measured  some  300,000  recruits  of 
the  classes  of  1859-63.  In  using  this  material  it  must  be  remembered  that 
it  is  over  half  a  century  old,  and  that  Livi's  head  measuring  technique  was 
not  in  accordance  with  modern  standards.  Thus  the  Italians  are  without 
doubt  taller  now  than  in  Livi's  day,  and  they  are  from  one  to  two  points 
less  brachycephalic.  Despite  these  corrections,  Livi's  work  is  of  great  value. 
It  has  established  the  main  facts  of  regional  distribution  in  Italy  beyond 
question.  These  are  that  stature  increases  as  one  goes  northward  from 
Sicily  and  the  toe  of  Italy;  that  the  cephalic  index  increases  in  thl*  same 
manner,  as  does  blondism.  In  northern  Italy  the  tallest  men  are  longer 
headed  than  the  mean;  in  southern  Italy  the  shortest  men  are  longer 
headed.  Blondism  is  everywhere  correlated  with  a  relatively  high  cephalic 
index. 

In  other  words,  the  southern  Italians  are  a  blend  for  the  most  part  of 
Alpines  and  small  Mediterraneans,  while  among  the  northern  Italians  the 
nost  important  dolichocephalic  strain  is  the  Atlanta-Mediterranean.  The 

"Nicolucci,  G.,  APA,  vol.  12,  1882,  pp.  143-178. 
Schmidt,  E.,  AFA,  vol.  17,  1888,  pp.  189-227. 

73  Calori,  C.  L.,  MASS,  ser.  2,  vol.  8,  1868,  pp.  205-234. 
Schwerz,  F.,  AFA,  vol.  43,  1917,  pp.  181-195. 

74  Livi,  R.j  Antropometria  Militare. 


556  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

association  of  relatively  great  blondism  with  brachycephaly  merely  in- 
dicates that  both  Alpines  and  Binaries  are  characteristically  mixed  or 
intermediate  in  pigmentation.  The  few  unaltered  Nordics  still  found  in 
northern  Italy  and  in  aristocratic  families  elsewhere  are  far  outnumbered 
by  Atlanto-Mediterraneans. 

The  mean  stature  for  the  recruits  of  1859-63  was  164.5  cm.,  that  for  the 
classes  of  1907-09  was  165.5  cm.75  A  better  figure  for  the  present  would 
probably  be  166  cm.  The  present  provincial  range  would  probably  run 
from  164  cm.  in  the  south,  to  168  cm.  in  Piedmont  and  Veneto,  as  well 
as  in  the  Trentino.  The  mean  cephalic  index  of  Livi's  recruits  was  82.7; 
that  of  the  1907-09  class  80.8.  The  reduction  of  two  index  points  is 
largely  technical,  but  may  be  partly  due  to  stature  increase.  Despite  this 
difference,  the  northern  Italians,  the  Piedmontese  particularly,  are  very 
brachycephalic,  more  so  than  the  Swiss  <jr  Austrians,  and  the  Piedmont 
forms  a  continuation  of  the  southwestern  French  zone  of  Alpine  racial 
concentration. 

Special  studies  of  southern  Italians  and  Sicilians  have  been  made  in 
America,  where  several  millions  of  these  people  live.76  Although  some 
selection  may  have  taken  place  in  the  determination  of  who  should  come 
to  America  and  who  should  stay  at  home,  they  probably  fall  near  enough 
to  the  total  mean  for  present  purposes.  This  group  is  not  short,  but  slightly 
under  medium  in  stature;  the  present  mean  is  about  165  cm.  A  relative 
span  of  102,  and  a  relative  sitting  height  of  53.3,  strongly  indicate  a  short- 
legged,  short-armed,  and  long- bodied  condition,  while  a  mean  weight  of 
150  pounds  is  heavy  for  this  stature  level.  Although  slender,  delicately 
built  Mediterraneans  are  found  among  these  people,  the  great  majority 
are  thick-set,  short-necked,  short-fingered,  broad-handed,  and  heavy- 
torsoed.  They  incline  to  corpulence  in  middle  age,  and  few  of  the  women 
remain  slender  past  the  period  of  child-bearing. 

The  mean  cephalic  index  for  this  group  is  79;  there  is,  however,  a 
great  range,  and  many  are  typical  brachycephals.  The  head  size  stands 
in  accord  with  the  body  bulk;  a  mean  head  length  of  191  mm.,  and  breadth 
of  151  mm.,  indicate  a  larger  vault  than  is  usual  among  Mediterraneans 
of  the  same  stature.  The  facial  breadths  again  exceed  Mediterranean 
figures;  the  minimum  frontal  mean  is  106  mm.,  that  of  the  bizygomatic 

76  Gini,  C.,  CIPP,  ser.  1,  vol.  5,  1934,  pp.  589-607. 

Gini's  figures  cover  exactly  the  same  territory  as  Livi's,  and  do  not  include  recruits 
from  the  provinces  acquired  by  Italy  since  LivFs  day. 

76  Boas,  R,  Materials  for  the  Study  of  Inheritance  in  Man;  ZFE,  vol.  45,  1913,  pp.  615- 
626. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  and  Love,  A.  G.,  Army  Anthropometry. 

Hooton,  E,  A.,  The  American  Criminal. 

Hrdliclca,  A.,  The  Old  Americans. 

Willoughby,  R.  R.,  HB,  vol.  5, 1933,  pp.  690-705. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  557 

140  mm.,  and  of  the  bigonial  108  mm.  These  dimensions  fall  suggestively 
into  the  Alpine  category,  while  at  the  same  time  resembling  those  of 
coastal  groups  from  Portugal.  The  mean  total  face  height  is  121  mm,,  the 
upper  face  height  70  mm.  Facial  and  upper  facial  indices  are  mesopro- 
sopic  and  mesene.  The  nasal  dimensions  (54  mm.  by  36  mm.)  are  moder- 
ately long  and  broad,  the  nasal  index  mean  of  67  leptorrhine,  but  in  a 
Mediterranean  and  Alpine  rather  than  Nordic  or  Dinaric  sense. 

The  skin  color  is  as  a  rule  dark;  over  50  per  cent  of  unexposed  shades 
are  definitely  light  brown  or  olive-colored,  while  the  exposed  skin  often 
tans  to  a  distinctive  reddish-brown.  Ten  per  cent  are  freckled.  About 
30  per  cent  have  black  hair,  and  48  per  cent  dark  brown;  reddish  brown 
shades,  or  dark  to  medium  brown  with  a  reddish  glint,  account  for  somfe 
16  per  cent,  while  the  remaining  6  per  cent  have  light  brown  or  blondish 
colors.  Pure  dark  eyes  are  found  among  44  per  cent  of  those  studied;  mixed 
eyes  among  50  per  cent,  and  pure  light  eyes  among  6  per  cent.  The  high 
ratio  of  reddish  shades  in  the  hair  and  of  mixed  eyes  reflects  the  strong 
Alpine  strain  in  this  population,  as  does  the  large  minority  of  non-brunet 
skin  colors  and  the  presence  of  freckling.  Of  the  mixed  eyes,  the  majority 
are  dark-mixed,  and  green-brown  combinations  are  three  times  as  common 
as  blue-brown  and  gray-brown  put  together. 

The  southern  Italians  depart  from  a  Mediterranean  standard  in  the 
development  of  the  pilous  system;  over  80  per  cent  have  medium  to  heavy 
beards,  and  the  body  hair  is  heavier  than  among  any  other  European 
group  studied.77  The  hair  is  rarely  fine,  usually  coarse  to  medium  in 
texture,  and  is  curly  in  10  per  cent  of  this  group,  while  wavy  forms  are 
usual.  The  forehead  is  of  medium  height  and  slope,  as  a  rule,  and  the 
browridges  medium;  their  typical  development  is  Alpine  rather  than 
Mediterranean.  The  eyebrows  are  usually  heavy,  in  57  per  cent  concur- 
rent. The  nasion  depression  is  medium  to  deep,  the  nasal  root  of  medium 
height,  and  frequently  broad.  The  nasal  bridge  is  usually  quite  high, 
and  broader  than  among  most  other  Europeans;  the  profile  is  variable, 
with  large  concave  as  well  as  convex  categories;  several  types  are  present 
in  this  respect.  The  nasal  tip  is  as  a  rule  thicker  than  the  European  stand- 
ard, and  the  wings  as  often  flaring  as  compressed.  In  35  per  cent  the  tip 
is  depressed.  The  lips  vary  considerably  in  thickness,  but  more  fall  into 
the  thick  category  than  in  most  European  groups;  well  over  a  third  show 
a  visible  degree  of  facial  or  alveolar  prognathism.  The  chin  is  frequently 
prominent,  and  the  gonial  angles  frequently  flaring;  prominent  malars  are 
much  commoner  than  compressed  ones. 

The  southern  Italians,  as  this  survey  will  indicate,  are  a  distinctive 

77  That  is,  in  Hooton's  American  criminal  material,  drawn  directly  from  all  parts  of 
Europe. 


558  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

group  of  people  who  do  not  fall  into  any  one  recognized  racial  category. 
Besides  conventional  Mediterraneans  and  Alpines  there  are  two  special 
types  which  are  particularly  common,  and  will  be  familiar  to  anyone 
living  in  Italian  sections  of  the  United  States,  as  well  as  to  anyone  who  has 
visited  southern  Italy.  These  are:  (1)  a  coarse  Mediterranean,  short- 
statured,  thick-limbed,  mesocephalic,  possessing  a  narrow  forehead,  wide 
malars,  heavy  browridges,  a  short,  broad,  straight  or  lightly  concave  nose 
with  upturned  tip,  a  strong  jaw,  and  some  prognathism;  (2)  a  local 
approximation  to  an  Armenoid,  short-statured,  especially  thick-set  and 
short-necked,  with  a  flattened  occiput,  dome-shaped  lateral  vault  profile, 
heavy  browridges,  a  high-rooted,  high-bridged,  thick-tipped  and  depressed- 
tipped  nose,  and  an  especially  prominent  jaw. 

The  coarse  Mediterranean  mesocephal  has  counterparts  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  as  well  as  North  Africa,  and  goes  back  at  least  to  the  time  of  the 
shell-heap  burials  of  Muge.  It  seems,  however,  especially  prevalent  among 
South  Italians.  The  local  Armenoid  may  be  partly  descended  from  Near 
Easterners  brought  to  central  and  southern  Italy  in  imperial  times,  but 
it  is  more  likely  that  it  is  to  a  greater  extent  a  local  combination  of  Alpine 
with  various  Mediterranean  elements,  through  the  mechanism  of  differ- 
ential inheritance. 

Observational  data  on  the  population  of  the  neighborhood  of  Bologna  78 
permits,  by  contrasts  to  the  foregoing,  a  study  in  some  detail  of  a  North 
Italian  population,  one  with  a  mean  stature  of  about  168  cm.  and  a  mean 
cephalic  index  of  about  83  or  84.  The  skin  color  of  the  face  is  about 
equally  divided  between  light  brown  and  pinkish-white;  the  hair  is  black 
in  25  per  cent,  dark  brown  in  60  per  cent,  and  light  brown  to  blond  in  the 
rest  of  cases.  Twenty-five  per  cent  of  eyes  are  dark  brown,  38  per  cent 
light  brown  or  dark-mixed,  and  27  per  cent  light-mixed  or  light.  The 
pigmentation  is  lighter  than  in  southern  Italy,  but  still  prevailingly  brunet. 
There  is  a  slight  linkage  between  the  lightest  hair  and  eye  colors  and 
dolichocephaly,  indicating  that  a  Nordic  type  has  preserved  its  identity 
as  a  minor  element  here. 

The  development  of  the  pilous  system  is  less  marked  here  than  in  the 
south;  body  and  beard  hair  are  of  normal  European  thickness ;  furthermore, 
only  14  per  cent  have  concurrent  eyebrows.  These  actually  go  more  with 
the  dolichocephals  than  with  the  brachycephals.  The  noses  are  convex 
in  32  per  cent,  straight  in  58  per  cent,  and  concave  in  8  per  cent  of  the 
group;  convex  noses  are  slightly  more  frequent  among  the  long  heads. 
Nasal  tip  thickness  is  usually  medium,  and  lips  are  frequently  thin.  The 
thin  nose  and  thin  lip  combination,  which  takes  the  form  of  a  positive 
correlation,  is  again  linked  with  dolichocephaly. 

78  Frasetto,  F.,  Note  Antropologiche  Sulla  Popolazione  del  Bolognese. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  559 

In  the  population  of  the  Bolognese  there  is  a  strong  prevalence  of  Alpine 
and  Dinaric  types,  especially  the  former,  but  approximately  one- third  of 
the  population  is  long-headed  or  nearly  so.  Among  this  third,  Nordics  are 
not  uncommon,  but  the  most  important  element  is  a  tall,  slender,  brunet, 
long-faced  type,  with  a  thin,  straight  or  convex  nose,  and  thin  lips.  It  is 
a  variant  of  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean,  with  some  of  the  Cappadocian 
facial  features  brought  from  western  Asia  by  early  navigators,  including 
the  Etruscans.  Associated  with  this  type  is  a  frequent  obliquity  of  the 
eye  slits,  which  are  very  long;  highly  arched  eyebrows  and  full  malars. 
The  beauty  of  Bolognese  women  is  proverbial,  and  the  type  described 
above  is  to  a  certain  extent  responsible  for  this  reputation.  It  is  com- 
mon elsewhere  in  northern  Italy  as  well,  and  was  often  portrayed 
by  Renaissance  painters.  This  type  is  also  found  as  a  minor  element 
in  the  Tyrol,  where  it  seems  to  form  a  basic  part  of  the  Dinaric  racial 
complex. 

No  country  in  Europe  in  which  one  language  and  one  cultural  tradition 
prevail  shows  a  greater  diversity  of  race  between  its  southern  and  its 
northern  extremities  than  does  Italy.  The  binding  element  which  is  com- 
mon to  all  sections  is  the  Alpihe,  which  has  reemerged  from  obscure  be- 
ginnings through  a  superstructure  composed  of  Dinaric,  Nordic,  and 
various  kinds  of  Mediterranean  accretions.  Italy  stands  on  the  fence 
between  the  Alpine  and  Mediterranean  worlds. 

(8)   THE   LIVING  SLAVS 

(a)  Czechs  and  Wends 

Owing  to  the  geographical  distribution  of  living  Slavic-speaking  peoples, 
it  seems  advisable  to  divide  them  into  four  groups,  to  be  treated  separately 
and,  as  nearly  as  possible,  seriatim.  These  are  the  central  and  western 
Slavs,  including  the  Czechs,  Slovaks,  and  Wends;  the  northern  and  eastern 
Slavs,  from  the  Poles  across  Russia  to  Siberia;  the  southern  Slavs,  living 
almost  entirely  in  Jugoslavia,  and  the  Bulgars,  who  will  be  treated  with 
other  peoples  of  the  Balkans.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the  Slavs,  the  last  of 
the  great  Indo-European-speaking  peoples  to  expand,  were,  like  all  of  the 
others  who  had  preceded  them,  primarily  Nordic  in  race.  Like  all  of  the 
others  they  were  destined  to  lose  in  varying  degrees  this  original  racial 
identification. 

The  republic  of  Czechoslovakia,  with  its  pre-Munich  population  of 
some  15,000,000  was,  until  the  events  of  October,  1938,  one  of  the  most 
ethnically  varied  of  the  post-war  nations  of  central  and  eastern  Europe. 
Only  50  per  cent  of  its  population  was  Czechish,  and  the  other  half  was 
composed  as  follows:  Germans,  23  per  cent;  Slovaks,  16  per  cent;  Mag- 
yars, 5  per  cent;  Ruthenians,  4  per  cent;  and  Jews  and  all  others,  the 


560  THE  RAGES   OF  EUROPE 

remainder.79  The  Czechs  themselves  are  confined  largely  to  Bohemia  and 
Moravia.  They  are  descendants  of  the  early  Slavic  immigrants  who 
pushed  aside  or  absorbed  earlier  Keltic  and  Germanic  settlers,  and  who, 
in  the  shelter  of  their  mountain-hemmed  plain,  have  resisted  the  Ger- 
manic thrust  to  the  east,  which  began  in  the  twelfth  century  and  which 
since  has  almost  surrounded  them.  Owing  to  this  Germanic  contact  and 
to  their  isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  Slavic  world,  the  Czechs  are  cul- 
turally western  European,  at  least  in  outward  respects,  and  have  developed 
into  a  highly  industrialized  modern  nation. 

The  pre-Christian  Slavic  grave  material  from  Bohemia  is  almost 
entirely  dolichocephalic.  Although  the  principal  racial  type  represented 
is  Nordic,  the  early  Bohemians,  like  the  rest  of  the  Slavs,  included  a 
minority  of  broad-nosed,  low-or bitted  individuals.  Some  of  their  crania, 
furthermore,  were  unusually  large  and  heavy.80  Very  few  centuries  passed, 
however,  before  the  racial  character  of  the  Christianized  Bohemians  began 
to  undergo  a  radical  change.81  Only  in  the  sixth  century  A.D.  was  the 
Slavic  settlement  of  Bohemia  complete;  by  the  ninth  the  mean  cranial 
index  of  the  Czechs  had  risen  from  75  or  76  to  77;  by  the  eleventh  or 
twelfth  century  it  had  reached  78.  In  the  early  sixteenth  century  it  had 
reached  only  80  or  81,  but  after  the  great  plague  of  1520  it  began  to  climb 
rapidly,  so  that  in  the  seventeenth  century  it  had  risen  to  83.5,  and  in  the 
eighteenth  to  85.  This  complete  alteration  of  head  form  in  Bohemia  is 
one  of  the  most  marked  and  best-documented  phenomena  of  its  kind  in 
the  racial  history  of  the  world.  Most  of  it  happened  in  modern  times,  under 
the  eyes  of  writers  and  historians,  but  it  remained  virtually  if  not  entirely 
unnoticed  until  the  central  European  craniologists,  well  within  the  last 
fifty  years,  brought  it  to  light.  As  in  southern  Germany,  the  change  in- 
volved not  merely  the  shape  of  the  cranial  vault,  but  facial  and  nasal 
measurements  as  well.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  same  causes 
and  the  same  mechanisms  operated  in  both  regions. 

The  living  Czechs  are,  in  a  metrical  sense,  typically  Alpine,  and  the 
Alpine  race  is,  by  the  observation  of  individuals,  seen  to  be  the  commonest 

79  Census  of  1930.  It  is  too  soon  after  the  Peace  of  Munich  to  obtain  accurate  figures 
on  the  population  components  of  what  remains. 

80  See  Chapter  VI,  section  7,  for  an  exposition  of  early  Slavic  racial  history, 
si  Czekanowski,  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  10,  1932,  pp.  200-207. 

Hellich,  B.,  Praehistoricke  lebky  v  &chfoh  ze  Sb'irky  Musea  Krdlovstvi  fieskeho. 

Maty,  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  3,  1925,  pp.  156-176. 

Matiegka,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  23,  1893,  pp.  93-94;  CrarAa  Bohemica;  AnthPr,  vol.  2, 
1924,  pp.  183-210;  vol.  4,  1926,  pp.  163-219;  RCA,  vol.  2,  5,  #42,  1896;  also  review  in 
AFA,  vol.  25,  1898,  pp.  150-154. 

Niederle,  L.,  MAGW,  vol.  22,  1897,  pp.  82-85. 

Pexiederova,  M.  R.,  AnthPr,  vol.  9,  1931,  pp.  276-319. 

Szombathy,  J.,  MAGW,  vol.  52,  1922,  p.  20. 


MAP ,  14 

LANGUAGES  OF  EAST-CENTRAL  EUROPE  AND  OF  THE  BALKANS 

This  map  illustrates  in  a  general  way  the  distribution  of  linguistic  groups  in  the  most 
complex  section  of  Europe  in  the  linguistic  sense.  The  distribution  of  Germans,  Poles, 
Rumanians  or  Vlachs,  Turks,  etc.  outside  their  national  boundaries  is  in  each  case 
schematic;  owing  to  the  facts  that  villages  are  interspersed,  and  that  families  within 
villages  scattered,  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  map  of  this  size  even  approximately  accu- 
rate without  color.  An  added  difficulty  is  that  the  sources  from  which  it  has  been  com- 
piled differ  greatly,  and  it  is  impossible  in  many  areas  to  obtain  reliable  information. 
For  the  Dobruja  district  of  Rumania,  where  the  racial  and  linguistic  medley  is  more 
confusing  than  elsewhere,  no  attempt  has  been  made  at  stippling.  The  so-called  Tatar 
district  farther  north  is  also  extremely  varied  and  has  also  been  left  white. 


561 


562  THE  RAGES   OF  EUROPE 

single  type  among  them.82  They  are  little  different  in  bodily  build  and  in 
head  and  face  dimensions  from  Bavarians.  The  mean  stature  of  the  Czechs 
is  approximately  167  cm.;  the  mean  cephalic  index  about  84.  The  com- 
monest hair  color  is  a  medium  brown,  which  includes  some  47  per  cent  of 
the  population;  only  17  per  cent  have  dark  brown  hair,  and  black  hair  is 
exceptional.  Of  the  light  brown  and  blond  shades,  the  golden  is  commoner 
than  the  ashen.  Some  38  per  cent  of  the  eyes  are  listed  as  brown,  but 
light  brown  is  commoner  than  dark  brown;  pure  blue  eyes  are  found 
among  18  per  cent,  and  the  rest  are  mostly  light-mixed.  The  Czechs  are 
as  fair  as  most  southern  Germans.  While  Alpines  and  Norics  are  common- 
est in  Bohemia,  there  is  a  strong  concentration  of  Binaries  in  Moravia, 
especially  among  the  miners,  who  seem  to  form  a  special  group  with  both 
racial  and  occupational  peculiarities. 

The  snub-nosed,  broad-faced,  blond  type  commonly  associated  with 
Slavs  is  occasionally  seen  among  Czechs,  but  is  numerically  rare.  It  seems 
to  be  commoner  among  Slovaks,  although  the  Slovak-speaking  population 
of  Moravian  Wallachia,  in  central  Czechoslovakia,  being  composed  of 
the  Slavicized  descendants  of  Rumanian  Vlach  colonists,  is  partly  Dinaric.83 
As  far  as  one  can  tell,  the  Slovaks  in  general  seem  to  be  shorter  than  the 
Czechs,  and  smaller-headed,  while  equally  brachy cephalic.  Their  relation- 
ship seems  to  lie  with  the  eastern  Slavic  world  rather  than  with  Bohemia. 

Before  turning  to  Poland,  let  us  study  for  a  moment  the  Slavic  island  of 
Wends  who  live  in  the  Spreewald  district  of  Mecklenburg.84  In  the  period 
between  the  eighth  to  twelfth  centuries,  at  the  time  of  the  maximum 
Slavic  expansion  westward,  and  before  the  Germanic  counter-thrust 
eastward,  the  Wends  occupied  much  of  present-day  Mecklenburg.  They 
were  a  long-headed  people,  with  a  mean  cranial  index  of  76.6,  mostly 
Nordic,  but  rather  short-faced  and  mesorrhine.  They  resembled  the 
contemporary  Slavs  in  Bohemia,  West  Prussia,  and  Pomerania,  and  in 
subsequent  centuries  underwent  a  parallel  brachycephalization.  The 
modern  Wends,  inhabiting  but  a  fraction  of  their  former  territory,  have 
now  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  84,  and  a  stature  of  167  cm.  They  are  little 

82  Ehrich,  R.  B.,  unpublished  measurements  on  Bohemians  and  Moravians. 
Matiegka,  J.,  Cl»  vol.  1,  1891,  pp.  429-437,  533-540.    See  MAGW,  vol.  22,  1892, 

"Sitzungsberichte,"  pp.  18-82. 

Rehak,  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  1,  1923,  pp.  284-297. 
Schneider,  L.,  MAGW,  vol.  27,  1897,  pp.  45-46. 
Suk,  V.,  SPFM,  #124,  1933. 
Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  Suppl.  2,  1889. 
Willoughby,  R.  R.,  HB,  vol.  5,  1933,  pp.  690-705. 

83  Suk,  V.,  and  Augusta,  K.,  SPFM,  #175,  1933. 

84  Asmus,  R.,  AFA,  vol.  27,  1902,  pp.  1-36. 

Merkenschlager,  F.,  %ur  Volks  und  Rassenkunde  des  Sprecwaldes.    See  V.  Lebzelter's  re- 
view in  MAGW,  vol.  44,  1934,  p.  178. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  563 

different  from  the  surrounding  German-speaking  population.  Influences 
which  have  affected  them  have  affected  all  in  their  neighborhood;  the 
Wendish  problem  is  no  different  from  that  of  the  rest  of  eastern  Germany. 

(9)   THE   LIVING   SLAVS    (Continued) 

(b)  Poland  and  Russia 

The  study  of  the  living  Slavic-speaking  peoples  of  Poland  and  Russia 
should,  at  this  point,  be  a  comparatively  simple  matter,  since  we  have 
already  reviewed  early  Slavic  history  (Chapter  VI,  section  7),  and  have 
studied  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  Finno-Ugrian  peoples,  whom  the 
Slavs,  in  their  eastward  expansion,  have  largely  absorbed,  as  well  as  that 
of  the  near  relatives  of  the  Slavs,  the  Baits.  Although  Poland  and  Russia 
between  them  occupy  approximately  half  the  land  area  of  the  continent 
of  Europe,  it  would  be  difficult  to  deal  with  their  Slavic-speaking  popula- 
tions as  two  units  divided  by  political  boundaries,  since  between  the  two 
there  lies  no  natural  frontier,  geographic,  linguistic,  or  racial. 

Poland,  although  largely  Slavic,  is  a  nation  without  ethnic  or  linguistic 
unity.  The  Poles  themselves,  who  are  the  most  numerous  single  group, 
occupy  most  of  the  western  half  of  the  country,  interspersed  by  hundreds 
of  small  German  islands;  the  eastern  half  is  divided  between  Ukrainians 
in  the  southern  quadrant  and  White  Russians  in  the  northern,  with 
thousands  of  Lithuanians  living  in  the  region  of  Vilna.  In  the  Ukrainian 
section  the  Poles  themselves  are  scattered  in  small  communities  as  a 
minority  population.  (See  Map  14.)  Poland,  and  especially  Galicia,  is 
the  home  of  the  largest  body  of  Jews  in  Europe;  these  Jews  will  be  treated 
in  a  separate  section  later. 

From  the  geographical  standpoint,  Poland  resembles  Germany.  The 
bulk  of  the  country  is  a  vast,  low  plain,  for  the  most  part  exceptionally 
fertile,  separated  from  the  Baltic  everywhere  except  at  the  Polish  Corridor 
by  East  Prussia  and  Lithuania.  Toward  the  south  the  land  gradually 
rises,  until  the  crest  of  the  Carpathians  forms  a  natural  border,  comparable 
to  the  Alps  farther  west.  Thus,  like  Germany,  Poland  is  blocked  from  the 
south  but  open  to  the  north  and  to  either  side.  From  West  Prussia  to 
Poland  to  Russia  is  a  natural  progression,  in  which  the  racial  transition  is 
as  gradual  as  the  geographical.  But  from  the  north  to  the  south  of  Poland 
the  change  is  more  rapid  and  more  significant,  since,  while  the  plain  is 
the  home  of  typical  Poles  in  the  racial  sense,  the  Carpathians  hold  an 
Alpine-Dinaric  population  comparable  to  that  of  southern  Germany. 
This  latter  must  derive  part,  at  least,  of  its  ancestry  from  the  Bell  Beaker 
people  who  wandered  into  the  mountains  in  search  of  minerals,  far  to  the 
north  and  east  of  most  of  their  fellows. 

The  plain  of  Poland  was  a  great  center  for  the  Corded  people,  who 


564  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

hindered  the  expansion  of  the  earlier  agriculturalists,  and  whose  physical 
type  was  predominant  there  until  the  adoption  of  cremation.  When  burial 
had  once  more  become  fashionable,  Poland  was  largely  a  Nordic  country, 
as  it  remained  until  after  the  rise  and  spread  of  the  Slavs,  when  the  old 
Danubian  peasant  stock  broke  through  its  Corded  and  Nordic  chrysalis 
and  reemerged.85  Throughout  its  history,  however,  Poland  has  contained 
minor  incidences  of  a  flat-faced  brachycephalic  racial  type,  the  Ladogan, 
whose  home  lay  in  the  forests  and  swamps  to  the  north,  and  which  was 
initially  associated  with  the  Kammkeramik  hunting  and  fishing  culture. 
In  the  living  population  of  Poland,  this  element  has  assumed  a  position  of 
considerable,  if  secondary,  importance. 

No  nation  in  Europe  has  shown  greater  activity  in  studying  the  physical 
anthropology  of  its  people  than  has  Poland;  detailed  surveys  of  many 
thousands  give  accurate  data  on  every  province,  including  every  village 
in  the  Republic.  As  in  parts  of  Germany  and  of  Russia,  we  are  embarrassed 
with  a  plethora  of  information,  to  all  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  do  justice. 
Our  method  will  be  to  review  the  general  surveys,  and  then  to  study  some 
of  the  regional  populations,  including  White  Russians,  Ukrainians,  and 
Carpathian  Mountaineers,  which  overlap  the  Polish  frontiers. 

The  mean  stature  for  Poland  is  about  165-166  cm.,86  medium  for 
Europeans,  and  close  to  that  of  Lithuanians  and  Carelian  Finns.  It  is 
tallest  (166-167  cm.)  in  the  west,  in  the  provinces  of  Poznan  and  Pomorz, 
in  the  region  of  maximum  German  settlement,  including  the  famous 
Polish  Corridor;  this  relatively  tall  stature  may  not,  however,  be  entirely 
due  to  German  influence,  since  the  Polish  tribes  who  settled  there  were  as 
tall  as  that  in  the  beginning.  Shortest  statures  (164-165  cm.),  are  found 
especially  in  the  southeast,  in  Ukrainian  territory;  in  fact,  nearest  the 
supposed  Slavic  home-land,  and  in  Lodz  in  central  Poland. 

The  mean  weight  for  Polish  recruits  is  about  140  Ibs.,  moderately 
heavy  for  their  age  and  stature.  The  heaviest  live  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  in  White  Russian  and  Ukrainian  regions.  The  bodily  proportions 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Poland  are  similar  to  those  of  Lithuanians;  the  relative 
span  of  105  or  more,  and  the  relative  sitting  height  of  53,  indicate  long 
arms  and  long  bodies  in  relationship  to  leg  length.  Both  shoulders  and 

86  It  should  be  stated  at  the  start  that  Czekanowski's  0  or  pre-Slavic  type  is  to  be  iden- 
tified with  our  Neo-Danubian.  Czekanowski  correctly  considers  this  to  be  the  basic  ra- 
cial element  in  Poland,  and  to  have  entered  the  eastern  European  plains  in  Neolithic 
times.  Czekanowski,  J.,  Polish  Encyclopedia,  vol.  2,  pp.  42-59,  Geneva,  1921. 

w  Mydlarski,  J.,  Kosmos,  vol.  50,  #2-3,  1925. 

Schwidetsky,  I.,  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  76-83,  136-204,  289-314.  Schwidetsky's 
work  contains  an  excellent  survey  of  the  subject  of  Polish  anthropology,  especially  val- 
uable for  those  who  cannot  read  Polish. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  AFA,  vol.  28,  1903,  pp.  399-402. 

Zakrzewski,  A.,  ZWAK,  vol.  15,  Part  2,  pp.  1-39. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  565* 

hips  are,  as  a  rule,  broad.  The  western  Poles  show  less  of  these  lateral 
features  than  do  the  others,87  Similarly,  the  northwestern  Poles  are  the 
flattest  chested,  the  Ukrainians  the  least  so.88 

Social  differences  in  these  characters  are  greater  than  regional  differ- 
ences, however;  among  the  upper  classes  the  stature  rises  to  over  170  cm., 
and  the  relative  span  falls  to  the  Nordic  level  of  102-103.  Selection,  which 
is  responsible  for  this  differentiation,  has  also  played  a  great  part  in  the 
migration  of  Poles  to  America;  Polish  immigrants  in  the  United  States 
have  a  mean  stature  of  170  cm.,  and  a  relative  span  of  103.89  Since  social 
and  economic  stimuli  can  so  readily  segregate  different  size  and  bodily 
form  elements  in  the  Polish  population,  it  is  not  surprising  that  submerged 
racial  types  have  reappeared  during  the  course  of  centuries. 

The  cephalic  index  goes  down  to  means  of  80  and  81  in  various  sections 
of  North  and  West  Poland,  and  up  to  85  in  Galicia  and  Ruthenia.  The 
common  level  for  the  nation  is  between  82  and  83.  A  rise  of  about  5 
index  points  has  taken  place  since  the  Slavic  settlement,  as  we  have  also 
observed  in  Bohemia;  but  the  brachycephalizing  agents  in  the  two  countries 
are  not  entirely  the  same.90 

The  mean  head  lengths  of  Poles  are  about  186  mm.,  and  do  not  attain 
or  surpass  190  mm,  regionally  except  in  selected  upper  class  series; 91  the 
inhabitants  of  the  northern  and  western  districts  of  Poland  are  absolutely 
longer  headed  than  those  of  the  south  and  east.  The  breadth  means  range 
from  154  to  157  mm.,  with  a  national  mean  of  about  155.5  mm.;  the 

87  Baranowska-Malewska,  Z.,  MAAE,  vol.  14,  1914,  pp.  86-109. 
Maciesza,  A.,  ANAW,  vol.  3,  1923,  #1. 

Mydlarski,  Kosmos,  1925. 

Olechnowicz,  W.,  ZWAK,  vol.  17,  1893,  pp.  1-40;  vol.  18,  1895,  pp.  29-46;  MAAE, 
vol.  2,  1897,  pp.  1-31. 

Rosinski,  B.,  Kosmos,  vol.  48,  1923,  pp.  302-560. 

Rutkowski,  L.,  MAAE,  vol.  8,  1904,  pp.  (3)-(68),  vol.  13,  1914,  pp.  64-95. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  TVMA,  vol.  2,  1897,  pp.  259-298.  Also  R€sum6  in  AFA, 
vol.  26,  1899,  pp.  203-205. 

Wrzosek,  A.,  and  Wrzoskowa,  M.,  MAAE,  vol.  14,  1914,  pp.  29-85. 

Zejmo-Zejmis,  S.,  PAn,  vol.  4,  1929-30,  pp.  105-108. 

88  Mydlarski,  Kosmos,  1925. 

89  Davenport,  G.,  and  Love,  A  ,  Army  Anthropometry, 
HrdlKka,  A.,  The  Old  Americans. 

Rosinski,  B,,  PAn,  vol.  8,  1934,  pp.  42-44. 

90  Frankowska,  M.  z  R.,  Czaszki  z  Lwowskiej  Katedry  Lacinskiej  z  XVII  i  XVIII  w.; 
Kosmos,  vol.  50,  1925,  pp.  649-736. 

Haika,  S.,  PAn,  vol.  9,  1935,  pp.  47-54,  139. 

Maciesza,  A.,  ACIA,  33me  sess.,  Amsterdam,  1927,  pp.  227-231. 

Olechnowicz,  W.,  MAAE,  vol.  3,  1898,  pp.  3-21. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  MAAE,  vol.  7,  1904,  pp.  3-43;  vol.  9,  1907,  pp.  87-138. 

Wrzosek,  A.,  PAn,  vol.  8,  1934,  pp.  56-60. 

«  Rutkowski,  L.,  MAAE,  1904,  1914. 

Olechnowicz,  MAAE,  1895. 


566     .  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

broadest  are  in  the  south,  especially  in  Galicia.  The  head  size  of  the  Poles, 
as  of  the  Ukrainians  and  White  Russians,  is  too  small  to  be  derived  in  any 
considerable  measure  from  an  unreduced  Briinn  or  Borreby  source;  it  is 
also  too  small  for  living  Nordic  populations,  and  is  about  equal  to  that  of 
the  Danubian  agriculturalists,  and  of  the  Alpines  and  Binaries.  It  is  at 
the  same  time  comparable  to  that  of  non-Baltic  Finns,  and  of  most 
Lithuanians. 

The  facial  breadths,  minimum  frontal,  bizygomatic,  and  bigonial,  are 
approximately  108  mm.,  143  mm.,  and  110  mm.;  too  wide  for  Nordics  or 
for  pure  Danubian  survivors,  and  necessitating  Alpine,  Dinaric,  or  Lado- 
gan  influences,  or  all  three.  The  menton-nasion  face  height,  with  means 
as  low  as  118—120  mm.  in  central  and  eastern  Poland,  rises  to  the  full 
Dinaric  height  of  127  mm.  in  Galicia  and  Ruthenia.  Except  for  these 
mountainous  southern  regions,  the  facial  index  is  uniformly  eury-  to 
mesoprosopic.  The  noses  are  leptorrhine  in  most  of  Poland  but  approach 
mesorrhiny  in  the  south  and  east;  there  is  a  progression  from  means  of 
about  63  in  the  Polish  Corridor  and  Poznan  to  68-70  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  country. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  to  show  that  all  but  the  southern  section  of 
Poland,  along  the  Carpathian  foothills,  falls  within  the  blondest  pigment 
area  of  Europe.92  The  skin  is  almost  uniformly  light,  except  in  the  south; 
the  commonest  hair  colors  are  medium  to  dark  brown,  and  a  dark  ash- 
blond.  The  incidence  of  truly  fair  hair  is  as  great  here  as  in  Scandinavia, 
while  the  eyes  are  predominantly  light-mixed,  with  gray  shades  common. 
Brown  eyes  seldom  exceed  10  per  cent  except  in  the  very  southern  moun- 
tain sections.  With  these  same  exceptions,  Poland  is  too  blond  a  country 
for  Alpines  or  Dinarics  to  be  present  in  any  numbers.  The  pigmentation  of 
the  population,  by  and  large,  is  Nordic  in  shades  and  in  intensity;  the 
virtual  absence  of  rufosity  argues  against  the  presence  of  many  Palaeolithic 
survivors  of  the  types  found  in  western  Europe. 

Although  complete  sets  of  morphological  observations  on  Poles  are  not 
common,  there  is  an  abundance  of  data  on  the  form  of  the  nose;  the  profile 
is  most  commonly  straight,  with  a  large  concave  minority,  and  few  in  the 
convex  category.  The  nasal  root  is  usually  medium  in  breadth,  the  wings 
medium  or  slightly  flaring;  the  tip  is  either  horizontal  or  inclined  upward, 
and,  in  a  large  minority  of  cases,  snubbed  in  a  manner  highly  suggestive 
of  Lapps  and  eastern  Finns.  Beard  and  body  hair  growth  are  often  on  the 

92  See  Map  8,  Chapter  VIII,  pp.  270-271. 

Sources  are  those  already  listed  and : 

Bochenek,  A.,  MAAE,  vol.  7,  1904,  pp.  (101)-(113);  vol.  8,  1906,  pp.  (69)-(76). 

Bryk,  J.,  Kosmos,  vol.  55,  1930,  Zesz.  I-II. 

Dershinsky,  J.  E.,  AFA,  vol.  32,  1906,  pp.  234-237. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  MAAE,  vol.  13,  1914,  pp.  3-63. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  567 

light  side  of  the  European  norm,  which  fact  again  precludes  a  strong 
Alpine  increment. 

The  facial  features  which  typify  the  Polish  peasantry  are  quite  different, 
as  a  rule,  from  those  found  among  the  nobility  and  the  upper  classes  in 
general.  The  noblemen  have  less  blond  and  less  really  dark  hair;  fewer 
dark  eyes,  and  fewer  instances  of  brunet  skin  color,  than  the  peasants; 
their  noses,  however,  present  their  greatest  distinction;  these  are  not  only 
longer  and  narrower,  but  also  frequently  convex  in  profile,  with  concave 
forms  reduced  to  a  minimum.  Old  Corded  and  Nordic  tendencies  segre- 
gate themselves,  at  least  in  stature,  bodily  build,  pigmentation,  and  facial 
features,  in  this  superordinate  class,  as  do  Danubian  and  Ladogan  tenden- 
cies among  the  peasantry. 

Contemporary  Polish  anthropologists  have  studied  the  population  of 
their  country  by  dividing  it  into  types,  and  plotting  the  proportions  of 
these  types  by  regions.93  These  types  include  what  would  in  our  present 
terminology  be  Nordic,  Neo-Danubian,  Lappish,  Ladogan,  Alpine,  and 
Dinaric,  as  well  as  Armenoid,  and  both  tall  and  short  Mediterraneans.  The 
last  three,  however,  are  admittedly  much  in  the  minority,  if  they  are  present 
at  all.  The  Nordic  element  is  strongest  in  the  Polish  Corridor,  where  East 
Baltic  factors,  unusual  in  Poland  in  our  definition  of  the  term,94  are  also 
found.96  The  Nordic  element  is  also  strongest  on  the  German  border,  and 
elsewhere  it  is  concentrated  along  main  water  courses,  the  highroads  of  mi- 
gration in  pre-Slavic  Gothic  times,  as  well  as  later.  Its  identity  with  a  social 
and  economic  upper  level,  however,  is  probably  stronger  than  its  geograph- 
ical differentiation.  The  Neo-Danubian  element,  which  has  probably 
gained  in  stature  through  its  Nordic  interlude,  is  as  blond  as  the  Nordic,  on 
the  whole,  and  this  fact  leads  one  to  the  conclusion  that  the  pre-Corded 
peasants  of  eastern  Europe,  as  of  the  Danube  Valley,  were  already  partly 
blond.  The  combination  of  ash-blond  hair  with  gray-mixed  eyes  seems 
to  be  a  Neo-Danubian  specialty. 

Members  of  the  early  forest  types  with  their  incipiently  mongoloid  facial 
features  have  seeped  in  everywhere  north  of  the  Carpathians,  but  more 
in  the  east  than  in  the  west.  They  too  were  probably  partly  blond  from 
the  beginning,  but  not  as  blond  as  the  Danubians  with  whom  they  have 
become  thoroughly  blended.  Dinarics,  commonest  in  the  Carpathians, 
are  found  in  solution  throughout  Poland,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
Alpines.  The  rare  brunet  Mediterraneans  noted  by  the  Polish  authors 

»3  Bryk,  J.,  Kosmos,  vol.  55,  1930,  Zesz.  I-IL 
Czekanowski,  J.,  Polish  Encyclopedia,  1921. 

Mydlarski,  J.,  ATNL,  vol.  3,  1924,  78  pp.  R6sume  by  Sailer,  K.,  in  AAnz,  vol.  2, 
1925,  pp.  26-27. 

M  See  Chapter  IX,  section  12,  p.  292. 
*6  Modrezewski,  L.  T.,  PAn,  vol.  8,  1934,  pp.  25-28. 


568  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

are  probably  related  to  the  commoner  brunet  long  heads  of  southern  Rus- 
sia, of  Bulgaria,  and  of  the  Caucasus,  with  whom  we  shall  deal  later. 

The  territory  occupied  by  the  White  Russians  is  divided  between  north- 
western Poland  and  the  U.S.S.R.,  with  more  than  half  lying  on  the  Russian 
side.  Here  it  includes  not  only  the  White  Russian  S.  S.  Republic,  but 
also  adjoining  districts  in  the  Ukraine,  in  Smolensk,  and  to  the  north. 
The  White  Russians  have  as  their  neighbors  Great  Russians,  Ukrainians, 
Letts,  Lithuanians,  and  Poles;  although  they  are  Slavic  in  speech  and  in 
tradition,  they  are  physically  almost  identical  with  the  Lithuanians.96 
They  are  slightly  smaller  headed  than  the  Lithuanians,  slightly  wider  in 
the  distance  between  the  eyes,  and  slightly  less  leptorrhine;  their  noses  are 
a  little  more  often  concave  in  profile,  up-tilted,  and  snubbed;  their  eye 
openings  are  more  frequently  narrow,  their  lips  a  little  thicker,  and  their 
body  and  beard  hair  considerably  less  abundant.  Their  skins  are  a  little 
darker,  their  hair  and  eyes  less  frequently  blond.  In  hair  color,  the  Fischer 
numbers  4,  5,  8,  and  26  are  the  commonest,  indicating  a  prevalence  of 
dark  to  medium  brown  and  dark  ash-blond  hair.  In  eye  color,  the  White 
Russians  have  less  than  20  per  cent  pure  light,  and  no  more  than  10  per 
cent  pure  brown.  The  majority  are  light-mixed,  as  with  most  Slavs  and 
Baits. 

The  identity  or  near  identity  of  the  White  Russians  with  the  Lithuanians 
makes  it  very  possible  that  the  former  were  at  one  time  Baits  who  suc- 
cumbed to  Slavic  influences,  just  as  the  East  Prussians  were  Germanicized 
Baits.  But  the  fact  is  that  all  of  these  people,  Baits  who  have  been  sub- 
jected to  a  minimum  of  local  influences  on  the  Baltic  shore,  and  Slavs 
who  have  not  been  Germanicized,  Dinaricized,  or  influenced  by  Finns, 
are  so  much  alike  that  it  is  dangerous  to  postulate  specific  relationships. 
The  White  Russians,  with  a  mean  stature  of  166  cm.,  a  cephalic  index  of 
82,  a  nasal  index  of  69,  and  a  moderate  to  small  head  size,  are  simply 
the  descendants  of  the  Neolithic  peasants,  an  original  Mediterranean- 
Ladogan  blend,  which  has  reemerged  through  a  Corded  and  Nordic 
upper  crust,  so  that  a  Neo-Danubian  residue  is  left.  Among  individual 
White  Russians  Nordics  can  be  found,  and  semi-mongoloid-looking 
Ladogans,  but  the  majority  follow  the  Neo-Danubian  pattern  most  closely. 

The  territory  occupied  by  the  Ukrainians  is  much  larger  than  that  of 

96  Hesch,  M.,  Letten,  Litauer,  Weissrussen. 

Other  sources  are : 

Eichholz,  E.  R.,  Doctor's  dissertation  in  publications  of  the  Voenno-meditsinskafil 
akademiid,  St.  Petersburg,  1895-96.  R6sum£  in  AFA,  vol.  26,  1899,  pp.  166-170. 

Rodjestvensky,  A.  N.,  RAJ,  vol.  9,  1902,  pp.  49-57. 

Sobolski,  K.,  Kosmos,  vol.  50,  1925,  pp.  1166-1225. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  ZWAK,  vol.  17,  pp.  51-172;  TPNW,  1926.  Resum6  in 
AnthPr,  vol.  6,  1928,  pp.  90-92. 

Zdroevski,  A.,  RAJ,  vol.  6,  1905,  pp.  127-151. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  569 

the  White  Russians;  it  includes,  beside  the  whole  southwestern  quadrant 
of  Poland  and  the  eastern  end  of  Czechoslovakia  (the  Ruthenians  and 
Goral  mountaineers  are  linguistically  Ukrainians),  the  large  Ukrainian 
Republic  of  the  U.S.S.R.,  which  extends  over  much  of  southern  Russia 
to  the  northeastern  end  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  large  areas  outside  the 
Republic  in  southeastern  Russia  and  the  foothills  of  the  Caucasus.  Next 
to  the  Great  Russians,  the  Ukrainians  are  the  most  numerous  and  most 
important  people  in  the  Soviet  Union. 

The  racial  history  of  the  Slavic  peoples  may  largely  be  interpreted  in 
terms  of  the  previous  inhabitants  of  the  countries  in  which  they  have 
expanded.  The  White  Russians  are  linked  with  the  Baits,  and  the  Great 
Russians  with  Scandinavians  and  Finns,  especially  the  latter;  the  Ukrain- 
ians, in  their  eastward  expansion  over  the  plains  of  southern  Russia,  must 
have  absorbed  the  remnants  of  the  Iranian  Scyths  and  Sarmatians,  of  the 
Black  Sea  Goths,  of  the  Greek  colonists  of  the  Euxine  shore,  as  well  perhaps 
as  of  the  mysterious  pre-Scythic  Cimmerians.  It  was,  furthermore,  the 
Ukrainians  who,  of  all  the  Slavs,  came  into  the  closest  relationship  with 
the  Turks  and  Tatars  of  southern  Russia  during  the  Middle  Ages.  In 
the  Crimea  and  points  east,  Ukrainian  and  Tatar  territories  are  still 
contiguous.  Mixture  between  Russians  and  Tatars  was  not,  however, 
frequent  or  important  in  the  early  days  of  the  Tatar  hegemony,  when  the 
Slavs  kept  for  the  most  part  to  their  own  farming  environment  and  the 
Asiatic  nomads  to  their  pastures;  it  has  taken  place  in  greater  measure 
during  the  last  few  centuries,  in  consequence  of  the  more  recent  Slavic 
expansion  eastward  over  Tatar  territory  into  Siberia  and  Turkestan. 

As  is  to  be  expected  of  a  numerous  people  covering  a  wide  stretch  of 
territory,  the  Ukrainians  are  regionally  variable  in  a  racial  sense.  The 
Ukrainian-speaking  mountaineers  of  southern  Poland  and  eastern  Czecho- 
slovakia are  more  brachycephalic  than  the  others;  they  will  be  dealt  with 
presently.  The  southeastern  Ukrainians,  in  the  country  just  north  of  the 
Black  Sea,  are  tall,  with  regional  stature  means  as  high  as  170  cm.;  while 
those  in  the  Volhyn,  a  district  lying  between  Lwow  in  Poland  and  Kiev  in 
Russia,  are  much  shorter,  with  a  mean  of  165  cm.  Since  these  Volhynians 
occupy  basic  Slavic  territory,  and  since  they  have  been  subjected  to  care- 
ful measurement  and  analysis,97  they  will  be  treated  in  some  detail  here. 

"P6ch,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  55,  1925,  pp.  289-333;  vol.  56,  1926,  pp.  10-52. 
Other  sources  on  Ukrainians  include : 
Beloded,  F.  S.,  AFA,  vol.  34,  1907,  pp.  221-223. 

Chubinski,  P.  P.,  TESE,  vol.  1-7, 1872-78.  R6sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  12,  1880,  p.  398. 
Krasnov,  A.,  RAJ,  vol.  1,  #2,  1900,  pp.  12-22. 
Nosov,  A.,  ZGTK,  vol.  1,  #3,  1932,  pp.  37-79. 

Talko-Hryncewkz,  J.,  MAAE,  vol.  2,  1897,  pp.  1-60;  ZWAK,  vol.  14,  1890,  pp.  1- 
61. 
Tka£,  M,  AntrK,  1929,  vol.  2,  1928,  pp.  70-103. 


570  THE  RAGES   OF  EUROPE 

In  general,  the  Volhynians  resemble  the  White  Russians  closely,  and 
differ  from  them  in  the  same  direction  that  the  White  Russians  differ 
from  the  Lithuanians.  As  one  moves  southeastward  from  the  Baltic  to  the 
Black  Sea  there  is  a  progressive  change  from  a  most  Nordic  to  a  most 
Danubian  extreme,  within  a  relatively  small  anthropometric  range.  The 
mean  stature  of  the  Volhynians  is  164.6  cm.;  the  relative  span  of  106 
indicates  the  usual  arm  and  body  proportions.  The  bodily  build  is  thick- 
set to  medium,  and  corpulence,  especially  with  the  women,  is  not  uncom- 
mon. The  mean  cephalic  index  is  82.2,  the  head  length  184  mm.,  the 
breadth  151  mm.,  and  the  vault  height  125  mm.98  The  bizygomatic, 
139  mm.,  is  not  especially  great;  the  bigonial,  108  mm.,  comparatively 
wide.  The  total  face  height  is  120  mm.;  the  facial  index,  86.6,  or  meso- 
prosopic;  while  the  upper  facial  index  is  51.1,  mesene.  The  nasal  diameters, 
52.5  mm.  by  35.5  mm.,  yield  a  mean  index  of  66.5.  The  moderation  of 
the  lateral  diameters  of  the  head  and  face  indicate  that  the  Ladogan  ele- 
ment, which  is  so  common  in  other  eastern  Slavic  groups,  is  at  a  minimum 
here.  The  Neo-Danubian  base  of  the  Volhynians  is  metrically  more 
Danubian  than  elsewhere. 

Most  of  them  have  the  expected  white  skin,  ranging  on  the  inner  arm 
from  von  Luschan  #7-12,  while  roughly  one-eighth  are  darker,  with 
brunet-white  or  light  brown  shades  (von  L.  #13-16).  Vascularity  is  as 
common  as  among  most  Nordics,  and  the  women,  working  outdoors, 
are  often  red-cheeked.  The  hair  color  usually  changes  with  age,  as  in  all 
prevailingly  blond  populations;  between  the  ages  of  21  and  30,  medium 
brown  (Fischer  #5,  #8)  and  ash-blond  (#26)  shades  are  most  frequent; 
later  these  darken  in  many  cases.  There  is  little  or  no  truly  black  hair, 
and  rufosity  is  almost  absent.  The  beards  are  as  a  rule  lighter  than  the 
head  hair,  and  over  50  per  cent  of  adult  males  have  face  hair  which  is 
light-blond  (Fischer  #12-20).  About  15  per  cent  have  pure  light  eyes 
(Martin  #15-16),  and  6  per  cent  pure  brown.  The  commonest  shades  are 
light-mixed,  however.  As  is  usual  in  light-mixed  eye  color  populations, 
the  eyes  often  lose  their  brown  pigmentation  progressively  with  advancing 
age.  On  the  whole,  the  Volhynians  are  a  light-mixed  pigment  group, 
with  the  emphasis  on  ash-blondism  and  gray-mixed  eye  shades.  Compared 
with  other  Ukrainians,  they  are  blonder  as  well  as  shorter  in  stature. 

In  the  morphology  of  the  face,  the  Volhynians  are  for  the  most  part 
typical  Neo-Danubians.  Median  eyefolds,  indicative  of  a  low  orbit  and 
a  heavy  fatty  deposit  in  the  upper  lid,  are  found  among  38  per  cent;  the 
nose  is  concave  in  25  per  cent  of  the  group,  and  snubbed  in  20  per  cent. 
A  heavy  deposit  of  fat  on  the  malars  is  common,  especially  among  the 
women;  in  this  type  it  seems  to  assume  the  nature  of  a  secondary  sex 
98  The  vault  height  is  estimated  from  Nosov's  data. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  57! 

character.  Round  faces  and  plump  cheeks  are  typical.  There  is,  however, 
a  minority  which  shows  Dinaric  or  Arrnenoid  features;  a  convex  nasal 
profile,  present  in  1 7  per  cent  of  the  group,  indicates  this,  as  do  other  nasal 
and  facial  characters.  This  minority  Dinaric  strain  is  connected  geo- 
graphically with  the  population  of  the  Carpathians  immediately  south- 
west of  Volhynia. 

The  Ukrainians  who  live  farther  east,  along  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Black  Sea,  are  not  only  taller  than  the  Volhynians,  but  also  darker  in  hair 
and  eye  color.  They  are  longer  faced,  but  no  different  in  head  form, 
except  that  in  the  region  of  Kiev  they  are  more  brachycephalic,  with  mean 
indices  of  83  and  84.  There  is  a  strong  Dinaric  element  in  the  central  and 
eastern  Ukraine,  which  often  in  combination  with  the  Nordic  and  Neo- 
Danubian  takes  on  a  Noric  or  approximately  similar  form.  Tall,  moder- 
ately blond,  brachycephalic  and  thin-faced  men,  are  not  uncommon  here. 
Individual  variation  in  southern  Russia  is  great;  it  is  easy  to  pick  out, 
beside  the  western  Ukrainian  forms  already  described  and  the  composite 
type  mentioned,  Nordics,  Dinarics,  and  patently  mongoloid  Tatar  hybrids. 
This  variability  increases  as  one  proceeds  eastward  into  what  is  actually 
Tatar  territory. 

Before  turning  to  the  Great  Russian  population,  we  may  consider  the 
Slavic-speaking  mountaineers  of  the  Carpathians  whose  territory  extends 
from  Galicia  to  Rumania.  These  people,  whether  they  live  in  Poland, 
Czechoslovakia,  or  the  Bukovina  section  of  Rumania,  are  known  as  Ru- 
thenians,  and  speak  dialects  of  Ukrainian.  In  southern  Galicia  they  are 
known  as  Gorals,  or  " Mountaineers";  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  Poland 
as  Huzuls.  These  people  are  the  descendants  of  Slavic  pioneers  who  moved 
into  the  mountains  from  the  plains  to  the  north  and  northeast,  as  early  as 
the  eighth  century;  through  isolation  and  the  retention  of  a  relatively 
primitive  way  of  living  they  have  developed  a  distinctive  culture.  Many 
of  them  are  shepherds,  others  small  farmers." 

In  the  western  part  of  their  territory,  the  mountain  people  do  not  differ 
greatly  in  most  metrical  characters  from  Galicians;  they  have  a  mean 
stature  of  164-165  cm.,  and  cephalic  indices  of  83-84;  they  are,  however, 

99  Sources  on  the  Carpathian  mountaineers  include : 
Demianowski,  A.,  ANAW,  vol.  1,  1922,  #8. 
Diebold,  V.,  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Anth.  der  Kleinrussen. 
Himmel,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  83-84. 
Kopernicki,  I.,  ZWAK,  vol.  13,  1880,  pp.  1-54. 
Majer,  J.,  and  Kopernicki,  I.,  ZWAK,  vol.  9,  1885,  pp.  1-92. 
Suk,  V.,  Anthropological  Notes  on  the  Peoples  of  Carpathian  Ruthenia. 
Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.  R6sum6  in  ZBFA,  vol.  16,  1911,  p.  205;  also  AFA,  vol.  24, 
1896-97,  pp.  380-385. 

Volkov,  Th.,  BMSA,  ser.  5,  vol.  6,  1905,  pp.  289-294. 
Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  33,  1903,  pp.  234-251. 


572  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

leptoprosopic  with  a  mean  facial  index  of  90,  and  face  heights  of  126  and 
127  mm.  They  are  also  considerably  darker  than  their  equally  brachy- 
cephalic  northern  neighbors,  with  brown  or  dark  brown  hair,  and  eyes 
which  are  predominantly  mixed,  often  dark-mixed,  in  iris  pattern.  Fully 
40  per  cent  or  more  seem  to  have  dark  eyes,  and  pure  light  eyes  are  excep- 
tional. The  skin  is  definitely  brunet-white  in  over  half  these  people. 

The  Huzuls  differ  from  the  others  in  the  possession  of  tall  stature 
(170  cm.)  and  a  higher  cephalic  index  (85).  They  are  also  noted  for  their 
long-limbed,  spare  bodily  build,  and  the  gaunt,  high-nosed  Dinaric 
quality  of  their  facial  features.  The  Ruthenians  as  a  whole  belong  to  the 
Alpine-Dinaric  racial  group,  with  the  Dinaric  factor  predominant  among 
the  Huzuls;  the  Slavicization  of  these  mountaineers  was  more  a  linguistic 
than  a  racial  phenomenon.  On  the  other  hand,  the  mutual  influences 
between  the  early  Dinaric  inhabitants  of  the  Carpathians  and  the  Slavs 
have  tended  in  the  opposite  direction;  the  strong  Dinaric  element  in  the 
lowland  Ukrainian  population  may  be  due  to  a  northward  infiltration 
from  the  mountains. 

The  Great  Russians,  the  most  numerous  of  the  Slavic  ethnic  groups,  are 
also  the  easternmost  Slavs,  and  the  most  recent  to  spread  into  their  present 
homes.  It  was  they  who  pushed  northward  up  the  streams  of  central  and 
eastern  Russia,  thrusting  aside  and  absorbing  the  Finnish  tribes,  until  they 
reached  the  White  Sea;  it  was  they  who,  with  the  Ukrainians,  served  as  a 
bulwark  against  the  invasions  of  Mongols  and  Tatars,  and  who  later 
pushed  eastward  over  Mongol  and  Tatar  territory  into  Asia.  The  history 
of  central  Asia  has  been  a  curious  one  in  the  relationship  of  white  and 
mongoloid  peoples;  the  Turkestans,  once  wholly  white,  became  partially 
Mongolized  by  Turkish  and  Mongol  advances  from  the  days  of  the  Huns 
through  to  Kublai  Khan.  Southern  Siberia,  however,  once  sparsely 
inhabited  by  mongoloids,  received  the  eastward  thrust,  first  of  the  Ugrian 
Ostiaks  and  Voguls,  then  of  the  Great  Russians  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
who  pushed  steadily  onward  along  arable  land  until  they  reached  the 
Pacific.  Thus  in  central  Asia  the  current  has  flowed  westward  in  the 
southern  level,  and  eastward  in  the  northern.  Farther  north  still,  the 
westward  advance  of  the  Samoyeds  has  added  another  contrary  stream. 

Whereas  the  primary  racial  influence  which  acted  upon  the  White 
Russians  was  derived  from  the  Baits,  and  upon  the  Ukrainians  from  the 
Iranians,  those  which  have  affected  the  Great  Russians  the  most  have 
been  Finnic  in  the  north,  and  Iranian  in  the  south.  One  must  not  suppose, 
however,  that  the  northern  Great  Russians  are  nothing  but  Slavicized 
Volga  Finns;  there  is  considerable  evidence  to  indicate  that  the  Slavic 
colonists  advanced  in  great  numbers  and  reproduced  with  immoderate 
fecundity;  the  Great  Russians  have  been  as  capable  of  rapid  genetic  expan- 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  573 

sion  as  df  absorption.  Their  deviation  from  an  ancestral  Slavic  type  is 
due  as  much  to  selection  within  their  own  ranks  as  to  the  accretion  of 
Finns. 

The  mean  stature  of  the  Great  Russians  today  is  about  166  cm.,100 
approximately  the  same  as  that  of  Poles,  White  Russians,  and  some 
Ukrainians.  It  varies  regionally  from  169  cm.  in  the  Kuban  and  Don 
Cossack  country,  to  about  165  cm.  in  the  Finnish  territory  between  the 
Volga  and  the  Urals.101  That  selective  forces  are  strongly  at  play  in  the 
determination  of  the  stature  level  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  the  Russians 
who  have  emigrated  to  Siberia  have  attained  the  mean  of  168  cm.,  while 
those  measured  at  Ellis  Island  on  their  way  into  America  as  immigrants 
reached  170  cm.102 

Between  the  twelfth  century  and  1 880  or  thereabouts,  the  stature  of  the 
Great  Russians,  as  exemplified  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Moscow  govern- 
ment, had  not  perceptibly  changed,  remaining  at  the  level  of  165.5  cm.103 
The  same  cannot,  however,  be  said  for  the  cranial  index.  A  mean  of  73,5 
typified  crania  from  eleventh  and  twelfth  century  Slavic  kurgans;  Kremlin 
skulls  from  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  had  reached  79.6;  from 
then  on  there  has  been  a  steady  rise  to  a  mean  of  81  for  the  recent  cranial 
material.  This  change  in  head  form  parallels  but  does  not  equal  that  which 
has  already  been  observed  among  Slavs  in  Bohemia.  The  brachycepha- 
lizing  agent  was  not,  however,  the  same;  in  Moscow  it  entered  only  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  when  fully  brachycephalic  crania  appeared  among 
examples  of  the  older  type;  the  former  were  much  lower  and  broader  faced, 
and  broader  nosed.  This  heterogeneity  gradually  decreased  with  the 
increase  of  the  mean  cranial  index.  There  can  be  no  question  that  the 
brachycephalizing  agent  was  in  its  general  character  not  Alpine,  in  the 
western  European  sense,  but  a  separately  evolved  and  incipiently  or 
partially  mongoloid  Upper  Palaeolithic  derivative,  whether  transmitted 
through  a  Finnish  or  a  Tatar  medium,  or  both. 

The  modern  Great  Russians  vary  in  head  form  from  a  mean  cephalic 
index  of  78  to  79  in  parts  of  the  old  Scythian  country  of  South-central 
Russia  to  83  and  84  farther  north  and  east.  The  mesocephalic  and  low 

i°°  Anuchin,  D.  N.,  ZIGO,  vol.  7,  vyp.  1,  1889. 

Bunak,  V.,  AZM,  #2,  1932,  pp.  1-48. 

Snigirev,  V.  S.,  VMZ,  vols.  146-148,  1883. 

*°l  Bunak,  V.,  ZfMuA,  vol.  30,  1932,  pp.  441-503.  To  readers  unacquainted  with 
Russian,  Bunak's  work  is  perhaps  the  most  useful  single  source  on  the  physicial  anthro- 
pology of  modern  Russia. 

102  Baxter,  J.  H.,  Statistics,  Medical  and  Anthropological,  U,  S.  Army. 

Hrdliclta,  A.,  The  Old  Americans. 

Zeland,  N.  L.,  Anth,  vol.  13,  1902,  pp.  222-232. 

*03Derviz,  D.  V.,  RAJ,  vol.  12,  1923,  pp.  24-38,  French  resum6,  p.  100. 

Stefko,  V.  H.,  and  Shugaiev,  U.  S.,  AFA,  vol.  50,  1930,  pp.  44-55. 


574  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

brachycephalic  index  levels  represent  the  usual  Danubian  reemergence 
with  the  absorption  of  the  old  forest  types;  in  the  west  from  an  entirely 
Slavic  and  in  the  east  from  a  partially  Finnish  source.  Head  dimensions 
among  these  Great  Russians  are  medium  to  small,  and  comparable  to 
those  found  among  the  Volhynians,  White  Russians,  and  Finns.  The  faces 
of  these  people  are  likewise  similar  to  those  of  the  other  Slavs  mentioned ; 
although  they  often  appear  to  be  wide,  the  male  bizygomatic  means  rarely 
exceed  140  mm.  The  nasal  indices  usually  approach  or  attain  mesor- 
rhiny.104  There  is  a  great  variability  in  nasal  profile,  with  at  least  25  per 
cent  of  concavity  in  most  of  the  country.  In  pigmentation  the  Great 
Russians,  like  all  Slavs  previously  studied,  are  predominantly  light-mixed, 
with  a  tendency  to  brown  and  ash-blond  hair,  and  light-mixed  eyes.  The 
lightest  pigmentation  is  found  in  the  western  part  of  the  Great  Russian 
territory,  and  blondism  decreases  gradually  to  the  south  and  east.  The 
peasants  who  have  migrated  to  Siberia,  however,  have  taken  with  them  a 
greater  blondism  than  is  typical  of  most  of  Russia;  over  70  per  cent  of  hair 
colors  lighter  than  dark  brown,  and  under  30  per  cent  of  brown  eyes, 
characterize  the  subjects  measured  in  various  Siberian  districts.105 

The  Great  Russians  of  a  special  area  lying  partly  in  the  Tambov,  Penza, 
and  Saratov  Governments,  who  form  a  mesocephalic  nucleus  in  the  country 
half  way  between  Moscow  and  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  have  been  sub- 
jected to  a  detailed  study,106  which  shows  them  to  be  essentially  Nordic. 
A  mean  stature  of  169  cm.,  a  cephalic  index  just  under  79,  and  a  head 
length  of  192  mm.,  indicate  an  initial  resemblance  to  Nordics  or  brunet 
Mediterraneans.  The  auricular  height  mean  of  about  1 30  mm.  is  greater 
than  that  of  Scandinavian  Nordics,  however,  as  are  the  bizygomatic  of 
140  mm.  and  the  bigonial  of  109  mm.,  while  the  minimum  frontal  of  105 
mm.  is  more  nearly  Nordic  than  the  other  lateral  dimensions.  The  face 
height,  125  mm.,  yields  a  facial  index  on  the  borderline  of  mesoprosopy 
and  leptoprosopy;  the  nasal  index,  about  65,  is  derived  from  a  mean  nose 
length  of  55  mm.  and  a  breadth  of  nearly  36  mm. 

Half  of  these  Great  Russians  have  wavy  hair,  the  other  half  straight; 
the  head  hair  is  dark  brown  (Fischer  #4-5)  in  30  per  cent  of  the  series 
studied,  and  almost  never  black;  it  is  medium  brown  (Fischer  #6-10)  in 
about  50  per  cent,  and  light  brown  in  most  of  the  rest.  Rufosity  is  rare, 

104  Ivanovsky,  A.  L.,  AFA,  vol.  48,  1925,  pp.  1-12. 
Nicolaeff,  L.,  Anth,  vol.  41,  1931,  pp.  75-93. 
Seeland,  N.,  CRCA,  1892,  pp.  91-154. 
Worobjew,  B.  W.,  AFA,  vol.  32,  1906,  pp.  223,  238. 

Zograf,  N.  J.,  CRCA,  1892,  pp.  1-12;  AFA,  vol.  26, 1900,  pp.  860-868;  IILE,  vol.  76, 
1892. 

106  Zeland,  N.  L.,  RAJ,  vol.  3,  1900,  pp.  75-82;  Anth,  vol.  13,  1902,  pp.  222-232. 
106Debet2,  G.,  AZM,  1933,  pp.  34-57. 


THE   CENTRAL   ZONE  575 

but  at  the  same  time  most  of  the  blondism  falls  on  the  golden  side.  About 
8  per  cent  have  brown  eyes,  nearly  30  per  cent  light,  and  the  rest  mixed. 
Thus  these  tall,  rnesocephalic  Great  Russians  are  brown  to  dark  brown- 
haired,  and  essentially  mixed  to  light  eyed.  Their  facial  features  conform 
in  most  cases  to  a  Nordic  standard;  the  nasal  profile  is  straight  or  wavy 
in  over  65  per  cent  of  the  group,  convex  in  25  per  cent,  and  concave  in 
the  10  per  cent  that  is  left. 

Individually  as  well  as  collectively,  most  of  these  men  look  Nordic  in 
either  a  complete  or  a  partial  sense;  others,  in  the  minority,  with  concave, 
up-tilted  noses  and  wide  faces,  approximate  the  forest  type  of  incipiently 
mongoloid  trend.  The  facial  dimensions,  with  their  accent  on  the  heavi- 
ness of  the  mandible,  diverge  from  a  western  European  Nordic  standard, 
but  conform  to  that  of  the  eastern  Nordic  type  found  skeletally  among 
Scythians  and  in  the  Minussinsk  kurgans;  they  also  conform  to  a  brunet 
Mediterranean  type  which  we  shall  see  in  other  regions  bordering  the 
Black  Sea.  The  high  vault,  and  the  prevalence  of  brown  hair  in  combina- 
tion with  light  eyes,  suggests  a  major  survival  of  the  Corded  element  so 
lacking  elsewhere  in  most  of  eastern  Europe;  since  the  Slavs  elsewhere  have 
to  a  large  extent  lost  this  element,  it  seems  likely  that  the  people  in  question 
are  the  descendants  of  earlier  Iranian  inhabitants  as  much  as  of  Slavic 
immigrants. 

North  of  the  grasslands,  in  the  old  forested  country,  the  Great  Russians 
resume  their  expected  racial  character,  and  their  resemblance  to  White 
Russians,  western  Ukrainians,  and  Poles.  The  difference  between  eastern 
Great  Russians,  living  in  Finnic  territory,  and  the  indigenous  Finns,  may 
be  seen  by  a  comparison  between  Cheremisses  and  Mordvins,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  their  Russian  neighbors.107  The  Russians  are  taller  than 
Cheremisses  but  shorter  than  Mordvins;  hence  no  distinction  may  be 
made  on  the  basis  of  stature.  The  relative  sitting  height  is  the  same,  as  are 
the  head  length,  head  breadth,  head  height,  and  the  total  face  height. 
The  bizygomatic  of  the  Russians,  however,  is  138  mm.,  as  compared  to 
140  mm.  for  Cheremisses  and  141  mm.  for  Mordvins;  the  nasal  index  of 
the  Russians  is  64,  that  of  the  Mordvins  65,  of  the  Cheremisses  71.  Thus 
the  only  differences  that  can  be  seen  anthropometrically  are  those  which 
concern  the  breadths  of  the  face  and  nose,  and  these  only  to  a  slight  degree. 

There  is  a  real  difference,  however,  which  appears  in  observational 
characters;  only  34  per  cent  of  Russians  have  weak  beard  growth,  as 
compared  to  64  per  cent  of  Mordvins  and  77  per  cent  of  Cheremisses; 
22  per  cent  of  Russians  have  a  median  eyefold,  which  is  found  among 

«*  Bunak,  V.,  RAJ,  vol.  13,  1924,  pp.  178-207;  also  r£sum£  in  AAnz,  vol.  2,  1925, 
pp.  109-110. 

Sergeev,  V.  I.,  PCZA,  1931,  pp.  318-319. 


576  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

34  per  cent  of  Mordvins,  and  46  per  cent  of  Cheremisses;  only  12  per  cent 
of  the  Russians  have  concave  nasal  profiles,  as  compared  to  18  per  cent  of 
Mordvins,  and  39  per  cent  of  Cheremisses.  Furthermore,  only  36  per 
cent  of  Russians  are  brunet  in  total  complexion  type,  while  50  per  cent  of 
Mordvins,  and  69  per  cent  of  Cheremisses,  are  so  identified.  The  conclu- 
sion to  this  is  that  the  Great  Russians  living  in  Finnish  territory  in  eastern 
Russia,  although  they  have  absorbed  much  Finnish  blood,  have  not  wholly 
lost  their  Slavic  character,  and  have  acquired  fewer  mongoloid  or  in- 
cipiently  mongoloid  soft  part  features  than  have  the  Finns. 

The  traveller  in  Moscow,  or  in  any  other  important  Russian  city,  is 
struck  by  the  diversity  of  racial  types  met  not  only  on  the  street  but  also 
in  any  other  place  or  circumstance.  The  broad-faced,  snub-nosed  Russian 
peasant,  with  his  shoulder-length  head  hair  and  beard,  has,  since  the 
revolution,  lost  much  of  his  hirsute  adornment;  deprived  of  these  distinc- 
tive properties,  he  ceases  to  look  as  strange  or  as  distinctive  as  before. 
His  hairiness,  famous  in  caricature,  is  for  the  most  part  due  to  custom 
rather  than  to  pilosity,  since  beard  growth  among  Great  Russians  is  no 
more  abundant  than  among  most  other  Europeans. 

Beside  the  snub-nosed  peasant  type,  one  sees  on  the  streets  of  Moscow 
Nordics  who  would  be  at  home  in  Sweden  or  in  England ;  Binaries,  Norics, 
and  every  variety  of  near  and  distant  mongoloid.  There  are  also  occasion- 
ally tall,  large-headed,  and  large-faced  men  who  are  East  Baltic  in  our 
present  sense,  and  some  rare  Mediterraneans  other  than  Jews.  Although 
many  of  these  individuals  of  varied  type  come  from  far  corners  of  the 
Russian  Empire,  there  is  a  considerable  mobility,  and  a  juxtaposition  of 
varied  types  in  the  same  place.  Russia  is  a  new  country  from  the  stand- 
point of  migrations  and  settlement,  when  compared  to  the  rest  of  Europe; 
she  resembles  in  her  population  phenomena  rather  the  United  States  or 
Canada.  There  are  still  many  unabsorbed  or  only  partially  absorbed 
peoples  within  her  European,  not  to  mention  her  Asiatic,  borders. 

(10)  TURKS,  TATARS,  AND  MONGOLS  OF  EUROPEAN  RUSSIA 

In  estimating  the  influence  of  the  Turks,  Tatars,  and  Mongols  upon 
the  Finns  and  Slavs  of  European  Russia,  it  is  customary  to  assume  that 
these  peoples  are,  or  at  least  were,  fundamentally  mongoloid  in  race.  It 
will  therefore  be  useful  to  examine  the  documents  concerning  the  living 
representatives  of  these  Asiatic  peoples.  We  have  already  studied  the 
skeletal  remains  of  their  ancestors  (Chapter  VII),  and  therefore  know  that 
the  early  nomads  of  the  central  Asiatic  plain  were  European  in  type,  and 
that  many  could  be  classed  under  the  term  Nordic,  with  a  strong  Corded 
increment. 

With  the  destruction  of  the  Hiung-Nu  empire  of  Mongolia  by  the 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  5T< 

Chinese,  the  Huns  began  their  westward  migration,  finally  arriving  in  anc 
crossing  Europe.  These  Huns,  as  we  have  seen,  were  mostly  mongoloid, 
of  the  primitive  Tungusic  variety,  but  the  Avars  who  followed  them  be- 
longed more  to  the  Buryat-Mongol  type.  With  the  Hunnish  and  Aval 
chiefs  were  many  followers  of  the  old  central  Asiatic  Nordic  race,  and 
mixed  retainers  of  a  pseudo-Armenoid  or  Dinaric  cranial  form,  caused, 
without  reasonable  doubt,  by  a  Mongol-Nordic  or  other  Mongol-European 
hybridization.  This  medley  of  peoples,  known  as  Turks  or  Tatars,  invaded 
eastern  Russia  intermittently  during  the  first  1500  years  of  the  Christian 
era,  before  the  tide  turned,  and  the  Slavs  began  the  last  leg  of  their  east- 
ward expansion.  Besides  those  of  the  Turko-Tatars  there  were  invasions  oi 
full-fledged  Mongols,  including  the  Kalmucks,  whose  descendants  still 
pasture  their  flocks  on  the  western  side  of  the  lower  Volga,  just  north  oi 
the  Caucasus.  For  purposes  of  facility  in  treatment,  I  have  divided  the 
Altaic  speakers  of  European  Russia  into  four  groups:  (a)  Turkicized  Finns 
and  Ugrians,  including  the  Chuvash,  Bashkirs,  and  Meshcheryaks;  (b)  the 
Tatars  in  general,  including  all  of  the  Turkish-speaking,  mostly  Moslem 
peoples  of  eastern  Russia,  from  the  Perm  government  down  to  the  Cau- 
casus; (c)  the  Crimean  Tatars;  and  (d)  the  Kalmucks. 

The  Chuvash,  who  live  in  various  parts  of  the  former  governments  of 
Kazan,  Simbirsk,  Samara,  Saratov,  Orenburg,  and  Perm,  number  nearly 
half  a  million,108  of  whom  some  116,000  live  in  what  is  now  their  own 
administrative  district. m  These  are  near  neighbors  of  the  Mordvins,  and 
like  the  Bashkirs,  who  are  historically  survivors  of  the  old  Bulgar  Empire 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  are  probably  the  results  of  an  early  Turkic-Finnic  cross. 

The  Chuvash  are  metrically  similar  to  the  Mordvins,  but  differ  from 
these  latter  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that  in  which  the  Mordvins 
differ  from  the  Russians;  in  other  words,  in  most  metrical  and  morpholog- 
ical characters,  there  is  a  progression  from  Russians  to  Mordvins  to 
Chuvashes.  Their  mean  stature  is  about  164  cm.,  their  cephalic  index 
80.5,  their  facial  index  85,  and  their  nasal  index  71.  They  are  thus  shorter, 
longer  headed,  wider  faced,  and  wider  nosed  than  the  Mordvins,  and 
proportionately  more  so  than  the  Russians.  Only  2  per  cent  have  black 
hair,  50  per  cent  dark  brown  (Fischer  #4-5),  and  the  rest  almost  entirely 
medium  brown  (Fischer  #7-9).  Pure  brown  eyes  are  confined  to  19  per 
cent,  and  most  of  these  are  light  brown;  pure  light  irises  to  3  per  cent, 
although  predominantly  light  ones  total  14  per  cent.  Thus,  while  darker 
than  the  Mordvins,  they  are  almost  wholly  a  mixed  pigment  group. 

»•  Jochelson,  W,,  Peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia,  pp.  20,  21, 

109  Vishnevski,  B.  N.,  Antropologicheskoe  izuchmie  ckuvashi^  K  Otchetu  po  Isstedovaniidm, 
1927,  pp.  229-252. 
Vishnevski  is  the  source  for  the  anthropometric  data  which  follow. 


578  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  Chuvash  are  not  simply  Finns  Tatarized  in  language,  but  show 
evidence  in  face  form,  nose  form,  and  in  the  scarcity  of  true  blondism, 
that  the  Turkish  influence  did  bring  some  mongoloid  traits.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  note,  however,  that  the  cephalic  index  was  not  elevated  as  a 
result.  Individually  the  Chuvash  are  extremely  variable,  as  their  por- 
traits (see  Plate  3)  will  show;  complete  Nordics  of  Corded  tendency, 
and  unmistakable  mongoloids  represent  the  end  types,  both  of  which  may 
have  been  brought  by  the  Turks. 

There  are  two  other  peoples  living  in  the  general  region  between  the 
Volga  and  the  Urals,  and  partly  on  the  other  side,  who  fall  into  the  same 
general  Turko-Finnic  class;  these  are  the  Bashkirs  and  the  Meshcheryaks. 
The  Bashkirs  are  Moslems,  some  of  whom  are  settled,  while  others  are 
cattle  nomads;  still  others  hunt  and  trap  for  furs  in  the  mountains  and 
forests.  In  the  thirteenth  century  they  are  said  to  have  been  still  speaking 
the  same  language  as  the  Hungarians,110  which  must  have  been  some  form 
of  Ugric.  At  that  time  they  were  both  enemies  and  rivals  of  the  Bulgars 
and  Petchenegs.  The  Meshcheryaks,  who  formerly  inhabited  the  Oka 
basin,  were  probably  Finns;  they  split  into  two  branches  one  of  which 
moved  westward  and  became  Russified,  the  other  eastward  and  Turkicized. 
Traces  of  the  western  branch  may  be  found  among  the  Russian-speaking 
population  of  the  Penza  and  Tambov  regions;  the  eastern  branch  has 
taken  over  the  speech,  religion,  and  habits  of  the  Bashkirs,  with  whom  they 
live  and  are  closely  identified.  For  present  purposes  only  the  eastern 
branch  will  be  studied;  the  western  branch  is  a  part  of  the  Great  Russian 
ethnos. 

The  two  peoples,  Bashkirs  and  Meshcheryaks,  are  physically  much  alike, 
and  not  greatly  different  from  the  Chuvash.111  The  Bashkirs  are  the  taller, 
with  a  mean  stature  of  166  cm.;  that  of  the  Meshcheryaks  is  164-165  cm. 
Both  are  as  a  rule  long-bodied,  with  a  relative  sitting  height  of  over  53, 
well-muscled  and  robust,  with  wide  shoulders.  The  Bashkirs  are  brachy- 
cephalic,  with  a  mean  index  of  83.5,  while  the  Meshcheryaks  run  between 
one  and  two  points  lower.  The  Bashkirs  have  heads  of  moderate  vault 
dimensions,  and  are  comparable  in  this  sense  to  the  Volga  Finns,  rather 
than  to  the  larger-headed  central  Asiatic  Turks  and  Mongols.  Their 
faces,  however,  are  larger  than  those  of  most  eastern  Finns;  breadths  of 

110  On  the  authority  of  those  two  intrepid  and  observant  churchmen,  John  Piano  de 
Carpini  and  William  of  Rubruck. 

111  Maliev,  N.,  TKU,  vol.  5,  #5,  1876.    R6sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  10,  1878,  p.  434. 
Nazarov,  P.  S.,  IILE,  vol.  68,  #9,  1890,  Col.  350-367. 

Nikolski,  D.  P.,  Bashkiri.   R6sum6  in  RAJ,  vol.  1,  1900,  pp.  116-118. 

Sommier,  S.,  APA,  vol.  11,  1881,  pp.  255-296. 

Weissenberg,  S.,  ZFE,  vol.  24,  1892,  pp.  181-233. 

Zograf,  N.  J.,  AAM,  vol.  3,  1879,  pp.  7-23;  r£sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  14,  1883,  p.  294. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  579 

109  mm.  for  the  minimum  frontal,  143  mm.  for  the  bizygomatic,  and  112 
mm.  for  the  bigonial,  approach  a  Turko-Mongol  standard,  especially  in 
the  excess  of  jaw  width  over  that  of  the  forehead.  The  total  face  height  of 
122  mm.  lies  closer  to  the  Finnic  and  to  the  Mongol  than  to  the  Turkic 
mean.  Various  groups  of  Bashkirs  have  nasal  index  means  ranging  from 
67  to  73;  a  low  mesorrhiny  is  apparently  usual.  A  mean  interorbital  dis- 
tance of  33.5  mm.  is  greater  than  among  most  Europeans.  In  all  of  these 
metrical  characters  of  the  head  and  face,  the  Meshcheryaks  differ  slightly 
from  the  Bashkirs,  in  each  case  in  a  Finnic  direction.  They  have  thus  been 
less  thoroughly  Turkicized  racially  than  the  Bashkirs. 

Over  50  per  cent  of  the  Bashkirs  have  black  hair,  and  over  75  per  cent 
dark  eyes.  Of  the  latter,  a  large  minority  are  black.  What  blondism  the 
Bashkirs  possess  seems  to  be  of  the  gray-eyed  ash-blond  variety.  Fifteen 
per  cent  have  convex  nasal  profiles,  which  in  this  particular  case  implies 
Turkish  influence;  about  20  per  cent  have  the  snubbed  tip  typical  of  Finns 
but  not  of  Mongols.  The  Meshcheryaks  seem  to  be  blonder  than  the 
Bashkirs,  and  consistently  more  Finnish  in  every  respect.  A  distinction  is 
usually  made  between  the  sedentary  and  forest  Bashkirs,  who  are  taller, 
longer  faced,  and  more  frequently  aquiline-nosed,  and  the  pastoral 
Bashkir,  who  are  shorter  in  stature,  broader  faced,  and  more  mongoloid- 
looking.  That  there  may  be  some  such  regional  differentiations  seems 
likely. 

Before  proceeding  further  with  the  examination  of  Turko-Tatar  peoples 
in  eastern  and  southern  Russia,  it  may  be  well  to  study  their  central 
Asiatic  prototypes,  as  exemplified  by  the  Kirghiz-Kazak  whose  home  is 
in  the  Altai  Mountains112  but  who  also  graze  their  flocks  on  the  Aralo- 
Caspian  plain.  The  Kirghiz  are  a  pastoral  nomadic  nation  par  excellence, 
of  Turkish  antecedents  but  with  a  strong  Mongol  infusion;  in  this  respect 
they  may  be  considered  to  resemble  the  Turkish-speaking  invaders  of 
eastern  Europe  in  earlier  times.  They  are  variable  in  stature  but  usually 
short,  with  group  means  ranging  from  160  cm.  to  165  cm.;  they  are 
exceptionally  long-bodied  and  short-legged,  with  a  relative  sitting  height 
of  54.7,  higher  than  that  of  any  European  people  whom  we  have  studied. 

They  are  completely  brachycephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of 
85  for  most  groups,  and  their  heads  are  of  considerable  size.  A  mean 
length  of  188  mm.,  a  breadth  of  161  rnm.,  and  an  auricular  height  of 
128  mm.  indicates  a  larger  vault  than  those  of  eastern  Finns  or  Tatarized 
Finns,  as  large  as  or  larger  than  the  heads  of  western  European  Alpines, 

112  Baronov,  S.  F.,  Bukelkhan,  A.  N.,  and  Rudenko,  S.  I.,  Kazaki,  Antropologicheskie 
ocherki. 

larcho,  A.  I.,  SAM,  #1-2,  1930,  pp.  76-99. 
Oshanin,  L.  V.,  ITL,  vol.  10,  1927,  pp.  233-270. 
Roguinski,  J.,  AZM,  1934-35,  pp.  105-126. 


580  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

but  smaller  than  the  heads  found  in  northwestern  Europe  among  Borreby 
descendants.  The  faces  are  absolutely  large,  with  a  mean  height  of  125 
mm.,  which  is  comparable  to  that  found  on  Nordic  groups,  and  a  bizy- 
gomatic  breadth  mean  ranging  tribally  from  148  to  153  mm.  The  last 
named  breadth  is  typical  of  pure  Central  Asiatic  Mongols,  who  are, 
however,  shorter  than  the  Kirghiz  in  absolute  face  height  (120  mm.). 
Thus  the  Kirghiz  face  seems  to  be  a  hybrid  one  in  its  differential  inherit- 
ance of  dimensions,  having  received  its  breadth  from  a  mongoloid  an- 
cestry, its  height  from  a  white.  However,  since  a  total  face  height  mean 
of  133  mm.  is  found  among  living  Tungus,  the  Turkish  face  height  may 
also  be  partly  derived  from  an  alternate  Mongoloid  source;  this  must  be 
mentioned  as  a  possibility,  but,  in  view  of  the  absence  of  other  Tungusic 
features,  it  is  unlikely.  The  Kirghiz  are  long-nosed,  with  a  mean  nasal 
height  of  over  55  mm.,  and  a  nasal  index  of  67,  In  this  respect  they  differ 
from  the  shorter-nosed,  messorrhine  Mongols,  and  from  some  of  the 
incipiently  mongoloid  Volga  Finns. 

Few  of  the  Kirghiz  have  pinkish- white,  northern  European  skins;  the 
ratio  of  these  is  under  5  per  cent.  Brunet-white  and  light  brown  skins 
account  for  some  33  per  cent  of  the  whole,  while  the  rest,  over  60  per 
cent,  have  a  yellowish  tinge  of  varying  intensity,  associated  with  vary- 
ing degrees  of  pigmentation.  No  Kirghiz  are  really  darker  than  light 
brown,  however;  von  Luschan  #15  seems  to  be  the  darkest  shade  on  their 
normal  range. 

The  hair  color  is  black  in  50  per  cent  of  the  Kirghiz;  only  4  per  cent 
are  lighter  than  dark  brown,  and  complete  hair  blondism  is  extremely 
rare.  About  55  per  cent  have  pure  dark  eyes,  mostly  dark  brown  with 
nearly  10  per  cent  of  black;  about  7  per  cent  or  fewer  are  light-mixed  or 
light,  while  the  rest  are  dark-mixed.  In  series  studied  without  scales,  the 
pure  darks  are  listed  as  high  as  93  per  cent;  hence  the  majority  of  the 
mixed  group  must  be  dark-mixed  indeed.  The  Kirghiz  are  predominantly 
brunet;  they  show  no  more  blondism  than  many  brunet  Mediterranean 
peoples  in  Africa  and  Asia,  but  here  *the  blondism  definitely  implies  a 
Nordic  or  other  blond  racial  increment,  for  there  is  no  minority  incidence 
of  blondism  among  fully  evolved,  unmixed  mongoloids.  The  presence 
of  a  submerged  blond  strain  among  the  Kirghiz  is  clearly  shown  by  the 
presence  of  14  per  cent  of  beards  lighter  than  dark  brown,  a  ratio  10 
per  cent  higher  than  that  for  head  hair  color.  The  white  strains  that  went 
into  the  Kirghiz  blend  were  probably  predominantly  blond. 

The  prevailingly  mongoloid  character  of  the  Kirghiz  in  their  super- 
ficial or  soft  part  anatomy  is  clearly  seen  by  a  study  of  hair  abundance  and 
hair  distribution.  Hair  is  absent  from  the  chests  and  abdomens  of  93  per 
cent  of  adult  males;  in  the  rest  it  is  scanty.  Arm  and  leg  hair  is  absent 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  581 

from  14  per  cent,  present  in  a  minor  degree  on  the  shins  only  with  78 
per  cent;  the  remaining  8  per  cent  have  a  certain  amount  of  hair  on  arms 
and  thighs.  The  beard,  not  including  the  mustaches,  is  actually  absent 
among  10  per  cent  of  adult  males,  scanty  with  56  per  cent,  and  abundant 
with  only  9  per  cent.  It  is  situated  on  the  chin  only  with  26  per  cent,  on  the 
lower  jaw  as  well,  under  the  jaw  line,  with  40  per  cent  more,  and  on  the 
lower  part  of  the  cheek  also  with  the  remaining  34  per  cent.  In  no  instance 
studied  did  it  cover  the  cheek  profusely.  The  mustache  is  absent  among 
3  per  cent,  scanty  among  55  per  cent.  The  head  hair  is  frequently  coarse, 
almost  always  straight;  the  beard  hair  is  wavy  in  23  per  cent  of  instances. 
The  sparsity  of  body  and  beard  hair  is  not  as  marked  among  most  Kirghiz 
as  among  complete  mongoloids,  but  it  falls  nearer  a  mongoloid  than  a 
white  extreme. 

In  the  form  of  the  external  eye,  however,  the  Kirghiz  are  not  notably 
mongoloid;  only  15  per  cent  have  the  epicanthic  fold,  as  compared  to 
83  per  cent  of  Buryat-Mongols.  Eye  obliquity  is  found  in  38  per  cent, 
however,  and  the  eye  slit  is  characteristically  narrow.  Straight  or  vertical 
foreheads,  common  among  Buryats  and  Mongols,  are  uncommon  among 
Kirghiz ;  the  slope  is  as  great  as  that  among  Nordics  and  other  Europeans. 
Browridges,  usually  but  slightly  developed  among  Mongols,  are  often 
medium  to  heavy  among  Kirghiz.  In  malar  form,  however,  the  Kirghiz 
tend  in  a  mongoloid  direction,  since  over  80  per  cent  protrude  promi- 
nently forward.  Lips  are  usually  thin  or  medium. 

The  greatest  morphological  difference  between  Kirghiz  and  Mongols 
lies  in  the  architecture  of  the  nose;  while  the  root  is  only  of  moderate 
height,  and  frequently  broad,  the  bridge  is  often  quite  high,  and  the  nasal 
profile  is  convex  in  50  per  cent  of  cases;  the  rest  are  almost  entirely  straight. 
Thus  the  lightly  concave  mongoloid  profile  is  notably  rare,  except  among 
women  and  children.  The  nasal  tip  is  often  thick,  and  is  inclined  down- 
ward in  some  30  per  cent  of  cases;  the  wings  are  moderate  to  flaring,  the 
nostrils  often  highly  excavated,  and  'set  usually  at  an  oblique  angle  to  the 
axis  of  the  septum. 

This  pseudo-Armenoid  or  Armenoid-looking  nose,  typical  of  the  Kir- 
ghiz if  by  no  means  found  among  all  of  them,  differs  from  the  true  Dinaric 
or  Armenoid  organ  in  the  fact  that  its  root  is  usually  low,  while  its  bridge 
height  is  frequently  great  only  by  comparison.  It  is  obviously  a  hybrid 
nose,  just  as  the  dimensions  of  the  Kirghiz  face  suggest  a  hybrid  origin. 
The  pseudo-Armenoid  skulls  of  the  Medieval  Avar  and  Turkish  cemeteries 
of  eastern  Europe  and  Hungary  are  thus  explained  as  a  consequence  of 
the  mixture  of  the  Buryat-Mongol  mongoloid  variety  with  white  men 
presumably  to  a  large  extent  Nordic,  on  the  central  Asiatic  grasslands. 
This  Kirghiz  Turkish  hybrid  form  is$  furthermore,  a  phenomenon  parallel 


582  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

to  the  formation  of  Norics  in  central  Europe,  and  of  Binaries  and  Arme- 
noids  themselves  elsewhere. 

Let  us  return  to  the  Tatars  of  eastern  and  southern  Russia,  other  than 
the  Tatar-Finnish  and  Tatar-Ugric  mixtures  whom  we  have  already 
studied.  These  include  numerous  scattered  peoples  from  the  Bashkir 
country  down  to  the  foothills  of  the  Caucasus,  and  living,  in  its  southern 
reaches,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Volga.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Kassimov  Tatars  in  the  government  of  Rjasan,  who  are  said  to  be  Tatar- 
ized  Finns,  like  the  Chuvash  and  Bashkirs,113  and  who  resemble  the  latter 
closely,  most  of  these  Tatar  groups  conform  fairly  well  to  the  Tatar  stand- 
ard as  exemplified  by  the  Kirghiz.  As  a  whole,  however,  they  are  less 
frequently  yellow-skinned;  their  eyes  are  pure  brown  in  only  53  per  cent 
of  a  composite  group  studied;  the  hair  is  black  or  dark  brown  in  only 
half  the  total,  while  medium  brown  shades  account  for  most  of  the  rest. 
Deviations  from  a  Kirghiz  standard  result  from  the  absorption  not  of 
Finns,  but  of  the  remnants  of  Iranian  tribes,  and  of  other  early  occupants 
of  the  southern  steppe  country.  This  will  be  made  clear  when  we  come  to 
study  the  Turkomans  and  other  Turkish-speaking  nomads  of  former 
Iranian  territory  in  what  is  now  Russian  central  Asia. 

The  peninsula  of  Crimea,  which  lies  immediately  south  of  Ukrainian 
territory,  represents  the  most  distant  outpost  of  the  Tatars  in  a  south- 
western direction,  except  for  their  colonies  in  Rumania  and  Bulgaria. 
The  history  of  the  Crimea  is  one  of  many  radical  changes  of  ownership; 
the  Cimmerians  were  driven  to  the  mountains  by  the  Scythians  in  the 
seventh  century  B.C.;  subsequently  Greeks  colonized  the  peninsula  in 
large  numbers,  and  it  remained  largely  Greek  until  overrun  by  Goths  in 
250  A.D.  We  have  already  seen  (Chapter  VI,  p.  206)  that  these  Goths 
faithfully  preserved  their  Germanic  skeletal  character  as  long  as  they  kept 
their  ethnic  identity.  Huns  and  Khazars  followed  the  Goths,  and  later 
Byzantines,  Kipchak  Turks,  Mongols,  and  Italian  merchants,  all  had  their 
share  in  the  possession  and  exploitation  of  the  Crimea.  The  Tatars  began 
their  settlement  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  became  the  principal 
inhabitants,  flourishing  especially  under  Ottoman  Turkish  domination. 
When  the  Crimea  became  Russian  territory  in  1783,  many  of  the  Tatars 
migrated  to  Turkey. 

There  are  still  Greeks  in  the  Crimea,  as  well  as  some  Bulgarians,  Ger- 
mans, Albanians,  Karaite  Jews,  and,  of  course,  Russians.  The  Tatars, 
however,  still  make  up  the  bulk  of  the  population.  These  are  divided  into 

118  Benzengre,  B.,  RDAP,  ser.  2,  vol.  2,  1881,  pp.  211-221. 

Nefedov,  J.  W.,  AAM,  vol.  1,  1879,  pp.  200-201,  320-322.  R6sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  14, 
1883,  p.  291. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J ,  AFA,  vol.  34,  1907,  p.  224. 
Wilier,  O.,  PAtt,  vol.  1,  1926,  pp.  84-91. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  583 

the  Coastal  Tatars,  who  have  been  very  much  mixed  with  other  peoples, 
the  Mountain  Tatars,  and  the  Tatars  of  the  steppe  regions,  away  from  the 
southeastern  coastal  highlands. 

In  some  respects  there  is  a  considerable  difference  between  these  groups; 
the  Steppe  Tatars  are  the  shortest,  with  a  stature  mean  of  about  164  cm., 
and  are  brachycephalic  (C.  I.  =  85);  they  resemble  closely  their  relatives 
the  Nogai  Tatars,  many  of  whom  live  near  the  Kalmucks  in  the  territory 
north  of  the  Caucasus.114  (See  Map  16.)  On  the  whole,  they  seem  to  be 
more  frequently  mongoloid  than  the  rest  of  the  Crimean  Tatars.  The 
coastal  and  mountain  groups  are  both  taller,  with  regional  means  rising 
as  high  as  170  cm.,  but  with  the  general  level  situated  at  167-168  cm. 
All,  however,  are  brachycephalic,  with  cephalic  index  means  of  84  and 
85;  the  facial  dimensions  are  moderate,  and  white  rather  than  mongoloid. 
They  are  predominantly  brunet,  with  over  50  per  cent  of  dark  eyes,  and 
65  per  cent  or  more  of  black  and  dark  brown  hair  color.  This  brunet 
pigmentation,  however,  may  have  been  derived  from  a  number  of  sources, 
as  may  the  brachycephaly  of  this  people.  They  are  a  very  mixed  group, 
and  show  little  morphological  evidence  of  their  partially  mongoloid 
ancestry. 

The  Kalmucks,  who  pasture  their  cattle  on  the  Astrakhan  steppe  to  the 
west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Volga,  are  a  relatively  pure  Mongol  people, 
transplanted  from  central  Asia,  who  have  retained  their  original  speech 
and  manner  of  living  in  their  new  home.  They  have  preserved  the  moder- 
ately short  stature,  164  cm.,  of  the  native  Mongolians,  but  are  less  brachy- 
cephalic, since  their  cephalic  index  mean  is  83,  while  that  of  the  Mongols 
at  home  is  about  85. m  In  their  facial  dimensions,  including  a  mean 
bizygornatic  diameter  of  over  150  mm.,  they  are  fully  Mongolian,  as  they 
are  likewise  in  skin  color,  in  hair  form  and  texture,  and  in  hair  pigmenta- 
tion. Their  noses,  whether  concave,  straight,  or  convex  in  profile,  are 
usually  low-bridged;  their  malars  prominent,  their  eyes  frequently  bor- 
dered by  epicanthic  folds.  Although  some  mixture  with  Russians  and 
Tatars  must  inevitably  have  taken  place,  this  cannot  have  been  extensive, 
and  has  not  sufficed  to  deprive  them  of  their  essentially  Mongol  racial 
character. 

'"Kharusin,  A.  N.,  IILE,  vol.  68,  1890,  fasc.  7,  col.  249-288;  fasc.  8,  pp.  303-322. 
R£sum6  in  Anth,  vol.  3,  1892,  pp.  481-482;  also  AFA,  vol.  26,  1900,  p.  831, 

Nosov,  A.,  Antrk,  1929,  vol.  2,  1928,  pp.  9-69. 

Poschen,  P.,  RAJ,  vol.  8,  1912,  pp.  36-42.  Rev.  in  ZBFA,  vol.  17,  1912,  pp.  274- 
275. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  MAAE,  vol.  7,  1904,  pp.  3-100. 

Tebebinska'ia-Schenger,  N.,  RAJ,  vol.  17,  1928,  pp.  12-53.  R£sum6  in  Anth,  vol.  39, 
1929,  p.  408. 

"5  Korolev,  S.  R.,  AFA,  vol.  32,  1906,  pp.  90-92. 

Vorobiev,  V.  V.,  AFA,  vol.  32,  1906,  pp.  87-90. 


584  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  foregoing  survey  of  Turkic  and  Mongolic-speaking  peoples  on 
European  soil,  with  an  excursion  into  Asia  for  purposes  of  comparison, 
has  served  to  define  the  racial  elements  which  these  people  have  brought 
with  them  into  the  European  racial  corpus.  Except  for  the  first  Hunnish 
and  Avar  inroads,  and  the  late  invasions  of  the  Mongols  themselves,  pure 
Mongols  were  seldom  involved;  a  mixed  mongoloid-white  type,  already 
partly  formed  in  central  Asia,  was  the  principal  racial  factor. 

(11)  THE  MAGYARS 

There  are  approximately  eleven  millions  of  Hungarians  in  Europe,  of 
whom  some  eight  million  live  within  the  boundaries  of  their  own  kingdom; 
three  million  have  been  placed  in  exile  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles.  These 
three  million  inhabit  (or  inhabited)  the  adjacent  nations  of  Czechoslo- 
vakia, Yugoslavia,  and  Rumania,  most  notably  the  latter,  where  a  large 
bloc  of  Magyars,  the  Szekelers,  live  in  Transylvania,  under  the  curve 
of  the  Carpathians.  Other  groups  are  scattered  widely  between  the  Car- 
pathians and  the  boundary  of  present  Hungary. 

The  history  of  Hungary,  reviewed  in  Chapter  VII,  has  been  one  of 
extraordinary  complexity.  Within  the  Christian  era  the  Hungarian  plain 
has  witnessed  the  invasion  and  settlement  of  numerous  Slavs,  Germans, 
Huns,  Avars,  and  Ugrian  Magyars;  the  introduction  of  foreigners  of  all 
kinds  by  the  early  Hungarian  kings  in  their  efforts  to  create  a  highly 
civilized  state  added  further  confusion.  Out  of  this  medley  of  peoples 
with  their  many  languages  and  cultures,  one  speech,  a  partially  Turkicized 
Ugric,  has  survived;  one  dominant  cultural  pattern  has  arisen;  this  seems 
partly  Slavic,  partly  central  Asiatic,  and  Romanized  through  the  agency 
of  Catholicism. 

The  ethnic  structure  of  Hungary  is  extraordinarily  complex,  and  as 
yet  not  wholly  known.  Many  small  sub-groups,  located  in  various  parts 
of  Hungary  and  elsewhere,  claim  special  descent,  not  from  Arpad  and  his 
followers,  but  from  the  Avars,  the  Cumans,  and  other  Turkish  invaders. 
The  Szekelers,  who  are  claimed  to  be  the  purest  of  the  Magyars,  in  the 
sense  that  they  preserve  the  ancient  types  most  faithfully,  are  descendants 
of  colonists  sent  to  the  Carpathians  to  ward  off  the  inroads  of  the  Cumans. 
These  various  traditions  and  individual  histories  indicate  that  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Hungarian  people  was  no  simple  matter. 

Almost  every  race  or  sub-race  in  Europe,  and  many  in  Asia,  have  con- 
tributed to  the  Magyar  physical  amalgam,  and  an  adequate  anthropo- 
metric  study  of  the  Hungarians  would  be  a  task  of  great  magnitude.  So 
far  such  a  study  has  not  been  made,  or  at  least,  has  not  been  published. 
Contemporary  Hungarian  anthropologists  have  concentrated  rather  upon 
the  prodigious  task  of  untangling  the  skeletal  history  of  their  country, 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  585 

with  considerable  success,  as  reviewed  in  Chapter  VII.  With  this  ample 
background,  the  analysis  of  the  living  material  which  they  have  accu- 
mulated and  are  accumulating  will  be  made  possible.116 

The  stature  of  living  Magyars  within  the  present  kingdom  of  Hungary 
varies  but  slightly  from  region  to  region;  local  means  run  from  167  to 
168  cm.  The  same  is  true  of  most  of  the  Hungarian  districts  in  Rumania, 
except  for  the  Transylvanian  Magyars,  whose  mean  is  169  cm.,  and  the 
Szekelers,  with  170  cm.  Thus  the  Magyars  are  taller  than  either  the 
Ugrians  or  the  Turks  of  eastern  Russia,  with  a  tendency  for  stature  to 
increase  from  west  to  east. 

The  cephalic  index  mean  maintains  a  brachycephalic  level  of  84  to  87, 
with  the  highest  figures  in  the  southeast,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Szeged 
and  Arad;  on  the  whole,  excessive  brachycephaly  is  a  South  Hungarian 
phenomenon.  The  tall  Szekelers  of  the  bend  of  the  Carpathians  have  the 
low  mean,  for  Magyars,  of  81.5.  Head  sizes  of  Hungarians  are  of  normal, 
central  European  dimensions;  the  more  brachycephalic  groups  have  the 
larger  heads,  with  length  means  in  the  neighborhood  of  185  mm.,  and 
breadths  of  approximately  158  mm.  They  are  thus  equivalent  to  most 
Binaries  and  Alpines  in  this  respect.  The  less  brachycephalic  groups 
farther  north  have  lengths  of  approximately  181-182  mm.,  and  breadths 
of  152-153  mm.;  figures  of  Neo-Banubian  size.  The  Szekelers,  by  con- 
trast, have  large  heads,  with  length  and  breadth  means  of  approximately 
191  mm.  and  156  mm.  If  they  have  more  Asiatic  blood  than  the  other 
Magyars,  it  must  be  Turkish  in  the  sense  of  the  Turkomans  and  Azer- 
baijanis. 

Small  series  of  Hungarians,  taken  as  a  whole,  show  fully  European 
cranial  and  facial  dimensions.  Total  face  heights  of  less  than  120  mm, 
are  reminiscent  of  Ugrians  as  well  as  of  modern  Slavs,  and  are  too  short 
for  either  central  Asiatic  Turks  or  Binaries.  The  mean  bizygomatic 
diameter  of  140  mm.  precludes,  furthermore,  extensive  Mongol  or  Turkish 
influence.  A  moderate  leptorrhiny,  'with  a  mean  nasal  index  of  68,  is  too 
high  for  Binaries,  but  adequate  for  Neo-Banubians,  Turks,  or  Alpines. 

116  Sources  on  the  physical  anthropology  of  living  Hungarians  include : 

Bartucz,  L.,  REHF,  vol.  5,  Paris,  1927,  pp.  209-241;  ZFRK,  vol.  1,  1935,  pp.  225- 
240;  MAGW,  vol.  57,  1927,  pp.  [126-130];  NMNM,  vol.  7,  1911,  pp,  278-292;  AFA, 
vol.  43,  1917,  pp.  44-59. 

Benyon,  E.  D.,  GR,  vol.  17,  1927,  pp.  586-604. 

Biasutti,  R.,  APA,  vol.  51,  1921,  pp.  154-184. 

Hermann,  O.,  MAGW,  vol.  35,  1905,  pp.  53-63;  vol.  49,  1919,  pp.  3-5. 

Hrdlifcka,  A.,  The  Old  Americans. 

Janko,  J.,  Magyar  Typuszok,  Elso  Sorozat:  A  Balaton  Mellektrol. 

Korosi,  M.,  BSAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  1,  pp.  308-309. 

Scheiber,  S.  H.,  AFA,  vol.  13,  1881,  pp.  233-267;  CRCA,  8  me  sess.,  Budapest,  1876, 
vol.  1,  pp.  601-611. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  PAn,  vol.  6,  1932,  pp.  26-32,  118-119. 


586  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

On  the  whole,  the  metrical  characters  of  the  Magyars,  as  revealed 
by  small  and  perhaps  poorly  representative  samples,  indicate  Neo- 
Danubian  and  Alpine  racial  elements  as  the  most  prevalent,  especially 
the  former. 

The  pigment  characters,  judging  from  what  has  been  published,  are  on 
the  brunet  side  of  medium;  over  50  per  cent  of  eyes  seem  to  be  dark  or 
predominantly  dark,  while  black  and  dark  brown  hair  shades  reach 
approximately  the  same  figure.  The  majority  of  Magyars  have  straight 
nasal  profiles;  a  large  minority  of  25  per  cent  are  concave,  however,  and  a 
few  of  these  are  flattish  in  a  manner  which  suggests  ultimate  Finnic  or 
mongoloid  derivation.  Nasal  convexity  is  not  common,  at  least  in  the 
small  series  available. 

According  to  Bartucz's  analysis,  only  about  15  per  cent  of  the  population 
of  Hungary  is  Alpine  racially,  and  this  element  is  commonest  in  the  German 
territories  of  the  southern  part  of  the  kingdom.  A  Neo-Danubian  racial 
type117  is  the  most  numerous  single  element,  which  accounts  for  about 
35  per  cent  of  the  whole,  and  is  commonest  in  the  northeast,  over  against 
Slovakia,  and  in  this  section  it  rises  to  60  per  cent  of  the  population.  Bi- 
naries include  20  per  cent  of  the  total  and  are  concentrated  in  the  south 
and  especially  the  southwest,  in  contact  with  essentially  Dinaric  regions 
in  Yugoslavia. 

Bartucz  finds  about  20  per  cent  of  the  Magyars  to  show  evidence  of 
Asiatic  Turkish  blood,  in  the  relatively  non-mongoloid  sense,  while  about 
5  per  cent  manifest  clearly  recognizable  mongoloid  features.  These  Asiatic 
elements  are  not  evenly  distributed,  but  are  concentrated  in  the  purer 
Hungarian  pastoral  population,  while  the  Turkish  element  is  said  to  be 
especially  visible  in  the  nobility.  The  5  per  cent  which  remains  after 
Bartucz's  partitionment  must  include  Nordics  and  Norics,  with  the  latter 
also  forming  part  of  the  Dinaric  allotment,  as  well  as  a  few  brunet 
Mediterraneans . 

Bartucz's  analysis,  based  upon  long  observation  as  well  as  upon  unpub- 
lished materials,  is  more  valid  than  deductions  made  from  the  small  series 
of  detailed  measurements  at  our  disposal.  Hungary  fits  into  the  racial 
boundaries  of  the  countries  which  surround  her,  without  sharp  transitions; 
at  the  same  time  she  provides  a  refuge  in  central  Europe  for  a  minor 
central  Asiatic  survival.  It  is  not  accurate  to  say  that  the  pre-Magyar 
inhabitants  of  Hungary  have  completely,  or  almost  completely,  absorbed 
the  invaders  whose  speech  is  that  of  the  nation,  for  the  Ugric  followers  of 
Arpad,  who  came  to  these  plains  in  thousands,  must  have  been  largely 
Neo-Danubian  in  race,  as  are  many  of  their  present-day  descendants  and 
successors. 

117  Bartucz  calls  it  Oriental. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  587 

(12)   THE   LIVING   SLAVS  (Concluded) 

(c)  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes 

If  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  was  bitter  to  the  Magyars,  it  was  more  than 
bountiful  to  the  southern  Slavs,  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes,  whom 
the  Magyars  cut  off,  centuries  ago,  from  their  northern  linguistic  kinsmen. 
The  present  kingdom  of  Yugoslavia  includes  almost  the  totality  of  the 
three  Slavic  peoples  mentioned,  but  also  hundreds  of  thousands  of  Magyars, 
Bulgarians,  and  Albanians,  to  mention  merely  the  more  numerous  of  the 
subject  minorities.  Geographically,  Yugoslavia  is  for  the  most  part 
mountainous;  culturally,  it  covers  the  entire  range  from  the  sophisticated 
civilization  of  central  Europe  to  the  Early  Iron  Age  survival  of  the 
Balkan  highlands. 

Among  the  Yugoslavs,  religion  as  well  as  language  forms  a  source  of 
division;  the  Croats  and  Slovenes  are  Catholics,  the  Serbs  are  mostly 
Greek  Orthodox.  Under  the  term  Serb  are  included,  however,  such 
diverse  peoples  as  the  Serbs  Proper,  the  Montenegrins,  the  Bosnians,  the 
Herzegovinians,  and  the  Dalmatians.  The  Bosnians  and  Herzegovinians 
include  large  minorities  of  Moslems  and  Catholics,  and  the  latter  are 
particularly  numerous  in  Dalmatia.  Aside  from  the  Serbs  Proper,  only 
the  Montenegrins,  whose  religion  served  for  centuries  as  a  symbol  of 
resistance  to  the  Turks,  are  almost  to  a  man  Greek  Orthodox. 

Neither  language  nor  religion,  however,  nor  general  type  of  civilization, 
has  much  bearing  on  the  problem  of  race  in  Yugoslavia,  since  within 
this  kingdom  lies  the  concentration  point  of  the  entire  Dinaric  racial  zone, 
which  has  its  western  terminus  in  Austria,  Switzerland,  northern  Italy, 
and  southern  Germany,  and  its  eastern  in  Albania.  This  Dinaric  zone 
closely  follows  the  mountain  chain  which  borders  the  Adriatic,  and  is 
centered  in  Montenegro.  It  is  the  primary  function  of  this  section,  and  of 
that  on  Albania  which  follows,  to  dissect  this  Dinaric  nucleus  and  to 
elucidate  the  Dinaric  problem.  We  shall  consider  in  turn  the  following 
segments  of  the  southern  Slavic  nation:  Slovenes,  Croats,  Serbs,  Bosnians, 
Herzegovinians,  Dalmatians,  and  Montenegrins. 

The  Slovenes,118  who  are  the  westernmost  of  the  southern  Slavs,  are 
linguistically  closest  to  the  Croats,  whom  they  border  on  the  south  and 
east.  They  arrived  in  their  present  territory  in  the  seventh  century  A.D., 
and  absorbed  the  remnants  of  the  Keltic  and  Illyrian  peoples  who  had 
persisted  in  one  form  or  other  through  the  invasions  and  turmoils  of  the 
preceding  centuries.  Their  chief  area  is  the  former  Austrian  province  of 

"8  Biasutti,  R.,  APA,  vol.  51,  1921,  pp.  154-184. 
Cwirko-Godyki,  M.}  RDAP,  vol.  41,  1931,  pp.  105-120. 

Skerlj,  B.,  ZFMA,  vol.  28,  1930,  pp.  213-237;  AAnz,  vol.  8,  1932,  pp.  126-143; 
AnthPr,  vols.  1-2,  1927,  pp.  55-91. 

Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  33,  1903,  pp.  234-251. 


588  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Carniola,  where  they  form  94  per  cent  of  the  population;  beyond  its 
borders  they  extend  into  Styria  and  Carinthia,  and  in  the  south  they 
occupy  part  of  the  peninsula  of  Istria. 

In  stature,  head  form,  and  pigmentation,  they  cannot  be  distinguished 
from  the  Austrians  upon  whose  territory  they  touch;  their  mean  height 
being  168  cm.,  their  cephalic  index  83.4,  and  almost  half  having  medium 
brown  to  blond  hair,  while  light  and  light-mixed  eyes  total  nearly  70  per 
cent.  The  length  and  breadth  dimensions  of  the  head,  however,  fall  at 
the  small  end  of  the  Alpine  and  Dinaric  ranges,  with  means  of  183  mm. 
and  154  mm.;  furthermore,  their  facial  dimensions  are  rather  small,  with 
a  total  face  height  no  greater  than  120  mm.,  and  a  bizygomatic  diameter 
of  140  mm.  A  nasal  index  of  68  is  accompanied  by  a  25  per  cent  incidence 
of  concave  nasal  profiles. 

The  metrical  characters  detailed  above  indicate  that  while  the  stature 
and  head  form  of  the  general  Dinaric  area  are  approximated  by  these 
Slavs,  the  Neo-Danubian  type  which  has  reemerged  so  completely  in 
northern  and  eastern  Slavic  territory  is  also  to  be  reckoned  with  here. 
The  Slovenes  provide  a  partial  breach  in  the  Dinaric  racial  continuity, 
comparable  to  that  provided  by  the  Germanic  element  in  Austria. 

This  continuity  is,  however,  partially  restored  by  the  Croatians,119  who, 
with  a  mean  stature  of  170  cm.,  and  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  85,  are 
intermediate  in  many  respects  between  the  Slovenes  and  the  Serbs.  The 
pigmentation  of  the  Croatians  is  equivalent  to  that  of  the  Slovenes;  their 
faces  are  longer  and  wider,  however,  their  noses  longer,  and  nasal  con- 
cavity is  reduced  to  1 5  per  cent  of  the  whole. 

The  Serbs,  who  live  for  the  most  part  to  the  north  and  east  of  the  main 
Dinaric  Alpine  chain,  and  immediately  east  of  the  Bosnians  and  Montene- 
grins, founded  a  kingdom,  after  their  invasion  from  the  north  in  the  seventh 
century,  in  the  country  drained  by  the  headwaters  of  the  Lim  and  White 
Drin  rivers,  in  what  is  now  the  Ipek  region  of  eastern  Montenegro,  and 
the  Mitrovitza  country.120  The  previous  occupants  were  Romanized, 
Latin-speaking  descendants  of  Illyrians  and  Thracians,  and  of  colonists 
from  other  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire  planted  there  by  the  emperors. 
During  the  twelfth  century  the  Serbs  expanded  southward  onto  the  plain 
of  Kossovo,  whence  they  made  further  conquests.  Old  Serbia,  which 
arose  as  an  important  kingdom  during  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 
centuries,  had  as  its  centers  Skoplje  and  Prizren,  which,  for  the  last  five 
centuries,  have  been  mostly  inhabited  by  Turks  and  Albanians. 

"•Biasutti,  R.,  APA,  vol.  51,  1921,  pp.  154-184. 
Hrdlifcka,  A.,  The  Old  Americans. 
Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  35,  1905,  pp.  99-117. 
u°  Anonymous,  MAGW,  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  182-190. 
Cvijid,  J.,  GR,  vol.  5,  1918,  pp.  345-361. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  589 

The  Serbs  expanded,  during  the  period  of  their  efflorescence,  into 
Albania,  Macedonia,  and  Thessaly;  the  arrival  of  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
however,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourteenth  century,  terminated  this 
period  of  expansion,  and  many  of  the  Serbs  fled  northward,  while  others 
became  Turkicized  and  Albanized.  The  Albanians,  many  of  whom  were 
converted  to  Islam,  worked  with  the  Turks  rather  than  against  them,  and 
after  the  flight  of  the  Serbs  from  the  plain  of  Kossovo,  this  region  was 
soon  colonized  by  Albanians,  many  of  whom  still  remain  there.  The  once 
important  Serbian  influence  in  Albania  has  left  few  vestiges,  other  than 
Slavic  place  names,  and  the  presence  of  a  few  islands  of  Moslem  Serb 
speakers  in  the  mountains,  as  in  the  Gora  district  of  Luma. 

In  studying  the  racial  history  of  the  Balkans,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  here  more  than  elsewhere  in  Europe,  linguistic  and  ethnic  boundaries 
are  constantly  changing;  there  have  been  many  wholesale  emigrations  and 
immigrations;  whole  countrysides  have  changed  not  only  masters,  but 
also  peasantry,  in  mass  evictions  and  mass  colonizations.  The  Balkan 
peoples  change  their  languages  and  ethnic  identities  with  difficulty  and 
only  after  bitter  oppression;  it  is  easier  to  transplant  than  to  alter  them; 
once  converted,  however,  they  become  as  ardent  partisans  of  the  new 
allegiance  as  of  the  old.  The  Serbs  have  been  subjected  to  these  dis- 
turbances as  much  as  have  the  others.  Their  position  as  the  dominant 
people  of  Yugoslavia  has  only  been  won  through  centuries  of  retrench- 
ment and  struggle;  their  present  effort  to  Slavicize  by  force  the  minorities 
within  their  boundaries  is  a  commonplace  of  Balkan  history. 

The  modern  Serbs,  like  the  rest  of  the  Yugoslavs,  fall  more  into  the 
Dinaric  racial  classification  than  any  other.121  Not  as  tall  as  the  inhabitants 
of  the  mountain  chain  itself,  they  attain  a  national  stature  mean  of  about 
168  cm.,  which  varies  somewhat  regionally,  reaching  the  figure  of  170 
cm.  and  over  as  one  approaches  Bosnia  and  Montenegro.  The  bodily 
build  of  the  Serbs,  as  with  most  other  southern  Slavic  peoples,  is  neither 
thick-set  nor  lean  as  a  rule,  but  of  moderate  European  proportions.  A 
relative  sitting  height  mean  of  52.8  and  a  relative  span  of  102,  emphasize 
the  relative  length  of  leg  and  shortness  of  arm.  These  are  the  proportions 
that  one  finds  in  southern  Germany,  rather  than  in  northern  Slavic 
countries. 

The  Serbs,  for  their  stature,  have,  even  more  than  the  Slovenes,  rela- 
tively small  heads.  The  mean  length  is  only  182  mm.,  the  breadth  184.5 

121  Lebzelter,  V.»  MAGW,  vol.  59,  1929,  pp.  61-126;  vol.  63,  1933,  pp.  233-251. 

MaleS,  B.,  Antropoloska  Ispitivanja. 

MaleS,  B.,  and  Konstantinovic,  B.,  RDAR,  vol.  28,  1928-29,  pp.  401-416. 

Pittard,  E.,  REAP,  vol.  20,  1910,  pp.  307-311. 

Wiazeinsky,  Prince,  Anth,  vol.  20,  1909,  pp.  353-372. 

Wrzosek,  A.,  WAnt,  vol.  1,  Z.I,  1922. 


590  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

mm.,  while  the  auricular  height  mean  is  only  123  mm.  These  are  smaller 
than  the  heads  of  most  Alpines,  and  of  most  western  Dinaric  groups.  The 
cephalic  index  mean  of  85  is  of  fully  Dinaric  elevation.  The  faces  are  also 
small,  but  longer  than  those  of  Slovenes  and  Groats,  with  a  mean  menton- 
nasion  height  of  122  mm.  The  bizygomatic  breadth  is  likewise  restricted, 
the  mean  of  1 40  mm.  or  less  is  no  greater  than  among  Nordics  and  Neo- 
Danubians.  The  noses  are  moderately  leptorrhine  (N.  I.  =  63),  and  small, 
(53  mm.  X  33  mm.).  The  nasal  profiles  are  usually  straight,  with  a  25 
per  cent  convex  minority,  and  about  12  per  cent  of  concave.  The  nasal 
root  is  almost  always  high,  and  the  tip  is  inclined  horizontally  in  most 
cases,  but  downward  more  frequently  than  upward. 

The  Serbs  are  darker  in  pigmentation  than  either  the  Slovenes  or  the 
Croatians;  45  per  cent  of  eyes  are  pure  brown  (Martin  #2-4),  as  against 
20  per  cent  which  are  pure  or  nearly  pure  light.  Over  55  per  cent  have 
black  or  dark  brown  hair,  while  light  browns  and  blonds  come  to  less 
than  10  per  cent.  The  beards  are,  of  course,  often  lighter  than  the  head 
hair.  The  skin  is  brunet-white  or  light-brown  in  at  least  a  third  of  the 
total.  It  is  unlikely  that  the  prevalence  of  brunet  pigmentation  among  the 
Serbs  came  from  a  Slavic  source,  and  as  we  shall  presently  see,  the  high 
incidence  of  dark  eyes  can  hardly  be  called  Dinaric.  By  elimination  we 
must  suppose  that  the  Serbs,  in  their  sojourn  in  northern  Macedonia, 
accumulated  a  strong  brunet  tendency. 

Bosnia  consists  of  the  six  provinces,  Bihac,  Banjaluka,  Tuzla,  Travnik, 
Sarajevo,  and  Mostar,  which  lie  between  western  Croatia,  Dalmatia, 
Montenegro,  and  the  Slavonian  plain.  The  southernmost  province,  Mostar, 
includes  the  territory  known  as  Herzegovina,  which  lies  nearest  to  Monte- 
negro. The  Bosnians  serve  racially  as  an  approach  to  the  nucleus  of  Dinaric 
giantism  in  Montenegro.122  Tuzla,  in  the  northeast,  has  a  mean  stature  of 
171  cm.;  Biha6  and  Banjaluca,  in  the  northwest,  of  172  cm.;  in  Travnik 
and  parts  of  Mostar  it  rises  to  173  cm.,  in  Sarajevo  to  174  cm.,  and  in 
Herzegovina  to  175-176  cm.,  approaching  the  Montenegrin  level.  The 
mean  cephalic  index  of  the  Bosnians  is  over  85;  this  varies  by  religions, 
with  the  Catholics  the  most  brachycephalic  (86),  and  the  Moslems  the 
least  (84).  The  Catholics  are  likewise  the  tallest  and  the  lightest  skinned; 
being  the  oldest  population  in  the  region  in  point  of  conversion,  and  the 
least  affected  by  outside  influences,  the  Catholic  element  preserves  both 
a  pre-Slavic  ns  and  a  pre-Turkish  racial  configuration  more  completely 
than  do  the  partisans  of  Orthodoxy  or  Islam. 

122  Capus,  G.,  BSAP,  ser.  4,  vol.  6,  1895,  pp.  99-103. 
Krauss,  F.  S.,  MAGW,  vol.  15,  1885,  pp.  84-87. 

Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  25,  1895,  pp.  206-239;  MAGW,  supplement  2,  1889. 

123  Pre-Slavic  in  thi  chronological  sense,  not  in  the  sense  used  by  Polish  anthropolo- 
gists. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  591 

In  hair  and  eye  color  the  Bosnians  are  intermediate  between  Croatians 
and  Serbs;  they  are  darkest  in  the  northeast,  and  fairest  in  the  regions  near- 
est Montenegro.  Since  they  form  but  an  extension  of  the  Montenegrin  nu- 
cleus, it  will  suffice  here  to  point  out  their  near  identity  with  the  inhabitants 
of  that  former  kingdom,  and  to  leave  a  detailed  description  for  the  latter. 

On  the  steep  and  narrow  coast  of  the  Dinaric  Alps,  the  zone  of  Dinaric 
racial  concentration  tapers  off  abruptly.  The  mean  stature  of  the  coastal 
people,  from  Istria  along  the  Croatian  shore  and  through  the  length  of 
Dalmatia  almost  to  the  border  of  Albania,  rises  regularly  from  about  1 66 
cm.  to  171  cm.,  as  one  proceeds  southeastward.124  Although  the  head 
form,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  83-84,  remains  brachycephalic,  the 
extreme  short-headedness  of  the  mountain  interior  is  not  present.  The 
pigmentation  changes  gradually  but  extensively  from  a  prevailingly  blond 
condition  in  Istria  to  a  prevalence  of  dark-mixed  and  dark  eyes,  and  of 
black  or  dark  brown  hair,  in  southeastern  Dalmatia.  One  may  attribute 
the  lesser  Dinaricism  of  the  Dalmatians  to  Italian  or  to  Vlach  blood,  or  to 
both,125  but  this  cannot  be  the  only  explanation.  Dalmatia  is  the  home, 
in  solution,  of  a  strong  Atlanto-Mediterranean  strain  comparable  to  that 
found  in  northern  Italy,  which  must  go  back  in  both  places  to  a  consider- 
able antiquity. 

The  Montenegrins,  who  are  the  tallest  people  in  Europe,  live  on  a 
barren  limestone  mountain  upland,  where  they,  for  centuries,  succeeded 
in  maintaining  their  Christianity  and  their  freedom  while  surrounded  by 
the  Turks.  They,  like  the  northern  Albanians,  preserve  their  old  exog- 
amous  clan  organization,  and  their  clan  loyalties  and  feuds.  They  are 
linguistically  Serbs,  but  there  can  be  no  question  that  they  are  to  a  large 
extent  Slavicized  Albanians;  the  cultural  continuity  between  the  two 
peoples  is  striking,  the  only  real  differences  being  those  of  language  and  re- 
ligion. Although  the  Montenegrins  are  divided  geographically  into  several 
sections,  the  racial  differences  between  these  are  not  great,  and  for  the  pres- 
ent purpose  the  Montenegrins  will  b£  dealt  with  as  a  whole.  Where  there 
are  regional  differences,  the  Old  Montenegrins,  who  show  the  most  extreme 
development  in  typically  Montenegrin  characters,  will  be  referred  to.126 

w*  Weisbach,  A.,  ZFE,  supplement  to  vol.  16,  1884,  pp.  1-77. 

Zampa,  R.,  RDAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  1,  1886,  pp.  625-648. 

128  See  Chapter  XII,  section  16,  p.  614. 

128  The  data  upon  which  the  following  anthropometric  summary  is  largely  based  con- 
sists of  an  unpublished  series  of  over  800  Montenegrins  measured  by  Mr.  Robert  W. 
Ehrich,  and  used  here  with  his  permission.  Other  sources  consulted  are: 

Haberlandt,  A.,  and  Lebzelter,  V.,  AFA,  vol.  45,  1919,  pp.  123-154. 

Males',  B.,  AnthPr,  vol.  9,  1931,  pp.  125-145. 

Pittard,  E.,  RDAP,  vol.  26,  1916,  pp.  199-201. 

ValSik,  J.,  PAn,  vol.  8,  1934,  pp.  53-55. 

Vram,  U.,  ASRA,  vol.  11,  1905,  pp.  183-193. 


592  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

The  mean  stature  of  adult  male  Montenegrins  reaches  the  figure  of  1 77 
cm.,  and  in  some  districts  it  rises  to  178  cm.  The  mean  weight  of  a  large 
series  whose  average  age  is  40  years  is  160  Ibs.;  hence  they  are  probably 
the  heaviest  as  well  as  the  tallest  people  in  Europe,  being  even  heavier 
than  the  Irish.  Although  their  legs  are  very  long,  their  trunks  are  cor- 
respondingly high,  and  a  mean  relative  sitting  height  of  52  is  at  least  4 
points  higher  than  that  for  the  long-legged  Tuareg,  who  are  the  only 
white  people  of  pure  Mediterranean  origin  to  approach  them  in  stature. 
The  Montenegrins'  mean  shoulder  breath  is  39  cm.,  and  their  chests  are 
correspondingly  large.  The  relative  span  of  101  is  extremely  low,  indicat- 
ing that  their  arms  are  short  in  proportion  to  either  leg  or  trunk  length. 
The  hands  and  feet  are,  as  is  to  be  expected,  usually  of  great  size.  These 
huge  mountaineers  are  not  as  a  rule  slender,  leptosome  people;  they  are 
often  thick-set,  and  are  large  all  over. 

As  is  to  be  expected  among  men  of  their  stature  and  bulk,  the  Montene- 
grins have  large  heads,  but  these  are  not  quite  as  large  as  those  of  the 
somewhat  shorter  Irish,  Icelanders,  or  Fehmarners.  The  mean  head 
length  is  188  mm.,  the  breadth  160  mm.,  the  auricular  height  about  128 
mm.  The  cephalic  index  mean  is  85,  about  the  same  as  for  Croatians, 
Bosnians,  and  Serbs.  The  head  length,  however,  is  at  least  7  mm.  greater 
than  that  for  these  other  Yugoslavs,  excepting  the  Bosnians,  who  fill  an 
intermediate  position;  the  head  breadth  is  about  6  mm.  greater.  The  faces 
are  correspondingly  large;  the  minimum  frontal  mean  is  112  mm.,  the 
bizygomatic  147  mm.,  and  the  bigonial  112  mm.  The  toal  face  height, 
127  mm.  in  Old  Montenegro,  rises  to  a  mean  of  over  130  mm.  in  Brda  and 
the  northern  border  tribes;  the  nose  height  reaches  the  remarkable  eleva- 
tion of  61  mm.,  while  the  breadth  is  36  mm. 

The  facial  index,  in  view  of  the  great  size  of  both  component  diameters, 
lies  at  89  in  Old  Montenegro,  on  the  border  between  mesoprosopy  and 
leptoprosopy;  it  rises  to  91  in  Brda  and  the  northern  border  tribes.  The 
upper  facial  index,  53  in  Old  Montenegro,  has  a  mean  of  55  in  the  north. 
The  nasal  index  is  hyperleptorrhine,  with  tribal  means  ranging  between 
58  and  60.  The  widest  faces,  the  shortest  faces,  and  the  lowest  upper  facial 
indices,  as  well  as  the  widest  foreheads  and  jaws,  are  concentrated  in  the 
southwest,  Old  Montenegro.  These  excesses  are  not  typically  Dinaric;  they 
suggest  only  one  possible  relationship,  and  that  is  with  the  unreduced 
Upper  Palaeolithic  races. 

The  Montenegrins  are  prevailingly  dark  brown  in  head  hair  color;  in 
Old  Montenegro  some  45  per  cent  of  adult  males  belong  to  this  class, 
while  20  per  cent  are  medium  brown,  and  26  per  cent  auburn,  or  brown 
with  a  perceptible  reddish  tinge.  The  tribesmen  of  Brda  and  the  north- 
ern border  are  somewhat  darker,  and  show  less  rufosity.  The  beards  are 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  593 

much  lighter  than  the  head  hair;  among  Old  Montenegrins  43  per  cent 
are  reddish  brown,  and  8  per  cent  contain  a  pure  red  element;  only  17 
per  cent  are  dark  brown.  In  Brda  golden-brown  beards  are  extremely 
common,  as  frequent  as  39  per  cent;  in  the  northern  border  tribes,  24 
per  cent.  The  rufosity  of  the  Montenegrins,  and  their  tendency  to  golden 
blondism,  is  not  only  extreme,  but  is  particularly  unusual  for  this  part  of 
Europe.  It  will  be  recalled  that  the  Serbians,  traditionally  close  relatives 
of  the  Montenegrins,  are  much  darker  haired,  and  that  the  Slavs  in 
general,  when  blond,  favor  the  ash-blond  side  of  the  scale,  being  almost 
entirely  deficient  in  rufosity. 

Twenty-five  per  cent  of  Old  Montenegrins  have  pure  dark  eyes,  and 
10  per  cent  pure  light  ones.  The  pure  darks  are  almost  all  mixtures  be- 
tween dark  brown  and  light  brown  shades,  while  the  pure  lights  are  gray- 
ish blue.  The  mixed  class,  by  far  the  largest,  consists  of  37  per  cent  green- 
brown,  20  per  cent  blue-brown,  and  6  per  cent  gray-brown.  The  northern 
border  tribes  and  Brda  are  lighter  eyed  than  Old  Montenegro,  with  only 
20  per  cent  of  pure  darks.  On  the  whole  the  Montenegrins  have  lighter 
eyes  than  the  Serbs,  and  fully  as  light  as  the  Slovenes  and  Croatians.  Over 
80  per  cent  have  pinkish  white  unexposed  skin  color,  ranging  from  von 
Luschan  #3  to  7,  8,  and  9;  a  small  minority  have  skins  which  are  as  dark 
as  light  brown.  About  25  per  cent  show  some  freckling,  as  is  to  be  expected 
in  association  with  rufosity. 

The  head  hair  is  straight  or  nearly  straight  among  half  the  Old  Mon- 
tenegrins, wavy  among  the  rest;  in  the  other  tribes  the  ratio  of  straight 
runs  higher.  The  beard  and  body  hair  are,  as  a  rule,  moderate  to  abun- 
dant; the  glabrosity  of  the  eastern  Slavs  rarely  appears  here.  Baldness, 
either  partial  or  involving  the  whole  crown  of  the  head,  is  quite  common. 
The  eyebrows  are  as  a  rule  thick,  and  concurrent  in  80  per  cent  of  the 
group.  Exceptionally  heavy  browridges,  rare  among  other  Slavs,  are 
found  in  about  20  per  cent.  The  eyes  are  frequently  deep  set,  with  a 
narrow  opening  between  the  lids;  three  men  out  of  four  have  external  eye- 
folds.  A  low  orbit,  a  quite  un-Dinaric  character,  seems  frequent. 

The  nose  again  in  many  cases  diverges  from  a  Dinaric  standard;  deep 
nasion  depressions  are  common,  and  the  nasal  root  is  often  of  only  moderate 
height  and  moderate  breadth.  The  bridge  is  frequently  but  by  no  means 
always  high,  and  of  medium  breadth.  Among  the  Old  Montenegrins, 
non-Dinaric  nasal  characters  are  commoner  than  among  the  other  tribal 
groups.  Fifty-two  per  cent  of  convex  nasal  profiles,  however,  retain  the 
Old  Montenegrins  as  a  whole  in  the  Dinaric  class;  the  ratio  is  higher  else- 
where. Fifteen  per  cent  are  concave,  and  4  per  cent  definitely  snubbed. 
The  tip  is  of  medium  thickness  in  most  cases,  and  inclined  downward  more 
frequently  than  upward.  It  must  be  remembered  that  in  this  case  we  are 


594  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

dealing  with  a  series  of  men  whose  mean  age  is  40  years,  and  that  among 
Dinaric  peoples  the  depression  of  the  nasal  tip  is  a  phenomenon  of  advanc- 
ing age.  On  the  whole  the  Montenegrins  show  a  variety  of  nasal  forms; 
the  large  hawk-beak  for  which  they  are  famous  is  the  most  common,  but 
alongside  it  is  a  large-tipped,  low-bridged  form  which  is  less  frequent  but 
even  more  characteristic. 

The  lips  are  usually  of  moderate  integumental  and  slight  membranous 
thickness;  eversion  is  usually  slight,  and  this  last  feature  may  be  associated 
with  a  25  per  cent  incidence  of  the  primitive  edge-to-edge  manner  of 
dental  occlusion.  Although  the  malars  are  rarely  prominent  in  the  forward 
plane,  the  zygomatic  arches  frequently  jut  widely  to  the  side;  the  gonial 
angles  are  of  exaggerated  prominence  in  nearly  half  the  group.  In  the 
back  of  the  head,  occipital  protrusion  is  usually  slight  to  absent;  occipital 
flattening  is  present  in  43  per  cent  of  the  Old  Montenegrins,  and  even 
commoner  in  some  of  the  other  groups.  Lambdoidal  flattening  is  even 
more  frequent;  few  heads  show  no  flattening  in  either  the  lambdoid  re- 
gion or  below  it. 

The  Montenegrins,  after  a  detailed  examination,  are  seen  to  be  far 
from  typical  Binaries  in  many  features;  they  are  too  large-bodied,  too 
large-headed,  and  too  broad-faced;  their  noses  are  too  frequently  broad 
and  thick- tipped.  They  are  also  far  too  rufous  for  the  ordinary  Dinaric 
type.  Taking  the  Montenegrins  individually,  one  finds  many  who  do 
conform  to  standard  Dinaric  specifications,  but  are  all  taller  than  most 
Dinarics  elsewhere;  there  are  also  some  short,  thick-set  Alpines,  and  a 
minority  of  tall,  brunet  dolichocephals  or  near  dolichocephals  whom  we 
shall  also  find  farther  south  in  Albania.  But  the  Montenegrin  of  distinc- 
tive type,  concentrated  in  Old  Montenegro,  is  a  very  tall,  large-bodied 
man,  with  a  large,  full-vaulted  head  abbreviated  at  the  rear;  his  face 
is  very  broad,  his  jaw  heavy,  his  brows  overhanging,  and  his  nose  large  and 
thick- tipped.  It  is  this  type  which  bears  the  rufosity  in  hair  color,  the 
freckling,  and  a  tendency  to  light-mixed  eye  color.  Most  of  the  Montene- 
grins are  intermediate  between  this  type  and  a  more  conventional  Dinaric. 

The  Old  Montenegrin  type,  concentrated  in  the  southwestern  mountain 
fringe  of  Montenegro,  just  north  of  the  Lake  of  Scutari,  in  the  most 
conservative  part  of  the  kingdom  culturally,  and  the  ethnic  center  of  the 
Montenegrin  nation,  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  local  unreduced 
brachycephalized  Upper  Palaeolithic  survival  or  reemergence,  comparable 
to  those  found  in  northern  Europe  and  northern  Africa.  Its  growth  to  an 
extreme  size  is  a  local  specialization,  in  which  selection  may  have  played 
a  part,  as  well  possibly  as  nutritive  factors  associated  with  life  on  a  lime- 
stone mountain.  Mixture  with  this  Borreby-like  type,  and  a  response  to 
the  same  selective  and  environmental  influences,  have  elevated  the  stature 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  595 

of  the  accompanying  Dinaric  factor  as  well.  Montenegro  is  not,  therefore, 
simply  a  Dinaric  nucleus;  it  is  a  Borreby-like  or  Afalou-like  outcropping 
within  a  Dinaric  nucleus.  We  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  prehistoric 
archaeology  of  Montenegro.  So  far  there  is  no  evidence  to  prove  or  dis- 
prove the  presence  of  an  Upper  Palaeolithic  European  racial  strain  in 
this  region.  How  this  strain  got  to  Montenegro,  far  from  its  other  centers 
of  survival,  is  a  problem  which  cannot  be  solved  without  further  facts. 

(13)   ALBANIA  AND   THE  DINARIC  RACE 

The  kingdom  of  Albania,  lying  directly  south  of  Montenegro,  contains  a 
population  of  roughly  one  million  people;  another  million  at  least  live 
outside  the  borders  of  their  own  country,  mostly  in  Yugoslavia,  although 
there  are  large  colonies  in  Greece  and  in  Rumania,  as  well  as  in  the 
United  States.  They  are  divided  into  two  distinct  ethnic  groups,  each 
with  its  own  variety  and  dialects  of  the  Albanian  language,  its  own  cos- 
tume, and  its  own  particular  pattern  of  culture.  These  are  the  Toscs  in 
the  south,  and  in  the  north  and  on  the  plain  of  Kossovo,  the  Ghegs.  The 
Ghegs  still  preserve  their  system  of  exogamous  patrilineal  clans,  compa- 
rable to  that  of  the  Montenegrins;  they  are  divided  into  ten  tribes  of  which 
at  least  part  of  each  lies  in  Albania  itself,  and  three  or  perhaps  more  out- 
side. The  ten  in  Albania  include  Malsia  e  Madhe,  Dukagin,  Malsia 
Jakoves  and  Has,  all  north  of  the  Drin,  and  reading  from  west  to  east. 
Both  Has  and  Malsia  Jakoves  extend  eastward  into  Old  Serbia,  north  of 
Prizren;  Malsia  e  Madhe  has  clans  in  Old  Montenegro.  Entirely  outside 
of  Albania,  in  Montenegro  and  the  Kossovo  country,  are  Peia,  Podrima, 
and  a  number  of  clans  in  the  neighborhood  of  Mitrovitza.  South  of  the 
Drin  are  Zadrima,  immediately  southeast  of  Shkodra;  Puka,  Mirdita, 
and  Luma,  part  of  which  is  Serbian-speaking;  south  of  this  band  are  Mati, 
the  tribe  of  King  Zog,  and  Dibra,  which  occupies  the  slopes  on  either 
side  of  the  Black  Drin. 

Seventy  per  cent  of  the  Albanians  'in  Albania  are  Moslems,  nearly  all 
in  Yugoslavia  are.  The  remaining  30  per  cent  are  equally  divided  between 
Catholics  and  Greek  Orthodox.  The  Catholics  are  all  Ghegs,  the  Orthodox 
all  Toscs.  Of  the  Ghegs,  all  of  Mirdita,  all  of  Dukagin,  and  parts  of  Za- 
drima, Malsia  e  Madhe,  Puka,  Malsia  Jakoves,  Has,  and  Mati  are  Cath- 
olic. The  Catholics  are  the  most  conservative  culturally,  and  as  a  rule 
the  most  remote  in  their  habitat.  Neither  Catholicism  nor  Islam  have 
inhibited  the  functioning  of  the  Gheg  social  system,  which  operates  in  an 
unusual  manner.  Each  tribe  is  divided  into  geographical  and  political » 
divisions  known  as  bairaks,  but  independent  of  this  is  another  concept 
known  as  the  fis.  The  fis  is  an  exogamous  patrilineal  kinship  group, 
without  geographical  attachment;  several  whole  bairaks  may  belong  to 


596 


THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 


one  fa,  and  thus  be  excluded  from  intermarriage;  on  the  other  hand  one 
small  village  may  contain  branches  of  several  fa,  some  large  and  national, 
other  small  and  local. 

The  fa  is  the  body  of  descendants  in  the  male  line  of  one  usually  epony- 
mous ancestor.  In  various  tribes  different  rules  hold  as  to  the  determina- 
tion of  when  this  relationship  may  become  so  remote  that  the  marriage 


MAP  15 
TRIBAL  DIVISIONS  IN  NORTHERN  ALBANIA 

restriction  breaks  down;  in  some,  after  one  hundred  generations;  in  others, 
only  when  the  exact  relationship  is  unknown.  This  exogamy  has  a  close 
bearing  upon  the  regional  physical  anthropology  of  the  Ghegs,  since  it 
oversteps  tribal  boundaries  and  causes  a  trading  of  wives  over  large 
distances.  Designed  to  prevent  incest,  it  actually  produces  close  in-breed- 
ing, since  reciprocal  matings  amount  in  many  cases  to  habitual  cross- 
cousin  marriage. 

The  most  important^  is  that  to  which  the  people  of  the  famous  bairaks 
of  Shoshi  and  Shala,  in  Dukagin,  belong,  and  also  three  of  the  five  bairaks 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  597 

of  Mirdita.  The  restrictions  against  intermarriage  between  Shoshi  and 
Shala  have  broken  down,  as  well  even  as  unions  between  moieties  within 
these  bairaks,  but  in  Mirdita  all  the  young  men  of  the  three  bairaks  of 
Spag,  Orosh,  and  Kushnein  must  take  their  wives  from  the  other  two, 
Dibri  and  Fan.  The  original  ancestors  of  this  super^  were  brothers, 
who  came  from  the  plain  of  Kossovo  into  the  mountains  looking  for 
refuge,  at  least  100  generations  ago,  according  to  the  popular  tradition. 
That  many  such  movements  must  have  taken  place  in  the  past  is  apparent; 
northern  Albania  is  a  refuge  area  of  the  first  water.  The  Albanian  lan- 
guage, a  hybrid  between  Illyrian,  Thracian,  Latin,  Slavic,  Turkish,  and 
other  elements,  reflects  the  ethnically  composite  origin  of  the  Albanians. 

The  stature  of  the  Ghegs  is  extremely  variable  geographically;  the 
tribes  which  touch  Montenegro  have  means  of  173  cm.  and  174  cm.;  the 
northernmost  bairaks  of  Malsia  e  Madhe  and  Dukagin,  which  lie  closest 
to  Old  Montenegro,  are  taller  than  the  southern  ones  within  their  own 
tribes.127  On  the  south  side  of  the  Drin  the  means  fall  to  169  crn.,  and 
continues  to  the  level  of  167  cm.  in  Mati  and  Mirdita.  The  stature  level 
of  the  Montenegrins  tapers  off  much  more  rapidly  to  the  south  of  its 
nucleus  than  it  does  to  the  north.  The  descent  in  stature  level  is  steepest 
on  the  western  side  of  the  mountains;  on  the  eastern  side,  from  Has  to 
Dibra,  there  is  a  drop  of  only  2  cm.  The  stature  of  the  Albanians  is 
chronologically  constant;  there  is  no  internal  evidence  of  recent  increase. 

The  relative  span  of  the  Ghegs  is  104,  higher  than  that  of  Montenegrins, 
and  more  in  accordance  with  Dinaric  standards.  The  relative  sitting 
height  of  52.8  is  much  the  same,  and  shows  no  regional  differences  of  any 
importance.  As  in  Montenegro,  bodily  build  is  not  controlled  by  stature; 
the  most  thick-set  individuals  are  often  the  tallest.  The  shoulder  breadth- 
stature  ratio  is  in  fact  highest  in  the  tribes  adjoining  Montenegro. 

The  mean  cephalic  index  of  the  Ghegs  is  85,  as  with  most  Binaries. 
Geographically,  however,  the  highest  indices  are  found  in  the  west,  in 
Malsia  Jakoves,  Zadrima,  and  Mati,  the  three  tribes  situated  on  the  coastal 
side  of  the  mountain  chain;  here  the  means  lie  between  86.5  and  87.  A 
zone  of  relative  long-headedness  is  found  in  the  east,  in  Malsia  Jakoves 
and  Luma,  where  the  means  are  83.  Thus  the  progression  is  from  west  to 
east,  and  not  north  to  south,  as  with  stature. 

127  This  section  is  based  upon  a  series  of  1100  Ghegs  measured  by  the  author  in  1929- 
30.  In  each  of  the  ten  tribes  within  Albania,  the  sample  includes  over  100  men;  within 
each  tribe  the  bairak  and  village  distribution  is  approximately  even.  Other  sources 
dealing  with  the  Ghegs  include : 

Haberlandt,  A.,  and  Lebzelter,  V.,  AFA,  vol.  45,  1919,  pp.  123-142. 

Pittard,  E.,  Les  Pmples  des  Balkans. 

Tildesley,  M.  L.»  Biometrika,  vol.  25,  1933,  pp.  21-51. 

Weninger,  J.,  Rassenhmdliche  Untersuchungm  an  Albanern>  RPN,  ser.  A.  vol.  4,  1934. 


598  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

As  one  would  expect,  the  head  dimensions  vary  with  stature;  the  mean 
head  lengths  in  the  north  range  from  186  mm.  to  190  mm.;  in  the  south 
from  183  mm.  to  185  mm.  The  head  breadths  run  from  162  mm.  in 
Malsia  e  Madhe  to  165  mm.  in  Luma.  The  widest  heads  are  thus  found 
in  proximity  to  Old  Montenegro.  The  vaults  of  the  Ghegs  are  moderately 
high;  ranging  from  129  mm.  in  the  north,  to  126  mm.  in  the  south.  The 
facial  diameters  show  both  a  north-south  and  an  east- west  progression; 
the  minimum  frontal  mean,  for  example,  is  112  mm.  in  Malsia  e  Madhe, 
and  110  mm.  in  other  tribes  north  of  the  Drin;  elsewhere  it  falls  to  107 
mm.  and  108  mm.  The  bizygomatic,  with  a  mean  of  144  mm.  in  the 
northwestern  tribes,  falls  regularly  to  140-141  mm.  in  the  south  and  east. 
The  bigonial  follows  a  similar  progression  from  109  mm.  to  107  mm.  In 
these  facial  diameters,  as  in  stature,  the  northwesternmost  Ghegs  form  a 
continuation  of  the  oversized  racial  area  of  Old  Montenegro;  elsewhere 
there  is  a  rapid  tapering  to  a  normal  Dinaric  condition.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  among  these  Dinarics,  patently  the  descendants  of  pre-Germanic  and 
pre-Slavic  mountain  peoples,  the  forehead  is  wider  than  the  mandible, 
and  the  face  takes  on  the  characteristic  form  of  an  inverted  triangle. 

Once  outside  the  Montenegrin  area,  the  face  loses  its  excessive  height; 
the  mean  menton-nasion  diameter  of  the  Ghegs  is  124  mm.,  comparable 
to  face  heights  in  southern  Germany  and  Switzerland.  The  greatest 
heights,  reaching  a  mean  of  1 26  mm.  in  Has,  are  found  in  the  east,  along 
the  edges  of  the  plain  of  Kossovo;  the  shortest,  reaching  121  mm.  in 
Mirdita,  are  located  in  the  central  mountain  nucleus,  from  Dukagin  to 
Mati.  This  regional  pattern  is  clearly  shown  by  the  facial  index,  which 
runs  from  86  in  the  center  and  west,  to  89  in  the  east.  All  tribes  but  Has, 
however,  are  mesoprosopic.  The  upper  facial  index  is  even  more  variable; 
the  mean  for  Mirdita  is  49;  for  Has  54;  this  range  is  nearly  as  great  as 
that  for  all  of  Europe.  The  noses  of  the  Ghegs,  58  mm.  high  by  34  mm. 
wide,  are  among  the  world's  most  leptorrhinc,  with  a  mean  nasal  index 
of  58. 

Metrically  the  Gheg  tribes  present  a  complex  situation;  the  rapid  pro- 
gression from  north  to  south  in  stature  and  in  the  breadths  of  the  head  and 
face  show  that  the  Borreby-like  nucleus  of  Old  Montenegro  does  not 
extend  far  southward  into  Albania.  The  tall,  northern  tribesmen  are  the 
most  heavily  built,  the  shorter  southern  ones  the  most  sparely;  a  conven- 
tional Dinaric  build  goes  with  the  shorter  stature  level.  In  the  eastern 
tribes  there  is  strong  evidence  of  a  moderately  tall,  long-faced,  dolicho- 
cephalic element;  while  a  short-faced  element,  metrically  suggestive  of 
Alpines,  is  centered  in  the  very  remote  mountain  valleys  of  Mirdita. 

Almost  all  of  the  Ghegs  are  light-skinned,  with  the  von  Luschan  #3 
and  7  most  frequently  represented.  Freckling,  common  in  Montenegro, 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  599 

is  rare  here;  what  little  there  is  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the  tribes 
nearest  Old  Montenegro,  and  here  it  reaches  but  5  per  cent.  The  head 
hair  is  usually  brunet,  with  black  or  near  black  reaching  40  per  cent, 
and  dark  to  medium  brown  45  per  cent.  Light  brown  or  blond  hair, 
which  is  almost  always  on  the  golden  or  slightly  rufous  side,  accounts  for 
the  other  15  per  cent.  Only  two  men  out  of  1100  were  found  to  have  ash- 
blond  hair.  As  in  Montenegro,  the  beards  are  much  lighter  than  the  head 
hair;  the  black  contingent  is  reduced  to  6  per  cent,  while  36  per  cent  are 
reddish  brown  or  auburn,  3  per  cent  red,  and  30  per  cent  golden  blond  or 
light  brown  with  a  golden  tinge.  The  rufous  tendency,  while  not  as  pro- 
nounced as  in  parts  of  Montenegro,  exists  to  the  virtual  exclusion  of  ash- 
blondisrn.  Regionally,  the  darkest  hair  is  found  in  Mirdita  and  in  the 
eastern  border;  the  lightest  in  the  west  and  south. 

Seventeen  per  cent  of  Ghegs  have  pure  brown  eyes,  and  7  per  cent  pure 
light  ones.  Half  the  group  has  green-brown  iris  combinations  and  20  per 
cent  blue-brown.  Of  the  mixed  eyes,  30  per  cent  are  dark-mixed,  and  48 
per  cent  predominantly  light,  the  rest  nearly  even.  The  Ghegs  are,  there- 
fore, thoroughly  mixed,  or  almost  completely  intermediate,  in  eye  color, 
with  the  blond  element  or  elements  slightly  more  important  than  the 
brunet.  The  darkest  eyes  are  found  in  Dukagin,  and  in  Malsia  Jakoves, 
on  the  border  of  Old  Serbia;  there  25  percent  of  eyes  are  brown.  Else- 
where there  is  little  regional  differentiation. 

The  head  hair  of  the  Ghegs  is  usually  wavy,  and  medium  to  fine  in 
texture;  it  is  of  greater  than  average  abundance  for  Europeans  on  mus- 
tache, cheek,  jaw,  and  on  the  body;  at  the  same  time  the  correlative 
tendency  to  baldness  is  strong  here.  The  eyebrows  are  usually  thick,  and 
are  concurrent  in  70  per  cent  of  the  group.  As  in  Montenegro,  the  fore- 
heads are  seldom  very  sloping;  the  browridges  are  usually  on  the  heavy 
side  of  medium.  External  eyefolds,  found  in  35  per  cent  of  the  group,  are 
commonest  in  the  tribes  which  form  a  continuation  of  the  western  moun- 
tain zone  south  of  Old  Montenegro;  elsewhere  the  high  Dinaric  orbit 
precludes  their  development  in  most  cases. 

The  nasal  morphology  of  the  Ghegs  is  usually  more  strictly  Dinaric  than 
that  of  the  Montenegrins;  the  root  and  bridge  are  more  consistently  ele- 
vated, and  the  tip  as  a  rule  thinner.  Well  over  50  per  cent  have  convex 
profiles;  only  6  per  gent  concave.  Less  than  half  the  tips  are  inclined 
downward;  only  in  Malsia  e  Madhe,  closest  to  Montenegro,  are  depressed 
tips  in  the  majority.  With  the  thin  nasal  tip  goes  a  high  ratio  of  compressed 
nasal  wings;  the  Gheg  nose  is  truly  leptorrhine  morphologically  as  well 
as  metrically. 

The  faces  of  the  Ghegs  often  lack  the  strong  bony  relief  so  noticeable 
among  Montenegrins;  the  lateral  jut  of  the  zygomatic  arches  is  usually 


600  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

restricted,  and  the  gonial  angles  are  usually  of  but  medium  prominence. 
The  cheeks  are  usually  drawn  and  thin,  and  while  this  condition  may  be 
partly  nutritional,  it  has  its  racial  implications.  The  plump,  fat-padded 
cheeks  of  the  Ukrainian  peasants  stand  at  the  opposite  European  extreme. 
The  morphology  of  the  occipital  region  among  the  Ghegs,  in  view  of 
their  general  Dinaric  character,  is  of  particular  interest.  The  occipital 
protrusion  is  as  a  rule  slight  to  medium;  it  is  least  in  the  western  tribes, 
and  greatest  in  the  eastern.  Actual  occipital  flattening  is  found  in  only 
30  per  cent  of  the  group;  tribal  incidences  range  from  50  per  cent  in 
Malsia  e  Madhe  to  20  per  cent  in  Dukagin,  Malsia  Jakoves,  and  Puka. 
On  the  whole  the  distribution  is  definitely  west  to  east.  Lambdoid  flattening 
is  found  among  44  per  cent  of  the  Ghegs;  it  is  thus  more  frequent  than  the 
occipital  form.  Its  tribal  distribution  is  exactly  opposite  to  that  of  occipital 
flattening;  the  two  phenomena  are  usually  complementary,  and  a  minority 
only  of  individuals  lacks  either. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  upon  the  subject  of  occipital  flattening, 
both  in  Albania  and  in  Asia  Minor;  there  are  two  definite  schools,  one 
which  believes  that  it  is  natural  and  racially  determined,  the  other  that  it  is 
a  form  of  artificial  deformation  caused  by  cradling.  My  own  position  lies 
between  these  two  extremes;  128  occipital  flattening  is  without  doubt  a  phe- 
nomenon associated  with  the  entire  mechanical  orientation  of  the  cranium 
in  the  Dinaric  race,  and  especially  with  the  position  of  the  foramen  magnum 
to  the  rear  of  that  usual  in  most  races.  As  such,  it  is  undeniably  inherited. 

At  the  same  time,  the  use  of  the  Albanian  cradle,  in  which  the  shoulders 
are  bound  but  the  head  is  not,  may  in  some  instances  have  caused  an 
intensification  of  this  flattening,  since  the  heads  of  some  living  Albanians 
are  unquestionably  deformed.  However,  since  cradling  practices  are 
regionally  uniform  in  Albania,  the  geographical  distribution  of  this 
character  is  wholly  racial  in  pattern. 

At  this  point  there  arises  the  entire  question  of  Dinaric  origins,  which 
may  be  approached  on  the  basis  of  a  statistical  analysis  of  the  Gheg 
material.    Attempts  to  intercorrelate  metrical  and  morphological  char- 
acters with  each  other  and  with  pigmentation  reveal  the  presence  of  the 
following  types  in  Ghegnia,  each  of  which  shows  a  tendency  for  the 
characters  of  which  it  is  composed  to  associate  themselves  as  a  unit. 
(1)  A  tall,  large-headed,  brachycephalic,  wide-faced  type,  with  inter- 
mediate pigmentation,  and  an  especial  tendency  toward  rufosity. 
This  is  the  Borreby-like  type  prevalent  in  Montenegro;  in  Albania 
it  is  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  tribe  of  Malsia  e  Madhe,  and 
within  that  tribe  is  concentrated  in  the  bairak  of  Gruda. 

128  A  detailed  study  of  this  question  will  be  published  in  the  author's  The  Physical 
Anthropology  of  Northern  Albania. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  601 

(2)  A  medium-statured,  brachycephalic,  short-faced  type,  with  mixed 
pigmentation,  which  is  fundamentally  Alpine.     It  is  found  in  all 
tribes,  but  is  commonest  in  the  refuge  area  of  Mirdita. 

(3)  A  tall,  dolichocephalic  or  mesocephalic  type  with  dark  hair  and 
dark  brown  eyes,  a  straight  nasal  profile,  and  a  tendency  toward  a 
lesser  leptorrhiny  than  the  total  group.  This  is  an  Atlan to-Mediter- 
ranean racial  type  which  is  also  prevalent  in  other  Balkan  countries. 
It  may  also  be  sorted  out  of  available  statistical  series  of  Greeks, 
while  it  is  common  in  Bulgaria  and  easily  distinguishable  among 
Serbs.    It,  or  a  similar  type,  also  occurs  with  Binaries  in  northern 
Italy  and  the  Tyrol.     In  northern  Albania  it  is  commonest  in 
Malsia  Jakoves  and  Dukagin. 

(4)  A  very  strongly  differentiated   type  which  is  characterized   by 
medium    stature,    exceptional    brachycephaly,    great    narrowness 
and  convexity  of  the  nose,  a  high  incidence  of  occipital  flattening, 
and  a  tendency  to  light  brown  eye  color  in  combination  with 
dark  brown  hair.    This  type  may  be  called  Dinaric  in  the  full  or 
specific  sense;  most  of  the  other  Ghegs  are  Binaries  in  a  partial 
or  a  general  sense.    This  ultra-Binaric  type  is  commonest  in  the 
tribe  of  Bibra. 

(5)  A  blond,  brachycephalic,  convex-nosed  Noric,  of  standard  type. 
It  is  commonest  in  Zadrima. 

(6)  A  few  light  brown-haired  Nordics,  centered  in  Luma. 

As  a  result  of  the  foregoing  division  of  the  Gheg  material  into  natural 
sub-racial  compartments,  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  Binaric  race,  in 
the  sense  of  a  tall,  convex-nosed,  long-faced  population  inhabiting  the 
mountain  zone  which  stretches  from  Switzerland  to  Albania,  is  a  com- 
posite aggregation  of  racial  types.  The  specific  nature  of  the  Binaric 
population  of  any  given  segment  of  this  zone  depends  upon  the  local 
elements  involved;  thus  there  are  regional  Binaric  sub-types.  There  is 
one  dominant  set  of  characters  which  pervades  the  Binaric  group;  high 
brachycephaly,  nasal  convexity,  occipital  flattening,  and  a  tendency 
toward  the  attenuation  of  extremities.  Aside  from  these  features,  the 
original  ingredients  in  the  Binaric  blend  tend  to  retain  their  old  linkages. 

The  peculiar  facial  and  cranial  features  of  the  Binaries  seem  to  be  the 
results  of  differential  inheritance  in  hybridization;  the  primary  mixture 
which  brings  them  about  is  apparently  an  Alpine-Mediterranean  cross, 
with  Mediterranean  used  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  word.  The  Asiatic 
Binaries,  who  appeared  early  in  the  Metal  Age,  were  apparently  Alpine- 
Cappadocian  hybrids;  many  of  those  went  to  Europe  and  settled  in  widely 
separated  places,  including  sections  of  the  Binaric  Alps.  The  exaggerated 
Binaric  type  of  Albania,  with  its  tendency  to  light  brown  eye  color  may 


602  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

conceivably  be  derived  from  this  source.    It  is  also  to  be  found  in  con- 
siderable numbers  in  the  Tyrol. 

All  European  Binaries,  however,  cannot  be  traced  to  this  Near  Eastern 
origin;  most  of  them  must  be  the  result  of  primary  blendings  on  European 
soil.  Here  the  two  principal  ingredients  are  the  tall,  dark  brown-eyed 
Atlanto-Mediterranean  which  seems  old  and  basic  in  southeastern  Europe, 
and  an  ordinary  Alpine.  Nordic  accretions  produce  a  Noric,  Borreby-like 
accretions  an  Old  Montenegrin.  Neo-Danubian  Slavic  additions  produce 
the  small-faced  type  common  in  Slovenia,  Croatia,  and  Serbia. 

The  blending  of  the  Binaries  is  never  perfect  in  a  chemical  sense;  in 
any  Binaric  population  there  are  ordinary  Alpines  and  a  few  Atlanto- 
Mediterraneans  along  with  their  blended  brethren.  When  the  proportions 
of  the  ingredients  are  wrong,  the  type  which  is  present  in  excess  may  be 
found  in  some  numbers  in  its  original  form.  That  is  why  there  are  so  many 
Alpines  in  France  and  Switzerland,  and  so  many  Atlanto-Mediterraneans 
in  Malsia  Jakoves. 

Binaricism  is  not  a  quality  pertaining  to  a  single  race,  it  is  a  condition. 
This  condition  is  common  in  Europe;  it  is  also  common  in  western  Asia. 
Furthermore,  it  is  not  confined  to  the  white  racial  stock;  the  principle  of 
hybrid  inheritance  which  produces  Binaries  in  Europe  has  also  produced 
Papuans  in  New  Guinea,  the  Arii  aristocrats  in  Polynesia,  and  many 
American  Indians. 

The  southern  half  of  Albania,  the  homeland  of  the  Toscs,  lies  outside 
the  Binaric  racial  area  in  the  strictest  sense.  The  Toscs  are  dwellers  in 
compact  villages,  wearers  of  pleated  kilts  like  the  Greeks,  and  frequent 
emigrants  to  other  lands.  Like  the  Mzabites  in  Algeria,  and  the  Had- 
hramis  of  southern  Arabia,  many  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  several 
southern  Albanian  towns,  notably  Korga,  migrate  to  distant  lands  in  their 
youth,  work  in  factories  or  run  shops,  and  return  when  they  have  accumu- 
lated enough  money.  It  was  this  system  which  first  led  Albanians  to 
migrate  to  America,  a  system  which  the  Toscs  share  with  the  Greeks. 

The  only  adequate  anthropometric  data  extant  which  deals  with  the 
Toscs  is  a  series  from  southwestern  Albania,  from  the  town  of  Gjinokaster 
and  its  neighborhood.129  These  Aginocastrians  are  on  the  short  side  of 
medium  in  stature,  with  a  mean  of  164  cm.;  they  are  long-bodied,  with  a 
mean  relative  sitting  height  of  53.7,  and  medium  in  arm  extension  (rel. 
span  =  103.4).  They  are,  as  a  rule,  medium  to  lateral  in  bodily  build. 
Their  cephalic  index  mean,  90.8,  is  by  far  the  highest  recorded  in  Europe. 

129  Tildesley,  M.  L.,  Biomctrika,  vol.  25,  1933,  pp.  21-51. 
See  also: 

Pittard,  E.,  Les  Peuples  des  Balkans',  RA,  vol.  40,  1930,  pp.  109-115  (for  Toscs  in 
Rumania) ; 

Zampa,  R.,  RDAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  1,  pp.  625-648  (for  Toscs  in  Italy). 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  603 

Their  head  length,  177  mm.,  is  extremely  small,  its  breadth,  161  mm., 
great.  The  auricular  height  of  122  mm.  is  moderate  to  low.  The  forehead 
is  rather  broad,  with  a  minimum  frontal  of  109  mm.,  the  mandible  less 
so,  with  a  bigonial  of  107  mm.,  while  the  face  breadth,  141  mm.,  like  the 
other  facial  dimensions,  falls  into  the  Alpine  range.  The  face  height,  119 
mm.,  is  moderately  short;  the  facial  index,  84.4,  barely  mesoprosopic. 
The  nose,  however,  with  a  length  of  56.3  mm.  and  a  breadth  of  34.4  mm., 
is  very  leptorrhine,  in  a  typical  Albanian  manner,  with  a  nasal  index 
of  61. 

Toscs  measured  in  Rumania  have  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  87 ;  members 
of  the  Tosc  colonies  of  southern  Italy,  who  fled  across  the  Adriatic  from 
the  Turks  in  the  sixteenth  century,  a  mean  of  80.  It  seems  probable  that 
the  extreme  index  mean  of  the  Gjinokaster  neighborhood  is  higher  than 
that  for  the  Tosc  country  as  a  whole;  yet  individual  Toscs  measured  in 
Massachusetts  run  well  into  the  90's.  The  Italian  Toscs  may  owe  their 
relative  dolichocephaly  to  (a)  mixture  with  Italians,  (b)  selection  at 
source  of  migration,  or  (c)  the  possibility  that  the  high  brachycephaly  of 
the  Tosc  country  may  be  a  recent  phenomenon,  as  in  southern  Germany, 
Bohemia,  and  so  many  other  central  European  countries.  It  is  very  pos- 
sible that  the  high  brachycephaly  of  the  Toscs  at  home  may  be  partly 
due  to  cradling;  it  is  a  commonplace  in  the  Albanian  colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts that  the  newer  generation  born  in  Stockbridge  and  Brockton 
lacks  in  many  cases  the  extreme  occipital  brevity  of  its  parents. 

Further  exposition  concerning  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  Toscs 
must  take  the  form  of  subjective  observations  and  remarks,  which  are 
permissible  only  in  lieu  of  adequate  data.  In  the  first  place,  the  funda- 
mental Tosc  type  is  Alpine.  The  head  form,  with  or  without  occipital 
flattening,  is  usually  globular,  the  forehead  high  and  often  bulbous,  the 
face  frequently  round  in  contour.  The  nose  in  many  cases  lacks  the  high- 
bridged  Dinaric  character  found  among  the  Ghegs,  as  well  as  the  common 
depression  of  the  tip.  This  Alpine  type  is  well  represented  by  photographs 
on  Plate  14.  Beside  the  Alpines,  there  are  many  Dinarics  in  southern 
Albania,  but  they  probably  form  a  minority,  and  in  any  case  are  extremely 
variable.  In  Albania  it  is  very  easy  to  distinguish  a  Gheg;  they  have  a 
racial  hall-mark  which  is  hard  to  define  and  easy  to  recognize;  the  Toscs 
are  much  less  homogeneous,  and  in  America  they  pass  for  the  most  part 
unnoticed  in  the  general  racial  hodge-podge.  Most  Bostonians,  who 
possibly  see  fifty  to  one  hundred  Toscs  in  a  week,  are  unaware  of  their 
presence,  while  they  have  definite  ideas,  formed  upon  first  sight,  as  to  who 
is  an  Italian,  an  Armenian,  or  a  Jew. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  the  Toscs,  in  pigmentation  as  well  as  in  bodily 
and  facial  characters,  resemble  the  southern  and  central  French  very 


604  THE  RAGES   OF  EUROPE 

closely;  that  they  and  the  French  form  the  two  ends  of  the  Alpine  racial 
area  in  Europe,  the  center  of  which  is  largely  taken  up  by  the  Dinaric 
amalgam. 

(14)   THE   GREEKS 

The  title  of  this  section  is  The  Greeks,  and  not  Greece,  since  from  the 
mythical  days  of  the  Argonauts  to  the  present,  neither  the  peninsula  of 
Hellas  nor  Ionia  and  the  Aegean  Islands  have  been  large  enough  to  hold 
the  far-wandering  Hellenes.  Greek  is  a  language  and  a  civilization,  the 
Greeks  a  people;  the  Greeks  are  the  descendants  of  all  the  peoples  who  have 
adopted  and  retained  that  language  and  that  civilization  from  classical 
times  to  the  present.  Some  of  these  converts  to  Hellenicism  were  inhab- 
itants of  Asia  Minor,  others  of  Thrace  and  Byzantium,  others  of  the  lands 
bordering  the  Black  Sea,  especially  the  Crimea. 

Into  the  peninsula  of  Greece  itself,  many  thousands  of  Slavs  wandered 
as  immigrants  during  the  maximum  South  Slavic  expansion;  the  Turks 
brought  colonists,  including  many  Albanians,  and  whole  districts  of 
Boeotia  and  Attica  and  of  other  parts  of  Greece  are  today  Albanian  speak- 
ing. Romance-speaking  shepherds,  the  Vlachs,  have  also  made  the  slopes 
of  the  Pindus  their  seasonal  pastures.  Since  the  World  War  many  of  the 
Greeks  living  in  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor  have  been  sent  to  Greek  soil  to 
live,  while  Turks  and  other  Moslems  have  been  in  turn  repatriated. 
Despite  these  attempts  at  producing  ethnic  order,  much  Greek  territory, 
especially  in  Macedonia,  remains  ethnically  heterogeneous.  Furthermore, 
the  number  of  Greeks  who  live  abroad,  be  it  in  Egypt,  East  Africa,  or  in 
the  New  World,  is  so  great  that  the  Greeks  are  still  almost  an  international 
people.  Many  of  the  Greeks  leave  home  to  make  their  fortunes  on  less 
stony  soil,  but  many  of  them  also  return. 

It  is  inaccurate  to  say  that  the  modern  Greeks  are  different  physically 
from  the  ancient  Greeks;  such  a  statement  is  based  on  an  ignorance  of  the 
Greek  ethnic  character.  In  classical  times  the  Greeks  included  many 
kinds  of  people  living  in  different  places,  as  they  do  today.  If  one  refers 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Attica  during  the  sixth  century,  or  to  the  Spartans 
of  Leonidas,  then  the  changes  in  these  localities  have  probably  not  been 
nearly  as  great  as  that  between  the  Germans  of  Tacitus  and  the  living 
South  Germans,  to  cite  but  a  single  example. 

Within  the  peninsula  of  Hellas,  despite  the  mobility  of  the  Greeks  to  and 
from  their  country,  the  internal  mobility  has  not  been  sufficient  to  break 
down  strong  local  differentiations  in  head  form.  The  Epirotes,  like  their 
neighbors  the  Toscs,  have  an  extremely  high  cephalic  index  mean,  88, 
and  there  seems  to  be  a  strongly  brachycephalic  zone  running  down  the 
western  slopes  of  the  mountain  core  from  Albania  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth, 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  605 

and  perhaps  beyond.130  It  is  an  extension  of  the  same  zone  which  extends 
all  the  way  from  the  Alpine  racial  center  in  France,  and  more  specifically, 
of  the  population  studied  in  the  region  of  Gjinokaster  in  southernmost 
Albania.  The  Greeks  of  Macedonia,  again,  who  live  in  settlements  inter- 
spersed with  those  of  Bulgars  and  of  Turks,  possess  the  usual  West  Balkan 
brachycephaly,  with  mean  cephalic  indices  of  86  for  Christians,  and  84.6 
for  Moslems.  Greeks  from  the  northern  shore  of  Asia  Minor  have  a  mean 
of  87,  while  those  from  the  Black  Sea  coast  in  Rumania,  and  members  of 
the  colony  in  the  Crimea,  are  low  brachycephals,  with  a  mean  of  82. 

In  Greece  itself,  most  of  the  Peloponnesus,  Attica,  Euboea,  and  the 
Ionian  Isles  are  characterized  by  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  81  to  82;  this 
is  also  true  of  the  Greeks  who  are  found  abroad,  as  in  America.  Aside  from 
local  groups  in  regions  which,  in  classical  times,  were  not  truly  Greece, 
the  modern  Greeks  are  for  the  most  part  low  brachycephals.  In  Thessaly  a 
provincial  mean  of  77  has  been  reported;  and  Greeks  from  the  shore  of  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  have  a  mean  of  79.  There  are  still,  therefore,  local 
groups  of  Greeks  who  are  largely  long-headed. 

The  stature  mean  for  Greeks  in  general  runs  about  167  cm.,  and  there 
seems  to  be  little  regional  variation;  those  in  Asia  Minor  and  in  the  Crimea 
are  a  millimeter  shorter,  those  measured  in  Boston  a  millimeter  taller. 
The  Greeks  are  as  tall  as  most  South  Germans  or  northern  Frenchmen; 
their  stature  is  too  elevated  for  the  prevalence,  in  partial  brachycephaliza- 
tion,  of  a  strong,  small  Mediterranean  strain.  About  half  of  them  have 
brunet-white  or  light  brown  skin  color,  the  rest  the  usual  pinkish-white  of 
central  and  northern  Europe;  over  80  per  cent  have  dark  brown  hair, 
the  rest  have  hair  evenly  divided  between  black  and  the  lighter  shades  of 
brown.  Pronounced  blondism,  although  rare,  is  not  unknown.  The  beard 
is  rarely  lighter  than  the  head  hair,  in  contrast  to  the  condition  found 
among  Ghegs  and  Montenegrins;  the  implication  is  that  the  dark  brown 

130  A  bibliography  of  works  on  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  modern  Greeks  would 
include : 

Apostolides,  BSAP,  ser.  3,  vol.  6,  1883,  pp.  614-616. 

Cutukala,  G.  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  8,  1930,  pp.  12-136. 

Hasluck,  M.  M.,  and  Morant,  G.  M,  Biometrika,  vol.  21,  1929,  pp.  325-334. 

Hrdli£ka,  A.,  The  Old  Americans. 

Koumaris,  J.,  ACAP,  1931.    Paris,  1931,  pp.  218-221. 

Neophytos,  A.  G.,  Anth,  vol.  1,  1890,  pp.  679-711;  vol.  2,  1891,  pp.  25-35. 

Ornstein,  ZFE,  vol.  9,  1877,  pp.  (39)~(41);  vol.  11,  1879,  pp.  (305)-(306). 

Pittard,  E.,  ASAG,  vol.  1,  1914,  pp.  7-36;  RDAP,  vol.  25,  1915,  pp.  447-454. 

Schiff,  F.,  ZFE,  vol.  46,  1914,  pp.  14-40. 

Stephanos,  C.,  DESM,  ser.  4,  10,  1884,  Article  Grlce>  p.  432. 

Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  11,  1882,  pp.  72-97. 

Besides  these  published  works  reference  has  been  made  to  a  series  of  113  Greeks 
measured  in  Boston  in  1932,  by  Drs.  B.  Gardner,  S.  Kimball,  M.  Titiev,  and 
Mr.  E.  Muller,  as  part  of  a  graduate  course  in  field  methods,  under  the  direction  of  the 
author. 


606  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

hair  of  the  majority  of  Greeks  is  a  pure  brunet  condition.  Over  65  per 
cent  of  Greeks  have  pure  brown  eyes,  and  most  of  these  are  dark  brown; 
pure  lights  are  sporadic,  but  there  is  a  15  per  cent  incidence  of  light- 
mixed  iris  forms. 

The  pigment  ratios  given  above  apply  to  Greeks  as  a  whole;  there  is 
evidence,  however,  of  considerable  regional  variation.  The  Macedonian 
Greeks  are  much  lighter,  especially  those  that  are  Moslem,  while  the 
Greeks  of  the  Ionian  islands  are  darker,  as  are,  in  all  probability,  most 
Peloponnesians. 

For  a  more  detailed  study  of  the  Greeks,  we  may  examine  the  series 
measured  in  Boston,  which,  although  without  doubt  subjected  to  selective 
forces,  does  not  seem  too  much  at  variance  from  native  Greek  samples 
for  our  purposes.  The  men  measured  came  from  all  parts  of  Greece,  and 
from  Asia  Minor.  Their  mean  stature,  168  cm,,  is  moderately  tall;  their 
bodily  proportions  are  for  the  most  part  intermediate;  the  shoulders  are 
broad,  the  trunk  length  moderate,  as  shown  by  a  relative  sitting  height  of 
52.9;  the  relative  span  is  104. 

Their  heads,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  82,  are  long  for  brachy- 
cephals  (189  mm.),  and  of  moderate  breadth  (154  mm.);  the  head  height 
of  127  mm.  is  moderately  high.  The  occiput  protrudes  but  little  in  most 
of  the  group;  40  per  cent  have  lambdoidal  flattening,  while  some  degree 
of  occipital  flattening  occurs  in  over  50  per  cent.  It  is  pronounced,  however, 
in  only  about  20  per  cent.  Their  facial  breadths  are:  minimum  frontal, 
107  rnm.,  bizygomatic,  142  mm.,  and  bigonial,  111  mm.;  the  great 
breadth  of  the  jaw,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  forehead,  is  a  Greek 
specialty,  and  is  strongly  contrasted  with  the  inverted  triangle  face  form  of 
Albanian  Dinarics.  The  face  height  is  124.4  mm.,  the  upper  face  height 
75.6  mm.;  the  facial  index,  87,  is  mesoprosopic,  the  upper  facial  index,  53, 
a  little  high  in  comparison  with  the  foregoing.  The  noses  are  both  long 
(58.8  mm.)  and  moderately  broad  (37  mm.);  the  nasal  index  of  63.2, 
leptorrhine. 

The  dimensions  given  above  are  for  the  most  part  quite  variable;  a 
number  of  distinct  types  are  included,  but  the  metrical  character  of  the 
group  as  a  whole  indicates  a  blending  of  Dinarics  and  Alpines  with  Atlanto- 
Mediterraneans,  which  is  confirmed  by  the  observational  data  to  follow. 

The  head  hair  is  straight  in  slightly  more  than  half  the  group,  wavy  in 
most  of  the  rest,  but  curly  hair  is  not  unusual.  It  is  usually  medium  to  fine 
in  texture.  With  at  least  half  of  adult  male  Greeks,  it  is  thin  on  the  head, 
and  about  one  out  of  five  of  any  adult  group  is  bald.  In  old  age  baldness 
affects  the  majority.  The  beard  development  is  as  a  rule  thicker  than  in 
most  European  groups,  and  the  body  hair  is  often  abundant. 

The  eyebrows  are  often  thick,  and  are  concurrent  in  75  per  cent  of  the 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  607 

group;  the  browridges  are  usually  of  moderate  development.  The  fore- 
heads give,  in  most  cases,  an  appearance  of  great  width,  and  are  seldom 
more  than  very  slightly  sloping.  The  nasal  characters  of  the  Greeks  are 
variable,  but  there  are  definite  trends  which  pervade  the  whole  group. 
The  root  is,  as  a  rule,  moderately  high,  and  medium  to  broad;  narrow 
roots,  usual  among  most  northern  Europeans  and  among  Binaries,  are  rare. 
The  bridge  is  of  medium  to  great  height,  almost  never  low;  the  breadth  is 
as  a  rule  medium  to  broad.  The  nasal  profile  is  straight  in  about  45  per 
cent  of  the  group,  convex  in  about  30  per  cent,  and  concave  in  but  10  per 
cent,  while  the  rest  are  wavy  or  concavo-convex.  The  tip  is  as  a  rule  thick, 
and  elevated  more  often  than  it  is  depressed.  The  nasal  wings,  as  a  rule 
medium,  are  flaring  more  often  than  compressed.  On  the  whole  few  Greek 
noses  can  qualify  as  Dinaric  in  the  strict  sense;  more  are  typically  Alpine, 
while  a  straight-profiled,  consistently  wide  form  is  the  commonest. 

There  is  nothing  remarkable  about  the  lips  and  mouth  region  of  the 
Greeks;  both  membranous  and  integumental  lips  thicknesses  are  of  usual 
European  dimensions,  and  eversion  is  as  a  rule  slight  to  medium.  The 
lip  seam,  however,  is  usually  visible,  and  is  sometimes  prominently  ele- 
vated. A  slight  degree  of  facial  prognathism  is  found  in  nearly  half  the 
group;  alveolar  prognathism  is  rare.  Typically  Greek  features  are  full, 
curved  temples,  full  cheeks,  a  laterally  prominent  malar  region,  and 
strongly  everted  gonial  angles.  In  these  facial  characters  well  over  half 
show  an  extreme  development  for  Europeans. 

Within  the  Greek  group,  heavy  beards,  heavy  browridges,  and  con- 
current eyebrows  tend  to  associate  themselves  with  an  Alpine  type;  there 
is  also  a  linkage  between  tall  stature,  in  the  170  cm.  class,  cephalic  indices 
of  about  80,  straight  noses,  dark  brown  hair,  and  dark  brown  eyes.  This 
last  set  of  associations  clearly  denotes  the  presence  of  a  strong  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  element.  There  are  also  strong  connections  between  black 
hair,  occipital  flattening,  and  narrow  facial  features,  which  means  Dinaric 
or  Armenoid.  That  the  small  amount  of  blondism  among  the  Greeks  is 
mostly  Nordic  in  origin  is  indicated  by  its  linkage  with  external  eyefolds, 
relative  thinness  of  beard,  and  absence  of  eyebrow  concurrency. 

The  Greeks,  in  short,  are  a  blend  of  racial  types,  of  which  two  are  most 
important;  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean  and  the  Alpine.  Dinaricism  here 
is  present,  but  not  all  pervading;  true  Alpines  are  commoner  than  com- 
plete Binaries.  The  Nordic  element  is  weak,  as  it  probably  has  been  since 
the  days  of  Homer.  The  racial  type  to  which  Socrates  belonged  is  today 
the  most  important,  while  the  Atlanto-Mediterranean,  prominent  in 
Greece  since  the  Bronze  Age,  is  still  a  major  factor.  It  is  my  personal 
reaction  to  the  living  Greeks  that  their  continuity  with  their  ancestors  of  the 
ancient  world  is  remarkable,  rather  than  the  opposite. 


608  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  living  inhabitants  of  Crete  differ  considerably  from  the  mainland 
Greeks,181  They  are  taller,  with  a  mean  stature  of  169  cm.,  and  meso- 
cephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  79.  In  some  districts,  as  at 
Pedhiadha,  the  mean  is  actually  on  the  upper  border  of  dolichocephaly, 
at  77.  The  heads  of  the  mesocephalic  Cretans  are  as  large  as  those  of 
Nordics  or  Atlanto-Mediterraneans;  a  mean  length  of  193  mm.,  and  a 
breadth  of  149  mm.,  characterizes  the  group  with  an  index  mean  of  77. 

In  facial  and  nasal  dimensions,  the  Cretans  resemble  the  Greeks.  They 
are,  however,  somewhat  blonder;  only  35  per  cent  have  pure  brown  eyes, 
while  about  7  per  cent  have  eyes  that  are  light  or  predominantly  light; 
the  rest  are  mixed,  with  dark  mixture  in  the  great  majority.  About  25  per 
cent  have  black  hair,  and  about  50  per  cent  dark  brown;  10  per  cent  are 
light  brown  or  blond,  the  rest  medium  brown.  As  among  Albanians  and 
not  among  most  mainland  Greeks,  the  beards  are  much  lighter;  40  per 
cent  have  blond  or  light  brown  mustaches,  with  an  equal  number  black 
or  dark  brown.  About  one-sixth  have  light  brown  to  very  brunet-white 
skin  color. 

One  special  group,  the  Sphakiots,  living  near  the  western  end  of  the 
south  side  of  the  island,  differ  from  the  other  Cretans  in  a  number  of 
characters;  they  are  very  tall,  with  a  mean  stature  of  175  cm.,  and  meso- 
to  sub-brachycephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  81.6.  They  have 
especially  large  heads,  with  a  mean  length  of  191  mm.  and  breadth  of 
155  mm.;  their  faces  are  longer  than  the  others,  and  equally  broad  or 
broader.  Morphologically  Dinaric  types  are  common  among  them;  they 
may  be  compared  with  Montenegrins  and  the  northernmost  Ghegs. 
According  to  the  general  assumption  of  authorities  on  Crete,  the  Sphakiots 
are  the  partial  descendants  of  the  Dorians  who  invaded  the  island  at  the 
end  of  the  Minoan  period.  That  some  of  them  do  resemble  the  traditional 
Spartan  type  is  very  likely.  One  can  only  derive  them  from  the  north, 
from  the  region  in  which  the  larger  branch  of  the  Dinaric  race  was  formed. 

The  living  Cretans  are  for  the  most  part  Atlanto-Mediterraneans,  and 
there  has  been  no  post-Dorian  migration  into  the  island  which  could  have 
brought  such  a  type  in  large  numbers.  The  only  logical  explanation  of  its 
presence  in  Crete,  formed  on  the  basis  of  available  data,  is  that  some  of 
this  element  existed  in  Crete  in  Minoan,  probably  for  the  most  part  Mid- 
dle and  Late  Minoan,  times;  that  migrations  from  the  Greek  mainland  at 
the  time  of  the  Minoan  collapse  may  have  brought  more. 

The  fact  that  a  larger  number  of  Cretans  are  blond  than  is  the  case  with 

"I  Hawes,  C.  H.,  ARBS,  vol.  14,  1909-10,  pp.  258-280;  RBAA,  supplement,  1910. 
Luschan,  F.  von,  ZFE,  vol.  45,  1913,  pp.  21-393. 
Rosinski,  B.,  Kosmos,  vol.  50,  1925,  pp.  584-637. 
Schiff,  F.,  ZFE,  vol.  46,  1914,  pp.  8-13. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  609 

Greeks  is  a  matter  that  requires  ample  data  and  some  analysis  to  explain. 
One  may  attribute  much  of  the  blondism,  perhaps,  to  the  invasion  that 
brought  the  Sphakiots,  while  some  of  it  must  be  inherent  in  the  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  race.  But  the  arrival  of  the  early  Greek-speakers  may  have 
brought  blondism  other  than  that  borne  by  the  brachycephals,  and  Crete 
is  an  island;  it  is  a  principle  of  insular  anthropology,  well  borne  out  by 
the  British  Isles,  that  when  a  numerous  group  invades  an  island  it  has  a 
better  chance  for  survival  than  in  a  continental  area  where  there  is  a 
nearby  mountainous  or  forest-covered  hinterland,  to  which  earlier  types 
may  retreat  and  from  which  they  may  reemerge. 

The  important  discovery  about  Crete,  however,  is  the  fact  that  its 
population  is  mostly  Atlanto-Mediterranean;  this  race  seems  to  be  almost 
equally  important  in  most  of  Greece.  It  has  also  appeared  in  the  Dinaric 
area,  and  in  Serbia;  we  shall  see  more  of  it  in  the  eastern  Balkans. 

(15)   BULGARIA 

East  of  the  Illyrians  and  north  of  the  Macedonians  lived,  in  classical 
times,  the  Thracians.  Their  territory  reached  beyond  the  Danube  on  the 
north  to  the  border  of  Scythian  country,  and  on  the  east  to  the  Black  Sea. 
In  the  period  of  their  greatest  power,  between  450  and  300  B.C.,  they  were  a 
numerous  and  important  people;  Herodotus  called  them  the  most  numer- 
ous west  of  India.  The  southern  Thracians  were  more  or  less  Hellenized 
culturally,  the  northern  ones  in  later  times  were  Romanized,  and  were 
also  influenced  by  the  settlement  of  Goths  among  them.  The  invasions  of 
the  South  Slavs,  however,  put  an  end  to  what  remained  of  their  ethnic 
identity. 

The  Thracians  are  introduced  here,  at  this  late  date,  because  they 
were  not  discussed  in  Chapter  VI,  along  with  the  other  Indo-European- 
speaking  peoples  of  the  Iron  Age.  The  reason  for  this  omission  is  that  no 
skeletal  material  worthy  of  mention  has  been  described  which  can  be  as- 
sociated with  them.  A  single  skull  which  was  probably  Thracian,  however, 
was  dolichocephalic  and  leptorrhine. 132  Classical  descriptions  of  Thracians 
make  them  tall,  powerful,  and  apparently  fair.  As  such  they  fit  into  the 
general  scheme  of  the  Iron  Age  Indo-European-speaking  peoples. 

Bulgaria  was  once  Thracian  country;  a  few  centuries  after  its  Romaniza- 
tion,  it  was  submerged  by  a  Slavic  invasion,  the  advance  guard  of  the 
movement  which  brought  Slavic  speech  into  Serbia.  This  Slavic  invasion, 
which  resulted  in  a  permanent  settlement  of  the  country,  was  followed  by 
a  further  invasion  of  still  heathen  Ugrian  tribes  under  Turkish  leadership, 

182  Weisbach,  A.,  MAGW,  vol.  29, 1899.  The  foregoing  discussion  of  the  Thracians  is 
based  mainly  on  Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  49, 1929,  pp.  61-126,  See  also,  Pittard,  E.? 
les  Peuples  des  Balkans,  pp.  139-153, 


610  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

similar  to  the  movement  which  brought  the  ancestors  of  the  Magyars  to 
Hungary.  The  subsequent  history  of  Bulgaria  was  the  opposite  to  that 
of  Hungary;  the  Bulgars,  who  had  left  their  eastern  Russian  home  before 
the  rise  of  the  Bolgar  Empire,  kept  their  Ugrian  name,  but  gave  up  their 
language,  in  favor  of  the  speech  of  their  Slavic  predecessors.  Whereas  the 
Magyars  became  Catholics,  the  Bulgars  adopted  Orthodox  Christianity. 
The  next  invaders  of  Bulgaria  of  importance  were  the  Ottoman  Turks, 
who  took  over  the  fertile  Danubian  farm  lands,  and  settled  large  colonies 
of  Asiatic  Turks  on  them.  Sporadic  invasions  of  Tatars  from  South 
Russia  mingled  themselves  with  this  Turkish  body.  At  the  time  of  the 
Russian  conquest  of  the  Caucasus,  many  Moslem  Cherkesses  fled  to 
Bulgaria  to  avoid  submission  to  Christians. 

Since  the  war,  many  of  the  Turkish  peasants  have  left  Bulgaria,  and 
many  of  the  Cherkesses  as  well.  There  are  still  islands  of  these  people 
throughout  the  country,  but  especially  in  the  eastern  lowlands,  and  there 
are  minor  colonies  of  Greeks,  of  Tatars,  and  of  Rumanians.  To  the  west, 
the  Bulgarians  occupy  the  greater  part  of  Yugoslavian  Macedonia,  and 
border  in  this  neighborhood  on  the  Albanians.  To  the  south,  they  extend 
to  the  head  of  the  Aegean,  where  their  settlements  are  interspersed  with 
those  of  Turks  and  Greeks.  Most  of  the  Bulgarians  are  still  Orthodox 
Christians,  but  a  large  minority,  especially  in  Macedonia,  is  Moslem. 

The  stature  of  the  Bulgarians  varies  regionally  from  166  cm.  to  168 
cm. ; 133  the  tallest  are  found  in  Macedonia,  and  also  in  the  very  north- 
eastern part  of  Bulgaria.  There  is  a  strong  social  segregation  on  the  basis 
of  stature;  students  at  the  Sofia  Military  Academy  had,  in  1906,  a  mean 
stature  of  171.5  cm.;134  other  socially  selected  samples  rise  to  170  cm. 
The  Bulgar  colonists  who  live  in  the  Crimea  have  a  mean  of  169  cm.,  those 
in  the  Rumanian  Dobruja,  167  cm.  The  mean  cephalic  index  of  over 
5000  Bulgarian  soldiers  is  79.6;  this  varies  within  the  kingdom  of  Bulgaria 
from  80.8  in  the  north,  to  79.9  in  the  southwest,  and  78.2  in  the  south. 
Christian  Bulgars  of  Macedonia  have  a  mean  of  83.3,  in  the  region  of 
Monastir  this  rises  to  85;  Moslem  Bulgars  are  less  brachycephalic,  with  a 
mean  of  80.5,  while  in  the  neighborhood  of  Salonika  small  local  samples  of 
Bulgars  are  actually  dolichocephalic,  with  a  mean  of  76.4,  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Adrianople  in  Turkish  Thrace,  the  mean  is  only  78.3. 
Bulgarian  Emigres  in  the  Crimea  have  a  mean  of  78.7. 
133  Wateff,  S.,  BMSA,  ser.  5,  vol.  5,  1904,  pp.  437-458. 
Drontschilow,  K.,  AFA,  vol.  42,  1915,  pp.  1-76. 

Hasluck,  M.,  and  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  21,  1929,  pp.  325-334. 
Kirkoff,  N.,  BMSA,  ser.  5,  vol.  7,  1906,  pp.  226-233. 

Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  59,  1929,  pp.  61-126;  vol.  53,  1933,  pp.  233-251. 
Nosov,  A.,  Z.  AntrK,  vol.  3,  1929,  pp.  1-53;  PCZA,  1930,  pp.  311-312. 
Pittard,  E.,  Les  Peuples  des  Balkans. 
i*  Kirkoff,  N.,  BMSA,  1906. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  611 

Thus  within  the  Bulgarian  people  there  is  a  strong  tendency  toward 
dolichocephaly,  strong  enough  to  impress  mesocephaly  upon  the  nation 
as  a  whole.  The  strongest  expression  of  this  tendency  is  found  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  beyond  Bulgarian  territory  proper. 
True  brachycephals  are  found  only  among  the  Macedonian  Bulgars  who 
live  in  close  contact  with  Albanians. 

The  Bulgarians  of  the  kingdom  have  heads  of  moderate  size,  with  a 
mean  length  of  about  189  mm.  and  a  breadth  of  150  mm.;  they  are  com- 
parable in  this  respect  to  the  longer-headed  Greeks.  Their  faces,  however, 
are  narrower  than  those  of  most  Balkan  peoples;  the  minimum  frontal 
mean  is  105  mm.,  the  bizygomatic  139  mm.,  and  the  bigonial  108  mm. 
As  with  the  Greeks,  the  jaw  is  wider  than  the  forehead,  but  both  widths 
are  much  narrower  than  with  the  latter.  The  face  height,  121  mm.,  is 
moderate,  the  facial  index,  87,  mesoprosopic.  On  the  other  hand  the 
upper  facial  index,  55,  is  relatively  high.  The  ratio  between  the  two  facial 
indices  assumes  a  Mediterranean  position.  The  nasal  diameters,  55  mm. 
by  36  mm.,  yield  a  moderately  leptorrhine  index,  65. 

So  far,  the  metrical  position  of  the  main  group  of  Bulgarians  is  that  of 
a  moderately  tall-statured  Mediterranean  group,  with  the  addition  of 
some  brachycephalizing  agent  in  a  minor  numerical  position.  The  pig- 
mentation of  the  Bulgars,  while  lighter  than  that  of  the  Greeks,  is  pre- 
dominantly dark.  About  25  per  cent  have  pure  dark  eyes,  about  15  per 
cent  light  and  light-mixed;  the  remaining  majority  are  dark  or  evenly 
mixed.  The  head  hair  is  dark  brown  or  very  dark  reddish  brown  in  almost 
the  entire  group;  even  among  children,  definitely  blond  combinations  of 
hair,  eye,  and  skin  color  do  not  exceed  10  per  cent  of  the  whole.  Among 
adults  light  head  hair  is  rare.  The  beard,  however,  shows  the  same  tend- 
ency to  disproportionate  lightness  found  among  Albanians,  Montenegrins, 
and  Cretans,  but  not  among  Greeks;  the  brunet  colors  found  in  about 
90  per  cent  of  the  head  hair  occurs  in  only  50  per  cent  of  the  beards. 
Medium  and  light  brown  beards  account  for  most  of  the  rest.  There  is  a 
notable  absence  of  ash-blondisrn  in  this  group. 

Most  of  the  Bulgars  have  straight  nasal  profiles;  concave  forms  are 
found  principally  in  the  northwest,  adjoining  Serbian  territory,  where 
they  amount  to  1 2  per  cent.  Convexity  is  rare  among  all  Bulgarians,  but 
least  so  in  Macedonia.  The  snubbed  tip  so  characteristic  of  northern  and 
eastern  Slavs  is  by  no  means  unknown  among  them,  but  is  in  the  minority. 

The  Bulgarians  are  a  composite  people,  with  the  following  racial  ele- 
ments easily  discernible:  (a)  a  medium  to  tall-statured  Atlanto-Mediter- 
ranean;  (b)  a  partially  blond  Neo-Danubian,  of  typical  snub-nosed  form; 
(c)  a  Nordic;  (d)  a  Dinaric,  with  the  usual  Alpine  corollary;  (e)  a  brachy- 
cephalic  central  Asiatic  Turkish  or  Tatar  form.  The  basic  element  is  the 


612  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

Atlan to-Mediterranean,  which  probably  goes  back  to  the  Neolithic;  the 
Neo-Danubian  is  probably  of  both  Slavic  and  Ugrian  introduction, 
although  some  of  it  may  be  older;  the  Nordic  may  be  of  several  origins, 
including  Thracian;  the  Dinaric  is  simply  the  result  of  Bulgarian  admix- 
ture with  local  elements  in  Macedonia;  the  Turkic  is  found  mostly  in 
eastern  Bulgaria,  and  then  among  townsmen  and  shepherds  rather  than 
among  agriculturalists.  Of  these  varied  elements,  the  first  two  are  the 
most  important,  and  the  first  more  than  the  second.  The  presence  of  a 
strongly  entrenched  Atlanto-Mediterranean  population  of  Neolithic  date 
in  all  of  the  lowland  Balkans  south  and  east  of  the  Iron  Gate  is  becoming 
increasingly  evident.  In  Bulgaria  it  is  geographically  most  concentrated 
along  the  southern  ethnic  periphery,  and  among  Bulgarian  colonies 
abroad,  as  in  the  Crimea. 

(16)   RUMANIA  AND   THE   VLACHS 

The  modern  kingdom  of  Rumania  consists  of  the  provinces  of  Moldavia, 
Wallachia,  Dobruja,  Bessarabia,  Transylvania,  part  of  the  Banat,  and 
the  Bukovina.  The  last  four,  while  the  majority  of  their  inhabitants  are 
Rumanians,  have  been  Rumanian  territory  only  since  the  World  War. 
Moldavia  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  crest  of  the  Carpathians,  on  the 
east  by  the  Pruth  River;  Wallachia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Alps,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Danube.  Dobruja  is  the  plain 
lying  between  the  northward  curve  of  the  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea;  it 
includes  the  important  seaport  of  Constanza. 

In  Moldavia  and  Wallachia  the  great  majority  of  the  population  is 
Rumanian;  the  same  is  true  to  a  large  extent  of  Bessarabia,  but  in  Transyl- 
vania there  are  large  populations  of  Germans  and  of  Magyars,  already 
discussed  in  previous  sections.  In  the  Banat  again  there  are  many  Hun- 
garians, and  a  number  of  Serbs,  while  in  the  Dobruja  lives  one  of  the  most 
scrambled  populations  of  Europe.  Here  Bulgars,  Ottoman  Turks,  Tatars, 
Gaguz,  who  claim  to  be  descendants  of  the  Kumans,  Armenians,  Kurds, 
Caucasic  peoples,  and  a  few  of  almost  all  the  other  peoples  of  eastern 
Europe  and  western  Asia  are  to  be  found.  The  Dobruja  is  as  varied  as  the 
contents  of  an  ethnological  museum,  and  like  a  museum,  each  group 
clings  tenaciously  to  everything  that  is  its  own.136 

The  inhabitants  of  Dobruja  include,  of  course,  both  Gypsies  and  Jews, 
and  Rumania  is  one  of  the  greatest  concentration  points  for  both  in 
Europe.  The  Jews  form  5  per  cent  of  the  population  of  the  pre-war  sec- 
tion of  the  kingdom,  and  are  especially  numerous  in  northern  Moldavia 
and  the  Bukovina,  where  their  zone  of  concentration  forms  an  extension 
of  that  in  Polish  Galicia.  The  Moldavian  Jews,  who  are  mainly  of  Polish 
185  Pittard,  E.,  Les  Peuples  des  Balkanst  is  the  authority  on  the  Dobruja. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  613 

or  Russian  antecedents,  speak  their  own  language,  wear  a  separate  costume, 
and  mix  little  if  at  all  with  the  Rumanian  population. 

In  classical  times  Transylvania,  Wallachia,  and  Moldavia  formed  what 
was  known  as  Dacia,  and  the  Dacians  were  considered  to  be  a  branch  of 
the  Thracians.  The  Dacians  included  an  upper  class,  distinguished  by 
the  practice  of  wearing  brimless  felt  hats,  Scythian  style,  and  a  peasantry, 
among  whom  the  men  went  bare-headed,  with  their  hair  long,  as  do  the 
older  and  more  conservative  of  the  present-day  Rumanian  peasants. 
Between  105  and  107  A.D.  Trajan  conquered  Dacia,  and  made  it  a  Roman 
province;  the  warlike  inhabitants,  who  had  long  resisted  the  Romans, 
fled  in  great  numbers,  while  their  villages  were  being  plundered;  later, 
many  are  said  to  have  returned.  The  Romans  placed  many  colonists  in 
Dacia,  and  for  its  defense  established  there  the  permanent  headquarters 
of  the  thirteenth  legion.  In  256  A.D.  the  Goths  arrived,  and  the  Romans 
began  a  hasty  departure;  it  is  likely  that  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  left  with  them. 

During  the  century  and  a  half  of  Roman  rule,  the  language  of  Dacia 
became  Latin,  and  modern  Rumanian  is  without  doubt  a  descendant  of 
that  colonial  speech.  During  the  maximum  extension  of  the  empire, 
Latin  and  its  derivatives  were  spoken  in  a  wide  zone  peripheral  to  Rome, 
including  the  Iberian  peninsula,  Gaul,  Switzerland,  the  Tyrol,  and  much 
of  the  territory  lying  between  the  head  of  the  Adriatic  and  the  Black 
Sea.  Albanian,  with  its  strong  Latin  infusion,  must  be  considered  a  partial 
product  of  this  extension;  elsewhere  Ladin,  Romansch,  and  Rumanian 
must  be  considered  survivals  in  the  face  of  the  barbarian  invasions  which 
converted  most  of  southeastern  Europe  to  Germanic,  Slavic,  Uralic,  and 
Altaic  speech. 

Foreigners  designate  Rumanians  and  Rumanian  speakers  by  the  term 
Vlach;  the  Vlachs  are  the  Rumanian  speakers  to  be  found  throughout 
southeastern  Europe,  whether  living  in  Rumania,  Bulgaria,  Greece, 
Albania,  Yugoslavia,  or  elsewhere.  'The  word  Vlach,  which  is  a  derivative 
from  the  Gothic,  by  way  of  Slavic,  means  "foreigner";  it  is  a  cognate  of 
our  own  word  "Welsh,"  used  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  to  designate  Kymric- 
speaking  Britons,  and  of  "Walloon."  The  modern  Vlach  language,  while 
basically  Latin,  shares  with  Albanian  certain  structural  peculiarities 
which  it  must  derive  from  Thracian  or  Illyrian,  and  at  the  same  time 
contains  a  large  number  of  Slavic  roots. 

The  use  of  a  Romance  language  in  Rumania  today  is  not  a  simple  case 
of  a  Romanized  Dacian  survival;  the  history  of  Rumania  is  too  compli- 
cated to  permit  this  explanation  alone.  After  the  departure  of  the  Romans, 
Dacia  was  overrun  by  Goths,  by  Slavs,  by  Bulgars,  by  many  kinds  of 
Tatars,  and  by  Ottoman  Turks.  It  is  very  likely  that  the  Vlach  survival 


614  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

in  these  lands  was  only  partial  until  the  late  Middle  Ages,  when  the 
peasants  who  had  resisted  the  inroads  of  these  conquerors  were  joined 
by  their  kinsmen  returning  from  Bulgaria  and  Macedonia,  and  from 
beyond  the  Carpathians.  Since  then  the  expansion  of  the  Vlachs  in  what 
is  now  Rumania  has  been  constant  and,  east  of  the  Carpathians,  nearly 
complete. 

The  Vlachs  have  always  been  far  wanderers;  many  of  them  are  shep- 
herds, and  the  pastoral  life  has  been  as  important  to  them,  until  modern 
times,  as  agriculture.  In  Macedonia  and  northern  Greece,  and  in  southern 
Albania,  Vlach  colonists  are  nomads  living  in  black  tents  like  those  of 
Arabs,  and  like  those  which  one  may  suppose  the  Scythians  used  before 
them.  In  Dalmatia  they  were  during  the  Middle  Ages  an  important  people; 
Dubrovnik  (Ragusa)  was  originally  a  Vlach  town.  In  the  peninsula  of 
Istria,  now  inhabited  mostly  by  Slovenes  and  Italians,  a  small  group  of 
Vlach  speakers,  the  Ci£i,  has  resisted  assimilation  to  this  day.  These 
Istrian  Vlachs,  early  invaders  of  Illyrian  territory,  are  the  remnants  of  a 
former  link  in  the  continuity  of  the  Roman  Empire  between  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Black  Sea. 

In  view  of  the  complex  ethnic  history  of  Rumania,  the  living  Rumanians 
may  be  expected  to  show  evidence  of  a  multiplicity  of  racial  origin.  To 
native  Dacian  elements,  which  must  have  included  a  blend  of  indigenous 
Neolithic  peoples  with  Sa tern-speaking  Nordics,  have  been  added  whatever 
population  the  Romans  brought  and  which  did  not  run  away,  and  a 
multitude  of  early  Slavs  whom  the  Vlachs  absorbed.  Other  elements, 
Ugric,  Tatar,  and  Gothic,  were  probably  of  lesser  importance. 

The  Rumanians,  as  a  whole,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century, 
had  a  mean  stature  of  roughly  167  cm.,  which  is  probably  nearly  repre- 
sentative today.136  There  is  little  regional  variation;  what  there  is  indicates 
that  the  mountaineers  of  the  northern  Rumanian  Carpathians  may  be 
taller  than  the  rest,  since  the  villagers  of  Fundul  Moldovii,  studied  by 
Rainer,  have  a  mean  of  nearly  170  cm.;  those  living  on  the  Bessarabian 
plain  amongst  the  Ukrainians  seem  to  be  the  shortest,  with  a  mean  as 
low  as  165  cm.  A  greater  variation  is  found  in  the  cephalic  index;  on  the 
plains  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  and  in  the  Dobruja,  the  Rumanians 

136  Besides  Pittard's  book,  sources  on  the  Rumanians  are: 
Biasutti,  R.,  APA,  vol.  51,  1921,  pp.  154-184. 
Bielskii,  P.  A.,  RAJ,  vol.  7,  1907,  pp.  146-164. 
Himmel,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  83-84. 
Lebzelter,  V.,  Anth,  vol.  45,  1935,  pp.  65-69. 
Papilian,  V.,  RDAP,  vol.  33,  1923,  pp.  337-341 

Pittard,  E.,  and  Donifci,  A.,  BMSA,  ser.  7,  vol.  8,  1927,  pp.  38-50;  BSGA,  vol.  3, 
1927,  pp.  13-14;  vol.  4,  1928,  pp.  29-30. 

Pittard,  E.,  and  Sergent,  E.,  RDAP,  vol.  29,  1919,  pp.  57-76. 

Rainer,  F.  I.,  EnquStes  anthropologiques  dans  trois  Villages  Roumains  des  Carpathes. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  615 

are  as  a  rule  mesocephals  or  sub-brachycephals,  with  means  of  80  to  81; 
they  are  nearly  as  long-headed  as  the  Bulgarians.  In  the  mountains, 
however,  they  are  fully  Dinaric  or  Alpine  in  their  brachycephaly,  with  a 
mean  of  85.4  in  Fundul  Moldovii  in  the  Bukovinian  highlands,  and  of  86 
in  Bukovina  in  general,  where  they  equal  the  brachycephaly  of  the  Huzuls. 
Within  the  curve  of  the  Carpathians,  they  are  also  completely  brachy- 
cephalic;  means  from  Rumanians  in  Transylvania  and  in  the  Banat  lie 
mostly  between  84  and  85,  although  in  the  village  of  Dragu§,  an  old  and 
completely  Rumanian  settlement  lying  just  inside  the  bend  in  the  moun- 
tain crest  where  the  Transylvanian  Alps  become  the  eastern  Carpathians, 
and  not  far  from  the  Saxon  city  of  Kronstadt,  the  mean  is  86.6. 

We  are  dealing,  therefore,  with  two  kinds  of  Rumanians;  the  meso- 
cephalic  ones  of  the  eastern  plains,  and  the  brachycephalic  ones  of  the 
Carpathians  and  the  lands  to  the  west.  The  Carpathians  form  a  sharp 
boundary  delimiting  the  eastward  and  northeastward  extension  of  Alpine 
brachycephaly  in  Europe.  This  boundary  shows  little  regard  for  language 
or  for  ethnic  tradition. 

The  Rumanians  of  the  plains  show  a  general  metrical  similarity  to  the 
Neq-Danubians  of  the  Slavic  countries  to  the  north,  and  at  the  same  time 
a  relationship  to  the  longer-headed  Bulgarians.  The  village  of  Nerejul 
Mare,  some  eighty  miles  north  of  Bucharest  on  the  southeastern  slope  of 
the  Carpathians,  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the  plains  population,  although 
the  mean  cephalic  index  of  its  inhabitants,  81.5,  is  higher  than  in  some 
districts.  The  mean  stature  is  166.8  cm.,  the  relative  sitting  height  52.7. 
Eighty-eight  per  cent  of  the  men  have  black  or  dark  brown  to  brown  hair, 
the  rest  light  brown  or  blond.  Pure  dark  eyes  are  found  among  54  per 
cent,  light  eyes  among  11  per  cent,  with  the  rest  mixed,  mostly  dark- 
mixed.  Thus  the  population  is  prevailingly  brunet,  as  well  as  moderately 
tall,  intermediate  in  body  build,  and  sub-brachycephalic. 

The  mean  head  length  of  186  mm.,  and  breadth  of  151  mm.  show  a 
moderately  small  head  size;  the  auricular  height  of  125  mm.  is  relatively 
high.  The  face  is  of  moderate  size,  with  a  height  of  121  mm.,  and  breadths 
of  102  mm.  for  the  minimum  frontal,  140  mm.  for  the  bizygomatic,  and 
106  mm.  for  the  bigonial.  The  nose  is  small,  with  a  height  of  53.2  mm. 
and  a  breadth  of  34.2  rnm.  The  face  is  mesoprosopic,  with  a  facial  index 
of  86,  and  leptorrhine,  with  a  nasal  index  of  65.  While  these  cranial  and 
facial  indices  place  the  inhabitants  of  Nerejul  Mare  definitely  in  the  same 
class  with  the  peasantry  of  most  of  Russia,  the  intensity  of  hair  and  eye 
pigmentation,  and  the  narrowness  of  the  forehead  and  nose,  as  contrasted 
to  the  breadth  of  the  jaw,  suggest  the  brunet  long-headed  element  in 
Bulgaria  and  Greece.  Rainer  finds  these  moderately  tall  Mediterraneans 
among  his  villagers,  as  well  as  individuals  of  Neo-Danubian,  Slavic-looking 


616  THE   RACES  OF  EUROPE 

type;  Alpines  and  Binaries  are  partly  responsible  for  the  elevation 
of  the  cephalic  index,  and  Norics  are  present  as  a  Nordic  by-product. 
In  Moldavia  as  a  whole,  however,  the  Neo-Banubian  and  Black  Sea 
Mediterranean  forms  are  the  two  elements  of  greatest  importance,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  Wallachia. 

The  mountaineers  of  Fundul  Moldovii,  in  the  Bukovina,  are  taller  than 
the  villagers  just  studied,  with  a  mean  stature,  quoted  above,  of  169.5  cm.; 
their  cephalic  index  mean  is  85.4,  while  their  nasal  index  reaches  the  low 
mean  of  60.  They  are  somewhat  lighter  eyed  than  the  plainsmen,  and 
darker  haired.  Their  heads  are  broader,  with  a  mean  width  of  157  mm., 
rather  than  shorter,  and  hence  larger.  Their  faces  are  longer  (124  mm.) 
and  broader  (144  mm.),  while  both  foreheads  and  jaws  also  exceed  those 
of  the  Moldavian  villagers  in  breadth,  and  their  nasal  lengths  (56.4  mm.) 
are  considerably  greater.  Fifteen  per  cent  have  flattened  occiputs. 
Although  only  20  per  cent  have  convex  nasal  profiles,  in  the  great  majority 
the  forward  jut  of  the  nose,  accompanied  by  a  straight  or  wavy  profile,  is 
great. 

The  Fundul  Moldovii  people  are  in  great  majority  Binaries;  a  few 
appear  Alpine,  and  a  few  others  Noric.  By  and  large,  if  the  inhabitants 
of  this  village  were  transported  to  northern  Albania  and  given  a  change 
of  costume,  few  anthropologists  would  be  able  to  tell  the  difference  between 
the  newcomers  and  the  native  tribesmen.  The  inhabitants  of  Bragu§, 
farther  south  and  on  the  Transylvanian  side,  and  no  farther  from  Bucharest 
than  Nerejul  Mare,  are  just  as  Binaric  metrically  as  the  Bukovinian 
villagers;  their  heads  are,  in  fact,  shorter,  with  a  mean  length  of  182  mm., 
as  are  their  faces;  they  resemble  to  a  certain  extent  the  Binaric  form 
common  among  Serbs. 

Leaving  the  political  boundaries  of  Rumania,  we  find  two  groups  of 
Vlachs  who  have  been  the  subjects  of  special  study;  those  of  Macedonia137 
and  of  Istria.138  The  Vlachs  of  Macedonia  are  the  tallest  of  the  many 
varied  ethnic  groups  which  compose  that  region,  with  a  mean  stature 
of  168  cm.,  and  have  the  greatest  absolute  head  length  (188  mm.).  They 
are  low  brachycephals,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  83,  are  predomi- 
nantly dark-haired  and  dark-eyed,  and  straight-nosed.  They  show  some 
Binaric  influences,  as  do  all  the  peoples  of  Macedonia;  on  the  whole, 
however,  their  closest  affiliation  is  with  the  brunet  mesocephals  and  dolicho- 
cephals  of  the  eastern  Balkan  area.  There  are,  nevertheless,  a  few  blonds 
among  them,  and  these  are  usually  Nordic. 

The  Istrian  Vlachs,  on  the  other  hand,  are  complete  Binaries  with  a 
mean  stature  of  169  cm.,  a  cephalic  index  of  86,  and  head  and  facial 

18THasluck,  M.,  and  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  21,  1929,  pp.  322-336. 
isw  Schiick,  A,,  MAGW,  vol.  43,  1914,  pp.  210-234. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  617 

dimensions  which  cannot  be  distinguished  from  those  of  most  Binaries, 
In  their  high  brachycephaly,  however,  and  in  their  facial  and  nasal 
lengths,  as  well  as  in  a  predominant  brunet  tendency,  they  are  much 
closer  to  the  Tyrolese,  and  especially  to  the  Ladin-speakers,  than  to  the 
Slovenes  among  whom  they  live.  They  are  also  very  similar  to  their 
distant  linguistic  relatives  in  the  Carpathians. 

The  Vlachs,  a  widespread  and  numerous  people  in  southeastern  Europe, 
are  the  descendants  of  Romanized  aborigines,  and  of  other  peoples  whom 
these  latter  have  absorbed.  They  have  no  racial  homogeneity,  but  vary 
regionally  according  to  the  races  long  seated  in  the  regions  where  they 
live.  In  the  northeast,  where  the  Moldavian  plain  forms  a  continuation 
of  the  Black  Earth  region  of  southern  Russia,  the  Neo-Danubian  type  of 
the  Black  Earth  region  is  predominant;  in  the  southeast,  where  a  local 
Atlanto-Mediterranean  type  is  concentrated,  the  Vlachs  tend  to  assume 
that  form;  west  of  the  Carpathians,  and  near  the  crest  of  that  range,  they 
are  Binaries  of  the  first  rank,  comparable  to  that  other  group  of  mountain- 
dwelling  speakers  of  Neo-Latin,  the  Ladiner. 

In  studying  the  racial  composition  of  southern  Russia,  there  was  evidence 
of  a  moderately  tall,  long-headed,  brunet  Mediterranean  form,  which  is 
concentrated  along  the  northern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  but  which  also 
appears  sporadically  in  the  entire  Russian  population.  To  western 
Europeans  and  Americans,  it  is  better  known  than  its  frequency  would 
warrant,  for  it  is  exemplified  by  several  world  famous  ballerinas  and 
opera  singers.  This  is  the  Mediterranean  racial  division  which  the 
Russian  anthropologists  call  Pontic 139  and  which  the  Poles  recognize  as  a 
very  minor  element  in  their  own  population.  It  is  with  little  doubt  of 
Neolithic  date  in  southern  Russia,  Rumania,  Bulgaria,  and  the  Hellespont 
region,  and  probably  in  Greece  and  the  Aegean.  In  most  of  Thrace  it 
seems  more  basic  than  the  Banubian,  or  at  least  more  common.  What  its 
relationship  may  be  to  the  introduction  of  the  Neolithic  economy  into 
Europe  by  land  or  by  sea,  cannot  be  determined  without  more  data. 

(17)   THE   OSMANLI   TURKS 

The  best  known  and  most  numerous  of  the  living  Turkish  peoples,  the 
Osmanlis,  today  form  the  principal  element  in  the  population  of  Asia 
Minor,  while  colonies  of  them,  left  behind  by  the  recession  of  Turkish 
power  from  southeastern  Europe,  are  to  be  found  here  and  there  in  Yugo- 
slavia, Albania,  Greece,  Bulgaria,  and  Rumania.  Only  in  the  present 
Turkish  territory  west  of  the  Bosporus  do  they  form  at  the  present  day  a 
majority  in  any  European  area  which  is  a  political  entity.  Individual 
Turks  still  occupy  positions  of  importance  in  some  of  the  former  Turkish 

w'Bunak,  V.,  ZFMA,  vol.  30,  1932,  pp.  441-503. 


618  THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 

provinces  outside  of  Europe,  as  in  the  Yemen;  Turkish  families  form  the 
nucleus  of  the  aristocracy  in  others,  as  in  Egypt. 

The  first  Turks  to  concern  themselves  with  Asia  Minor  were  the  Seljuks, 
a  nation  of  Turks  or  Turkomans  called  at  that  time  Ghuzz,  who  were 
converted  to  Islam  in  what  is  now  Russian  Turkestan  about  the  year 
1000  A.D.  After  conquering  Persia,  they  entered  Armenia  in  1048  A.D. 
and  during  the  rest  of  the  eleventh  century  gradually  took  over  Asia 
Minor,  although  they  were  more  interested  in  the  civilized  Moslem  centers 
of  Syria  and  Iraq.  Starting  about  1070  A.D.,  tribe  after  tribe  of  Turkish 
nomads  from  central  Asia  and  Turkestan  entered  Asia  Minor  across 
northern  Persia,  in  search  of  fresh  pastures.  Many  of  the  Christian  peasants 
of  the  peninsula  abandoned  their  farms,  turned  to  the  cities,  or  became 
nomadic  themselves;  this  movement  was  further  fostered  by  the  great 
destruction  of  property  consummated  by  the  Mongols. 

The  Osmanli  Turks,  later  comers  than  the  others,  did  not  arrive  in 
Asia  Minor  until  1227  A.D.,  and  numbered  but  a  few  thousands.  About 
1300  A.D.,  under  their  leader  Osman,  they  obtained  control  of  the  Seljuk 
empire,  and  the  Ottoman  rule  began  at  that  time.  They  converted  many 
of  the  Christian  natives,  left  alone  by  the  Seljuks,  to  Islam,  and  the  name 
of  the  nation  as  a  whole  became  that  of  the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  dynasty. 

It  cannot  be  denied  that  the  present-day  Turks  of  Asia  Minor  have 
absorbed  much  of  the  pre-Turkish  population,  but  that  their  ancestors 
came  in  great  numbers  from  central  Asia  is  equally  true.  The  Turkish 
invasion  was  not  a  simple,  connected  event,  but  a  long  succession  of  immi- 
grations of  different  kinds  of  Turks  over  a  long  period  of  time.  The  hetero- 
geneity of  these  movements  is  seen  by  the  retention  in  the  present  Turkish 
population  of  Anatolia  of  old  distinctions;  the  Yiiriiks,  for  example,  who 
still  pasture  their  flocks  on  the  hills  of  Cappadocia  and  Cilicia,  retained 
their  old  central  Asiatic  manner  of  life  with  little  change  until  the  rise 
of  the  Turkish  Republic,  and  the  Kizilbashes,  in  eastern  Anatolia,  who 
are  Shiite  Turks  from  Persia,  are  recognized  as  a  separate  group. 

The  Christian  population  of  Turkey,  or  that  remnant  of  it  which  has 
remained  unabsorbed,  had  until  recent  years  always  been  numerous;  it 
consists  mostly  of  Greeks,  many  thousands  of  whom  have  been  sent  back 
to  Greek  soil,  and  of  Armenians,  a  large  proportion  of  whom  have  emi- 
grated during  the  present  century  to  all  quarters  of  the  earth,  and  in 
especially  large  numbers  to  America.  Jews  as  well  as  Christians  survived 
centuries  of  Turkish  rule;  throughout  mediaeval  and  modern  history 
Moslems  have  behaved  with  greater  consistency  and  with  less  violence 
toward  Jews  than  have  Christians. 

The  modern  Turks  of  Anatolia  differ  little  in  most  of  their  metrical 
characters  from  peoples  whom  we  have  already  encountered  in  central 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  619 

and  southeastern  Europe,  as  the  following  r6sume  will  make  clear.140 
The  mean  stature  for  Anatolia  is  167  cm.;  this  varies  from  169  cm.  in 
the  Smyrna  district  and  168  cm.  in  the  Dardanelles-Marmora  Sea  region, 
and  in  Kastamuni  on  the  Black  Sea  shore,  to  166  cm.  in  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, on  the  flank  of  Armenia.  The  bodily  build  is  often  thick -set  or 
lateral;  this  is  shown  by  a  relative  sitting  height  of  54.  The  relative  span, 
104,  is  moderate,  and  varies  from  103  in  the  west,  to  nearly  105  in  the 
east.  The  same  is  true  of  bodily  proportions  in  general;  the  lateral  form  is 
much  more  typical  of  the  eastern  provinces  than  of  the  Aegean  and  Pontine 
shores. 

The  head  form  of  the  Turks  as  a  whole  is  only  moderately  brachy- 
cephalic;  84.2  is  the  mean  for  Anatolia,  and  this  varies  from  81.8  in 
Brussa,  between  Smyrna  and  the  Hellespont,  to  85.4  in  the  eastern  prov- 
inces, and  86.6  in  Kastamuni,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea. 
The  western  and  southern  Turks  are  low  brachycephals,  the  eastern  and 
northern  ones  high.  In  the  regions  of  Brussa,  Smyrna,  and  Konia,  there 
is,  therefore,  an  important  long-headed  minority.  For  the  most  part  the 
heads  of  Turks  are  not  large;  the  mean  length  for  Anatolia  is  181.6  mm., 
the  breadth  152.6  mm.,  while  the  auricular  height  mean  is  126.1.  These 
dimensions  could  easily  be  matched  among  Yugoslavs  or  Macedonians. 
In  Smyrna,  the  longest-headed  province,  the  mean  head  length  rises  to 
nearly  184  mm.,  in  Kastamuni  it  falls  to  180  mm.  The  breadth  similarly 
varies  between  150  mm.  and  156  mm.;  even  the  roundest-headed  region 
has  a  relatively  small  head  breadth.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
Greeks  of  the  north  shore  of  Asia  Minor  have  the  same  head  form  as  the 
Turks,  but  to  a  more  exaggerated  degree;  with  a  length  mean  of  180.7 
mm.,  breadth  of  157.6  mm.,  and  cephalic  index  of  87.2. 

The  faces  of  the  Osmanli  Turks  of  Anatolia,  as  well  as  their  head  vaults, 
have  dimensions  reminiscent  of  southeastern  Europe.  The  total  face 
height  mean  for  the  whole  is  122  mm.,  and  this  varies  little  throughout 
the  region.  The  bizygomatic  mean,'  140  mm.,  is  also  relatively  constant, 
but  narrowest  in  the  Smyrna  district.  The  minimum  frontal,  about  105 
mm.,  is  not  excessive,  nor  is  the  bigonial,  108  mm.  In  these  dimensions 
the  Turks  resemble  Balkan  Mediterraneans  and  Alpines;  their  faces  are 

140  The  principal  work  on  the  physical  anthropology  of  modern  Turkey  is  Wagen- 
seil,  F.,  ZFMA,  vol.  29,  1931,  pp.  193-260. 

Other  references  consulted  are: 

Crowfoot,  J.  W.,  JRAI,  vol.  30,  1900,  pp.  305-320. 

Elisiev,  A.,  IILE,  vol.  68,  1890,  col.  219  ff.;  1891,  vol.  71,  col.  62  If.  R£sum6  in  Anth, 
vol.  3,  1892,  pp.  477-481. 

Kansu,  S.  A.,  TAM,  vol  7,  1931,  pp.  3-15,  17-19. 

Luschan^  F.  von,  JRAI,  vol.  41,  1911,  pp.  221-244;  AFA,  vol.  19,  1890,  pp.  31-54. 

Luschan,  F.  von,  and  Petersen,  E.,  Reisen  in  Lykien,  Milyas^  und  Kibyratis. 

2upanic",  N.,  Etnolog,  1927,  pp.  87-130.    R6sum£  in  AnthPr,  vol.  6,  1928,  pp.  95-96. 


620  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

not  long  enough  for  exaggerated  Dinarics.  Like  the  Greeks  and  the  peoples 
to  the  west  of  the  Black  Sea,  they  preserve  a  forehead-jaw  ratio  which 
emphasizes  the  width  of  the  mandible.  The  nose,  with  a  mean  height  of 
57  mm.  and  a  breadth  of  35.3  mm.,  is,  however,  fully  Dinaric.  It  is 
largest  (59  mm.  by  36  mm.)  in  the  eastern  provinces,  smallest  (56  mm.  by 
35  mm.)  in  Smyrna.  The  nasal  index  of  62.4  is  leptorrhine,  but  not  as 
much  so  as  that  of  Albanians. 

The  unexposed  skin  color  of  the  Turks  is  mostly  brunet-white  or  swarthy, 
(von  Luschan  #11-16),  the  head  hair  color,  in  90  per  cent  of  cases,  dark 
brown.  Black  hair,  however,  is  found  in  less  than  5  per  cent,  and  blondism 
is  rare.  The  ratio  of  dark  brown  hair  is  constant,  except  in  the  eastern 
provinces,  where  it  is  nearly  100  per  cent.  The  beard  hair  is  often  lighter 
than  the  head  hair;  only  70  per  cent  are  black  or  dark  brown,  while 
reddish  shades  are  found  among  nearly  10  per  cent.  Reddish  and  blondish 
beards  are  by  far  commoner  in  the  western  and  northern  provinces  than 
elsewhere,  and  are  in  these  places  found  in  one-third  of  the  group  observed. 

Pure  dark  eyes  are  found  in  about  40  per  cent  of  the  total,  while  another 
40  per  cent  possesses  dark-mixed  eyes,  many  of  which  would  appear 
brunet  upon  casual  observation.  The  remaining  20  per  cent  is  almost 
entirely  composed  of  men  who  possess  evenly  mixed  or  light-mixed  irises, 
with  but  less  than  2  per  cent  of  pure  lights.  On  the  whole,  the  Anatolian 
Turks  are  prevailingly  brunet  in  pigmentation,  but  brunet  in  a  condition 
in  which  the  skin  is  brunet-white,  the  hair  dark  brown,  and  the  eyes 
brown  or  dark-mixed.  There  are  several  shades  of  brown  in  the  eye 
color,  and  it  is  apparent  that  more  than  one  brunet  strain  is  present. 
The  virtual  absence  of  black  hair,  however,  the  presence  of  rufosity,  and 
the  high  ratio  of  mixed  eyes,  when  combined  with  the  metrical  data, 
indicate  that  the  principal  brunet  strain  is  some  form  of  Alpine. 

Fifty-four  per  cent  of  the  Turks  have  some  occipital  flattening,  and  this 
ratio  rises  to  80  per  cent  in  the  province  of  Kastamuni.  In  the  west,  it 
falls  to  38  per  cent,  and  in  the  eastern  provinces  is  only  42  per  cent.  The 
associated  Dinaric  character  of  a  convex  nasal  profile  is  found  among 
58  per  cent  of  the  total;  the  ratio  is  slightly  higher  in  the  north  and  east 
than  in  the  west.  The  nasal  wings  are  usually  compressed  to  medium; 
flaring  forms,  such  as  one  associates  with  mongoloids,  are  very  rare,  as  are 
concave  nasal  profiles.  An  excessive  development  of  the  malars  is  uncom- 
mon, but  more  frequent  in  the  east  than  in  the  west.  The  epicanthic  eye- 
fold,  typical  of  Mongols,  is  almost  unknown  in  Turkey.  The  beard  is 
often  heavy,  and  the  body  hair  on  the  heavy  side  of  medium. 

On  the  basis  of  the  metrical  and  morphological  data  outlined  above, 
we  may  dismiss  the  theory  that  the  Anatolian  Turks  are  in  any  sense 
mongoloid.  It  may  be  possible  to  find  individuals  with  some  recognizable 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  621 

mongoloid  features,  but  no  more  frequently  than  in  most  countries  of 
Europe.  The  Anatolian  Turks  are  for  the  most  part  Cappadocian  Mediter- 
raneans, with  a  mixture  of  Alpines  in  sufficient  quantity  to  produce  the 
Dinaric  transformation.  Only  in  Kastamuni,  on  the  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea,  and  in  the  provinces  which  contain  large  populations  of  Armenians 
and  other  non-Turks,  does  the  brachycephaly  of  the  Osmanlis  reach  full 
Dinaric  proportions.  In  the  west  and  south,  there  are  enough  unassimilated 
dolichocephalic  factors  left  to  form  a  considerable  minority. 

If  the  Turks  are  for  the  most  part  Gappadocians  Dinaricized  through 
Alpine  mixture,  this  simply  means  that  the  zone  of  reduced  Upper 
Palaeolithic  survivors  extends  into  Anatolia;  the  skeletal  types  found 
among  the  meager  remains  from  Alishar  Hiiyuk  have  mingled,  with  a 
result  parallel  to  that  experienced  throughout  the  entire  Alpine  racial 
zone  in  Europe.  This  conclusion  would  mean  that  the  Turks  are  not 
Turks  at  all,  except  in  speech  and  tradition,  except  for  one  thing:  the 
remnants  of  the  pre-Turkish  population  are  more  brachycephalic,  more 
typical  members  of  this  Near  Eastern  Dinaric  race  than  are  the  Turks 
themselves.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  Asia  Minor  Greeks  are  even 
rounder-headed  than  the  Turks  of  Kastamuni;  they  are  also  2  cm.  shorter 
in  stature.  As  we  shall  presently  see,  the  Armenians  themselves  likewise 
exceed  the  Turks  in  their  Dinaric  or  Armenoid  character.  Furthermore, 
the  Takhtadshy  and  Bektashi,  members  of  heretical  sects  in  Asia  Minor 
who  arc  supposed  to  have  little  Turkish  blood,  are  rounder  and  shorter- 
headed,  and  more  Alpine  and  Armenoid  in  every  way,  than  the  Turks  as  a 
whole.141  The  Turks,  therefore,  while  to  a  large  extent  descended  from  the 
pre-Turkish  population,  are  perceptibly  different  as  a  group  from  its 
most  fully  authentic  survivors. 

With  this  directional  lead,  we  may  proceed  to  examine  the  most  fully 
Turkish  people  in  Turkey,  the  Yiiriiks,  pastoral  nomads  of  Cappadocia 
and  Cilicia,  who  are  supposed  to  have  mixed  little  with  non-Turks  or 
other  kinds  of  Turks  since  their  arrival.  A  small  but  apparently  repre- 
sentative series  142  shows  them  to  be  tall,  with  a  mean  stature  of  169  cm., 
mesocephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  79,  and  largely  brunet. 
Their  faces  are  moderately  long  (124.6  mm.)  and  moderately  wide  (144 
mm.).  In  facial  features  they  are  not  at  all  mongoloid.  If  the  early  Turk- 
ish invaders  of  Asia  Minor  belonged  largely  to  this  type,  then  the  racial 
position  of  the  modern  Osmanlis  in  reference  to  that  of  the  previous  Ana- 
tolians is  easily  comprehended. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  Turkish  invasions,  there  was  some  question 

141  Crowfoot,  JRAI,  1900. 
Luschan  F.  von,  AFA,  1890. 

142  Luschan,  F.  von,  in  Petersen  and  von  Luschan. 


622  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

as  to  whether  the  ancestors  of  the  Seljuks  and  Osmanlis  were  to  be  con- 
sidered Turks  in  the  sense  of  Kirghiz  and  Uzbegs,  or  Turkomans,  a  general 
name  meaning  Turk-like  people.  In  view  of  the  present  evidence,  it  is 
likely  that  they  were  actually  Turkomans,  or  at  any  rate  Turks  similar  to 
living  Turkomans  and  Azerbaijanis  (see  Chapter  XI,  section  5),  and 
were  thus  non-mongoloid  whites  of  a  tall,  long-faced,  high-headed,  brunet 
Mediterranean  variety.  The  Turks  who  invaded  eastern  Russia,  on  the 
other  hand,  belonged  rather  to  the  Kirghiz  type,  which  is  a  Mongol- 
Turkoman-Nordic  mixture,  and  the  Tatars  of  eastern  Europe  and  of  the 
Caucasus  are  for  that  reason  primarily  brachycephalic  and  partially 
mongoloid. 

The  determination  of  the  physical  type  of  the  Osmanli  and  Seljuk 
Turks,  through  directional  leads  and  the  study  of  the  Yuriiks,  furnish  a 
reasonable  explanation  of  the  racial  characters  of  the  modern  Anatolian 
Turks.  If  one  places  the  contribution  of  the  Turkish  ancestors  in  Anatolia 
at  about  25  per  cent,  and  that  of  the  previous  inhabitants  at  about  75  per 
cent,  the  racial  situation  in  that  peninsula  assumes  a  position  in  accord- 
ance with  history.  The  indigenous  75  per  cent  is  composed  of  a  Cappa- 
docian-Alpine  blend,  in  which  the  latter  element  must  have  reemerged 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  which  can  be  chronologically  established  in 
central  Europe. 

Data  on  the  Turkish  inhabitants  of  the  present  southeastern  European 
states  are  very  conflicting.  A  series  of  200  from  Macedonia 143  is  hyper- 
Anatolian,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  87,  and  pigmentation  comparable 
to  that  of  Turks  in  Asia  Minor;  another  series,  presumably  from  a  different 
part  of  Macedonia,144  is  dolichocephalic,  with  a  mean  index  of  77.7.  Turks 
in  Rumelia,146  that  is  southern  Bulgaria,  and  Turks  in  the  Dobruja,146 
have  cephalic  indices  of  82-83,  and  metrical  and  morphological  features 
which  relate  them  to  the  body  of  Turks  in  general.  Owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  Osmanli  Turks  of  the  Balkans  have  preferred  emigration  rather  than 
assimilation  since  the  disappearance  of  their  European  empire,  it  is  unlikely 
that  they  have  contributed  much  in  a  racial  sense  to  populations  which 
are  now  Christian,  or  to  Moslem  groups  which  are  not  Turkish  in  speech. 

(18)   NEAR  EASTERN  BRACHYCEPHALS;    SYRIA,   ARMENIA, 
AND  THE   CAUCASUS 

The  object  of  the  present  section  is  to  deal  with  the  general  group  of 
brachycephalic  peoples,  other  than  the  Osmanli  Turks,  who  live  in  the 
regions  lying  between  Syria  and  the  Caucasus,  and  including  both.  These 

148Hasluck,  M.,  and  Morant,  G.  M.,  Biometrika,  vol.  21,  1929,  pp.  322-336. 
M*  Lebzelter,  V.,  MAGW,  vol.  63,  1933,  pp.  233-251. 
"»  Kansu,  S.  A.,  TAM,  vol.  7,  1931,  pp.  13-15,  17-19. 
146  Pittard/E.,  Les  Peuples  des  Balkans. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  623 

peoples  include  the  various  groups  of  Syrians,  the  Druses,  the  Armenians, 
the  Assyrians,  and  the  Caucasic  peoples  proper. 

Syria,  an  Arabic-speaking  country,  is  bounded  by  the  northern  Arabian 
desert  on  the  east,  by  Palestine  on  the  south,  and  by  Ottoman  Turkish 
territory  on  the  north.  It  is  divided  into  the  coastal  mountain  sections  of 
Lebanon  on  the  south  and  the  Alawiya  country  on  the  north,  and  the 
inland  portions  administered  from  Damascus  and  Aleppo,  respectively. 
In  the  very  south  is  the  Jebel  Druz,  some  fifty  miles  east  of  the  Lake  of 
Tiberias.  The  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Lebanon  region  are 
Christians,  of  both  Maronite  and  Orthodox  sects;  the  Druses  practice  a 
secret  religion  of  their  own  which  arose  from  a  Fatemid  heresy  in  Egypt 
in  the  eleventh  century;  the  Alawiya  or  Nosairi  are  also  Moslem  heretics, 
being  the  most  extremely  schismatic  of  the  Shiites.147 

For  anthropometric  purposes,  the  Syrians  may  be  divided  into  (1) 
the  Syrian  Bedawin,  including  the  Ruwala,  Akeydat,  and  Maualy,  (2) 
the  desert  border  groups,  including  the  towns  of  Horns,  Hama,  and  Aleppo, 
and  the  districts  of  Mharda,  Hafar,  and  Hijana,  (3)  the  mountain  groups, 
including  the  Druse,  the  Lebanese,  the  Mitwali  (Lebanese  Moslems),  and 
the  Alawiya  (Alouites).  The  Syrian  Bedawin  are  dolichocephalic  Arabs 
of  pure  Mediterranean  race;  the  desert  border  groups  are  intermediate 
between  the  former  and  the  mountain  people,  with  mean  cephalic  indices 
of  77-79  for  the  country  people,  and  81-82  for  the  city  dwellers.  It  is  the 
third  group,  which  is  fully  brachycephalic,  that  deserves  special  attention 
here.  Both  the  Lebanese  and  the  Druses  have  mean  cephalic  indices  of 
86,  and  the  Mitwali  of  87,  while  the  mean  of  the  Alawiya  is  83. 148 

The  mountain  peoples,  Lebanese,  Alawiya,  Mitwali,  and  Druse,  are  all 
racially  very  much  alike,  whatever  their  differences  in  religion,  and  a  study 
of  one  will  suffice  for  the  whole.  The  Lebanese  will  serve  as  an  example. 
They  are  of  a  little  more  than  moderate  European  stature,  with  a  mean 
of  167  cm.;  their  bodily  proportions  are  medium,  from  the  metrical  stand- 
point; they  are  thicker  set  as  a  rule  than  Bedawin,  and  are  built  more  often 
like  the  Anatolian  Turks;  some,  who  follow  sedentary  occupations,  incline 
to  corpulence. 

147  Lammens,  H.,  Islam,  Beliefs  and  Institutions. 

148  Principal  sources  on  Syria  are : 

Kappers,  C.  U.  A.,  and  Parr,  L.  W.,  An  Introduction  to  the  Anthropology  of  the  Near  East. 

Seltzer,  C.  C.,  The  Racial  Characteristics  of  Syrians  and  Armenians. 

Shanklin,  W.  M.,  JRAI,  vol.  65,  1935,  pp.  375-390. 

Shanklin,  W.  M.,  and  Izzeddin,  N.,  AJPA,  vol.  21,  1936,  pp.  217-252;  vol.  22,  1937, 
pp.  381-415. 

Also  other  material  in  preparation  by  W.  M.  Shanklin,  and  a  series  of  over  600  adult 
male  Druses  by  Miss  Izzeddin.  Part  of  Miss  Izzeddin's  series,  the  Matn  sub-group,  has 
already  been  published  by  Kappers  and  Parr.  Any  reference  to  her  work  here  is  through 
the  medium  of  this  publication. 


624  THE   RACES  OF  EUROPE 

In  their  head  and  face  measurements,  they  are  virtually  identical  with 
the  more  brachycephalic  groups  of  Anatolian  Turks  studied  in  the  last 
section;  they  likewise  fall  extremely  close  to  the  total  means  for  Ghegs 
in  northern  Albania,  in  all  characters  studied  except  the  nasal  dimensions; 
the  Lebanese  being  shorter  and  slightly  broader-nosed.  The  nasal  dimen- 
sions of  the  Lebanese  are  55  mm.  by  35  mm.,  with  a  nasal  index  of  63. 

Most  of  the  Lebanese  have  brunet-white  unexposed  skin  color,  although 
some  20  per  cent  have  pinkish-white  skin,  as  light  as  that  of  most  northern 
Europeans.  About  50  per  cent  have  black  hair,  a  higher  incidence  than 
was  found  among  Turks,  while  most  of  the  rest  have  dark  brown.  Eighty- 
three  per  cent  have  pure  brown  eyes,  with  dark  brown  in  the  majority; 
the  principal  mixed  color  scheme  is  green-brown.  Some  5  per  cent  have 
eyes  which  are  either  pure  or  nearly  pure  blue.  The  hair  is  usually  wavy, 
and  often  fine  in  texture;  it  is  often  heavy  on  the  beard  and  body,  while 
the  eyebrows  are  frequently  thick,  and  in  77  per  cent,  concurrent. 

The  noses  of  the  Lebanese,  convex  in  profile  in  53  per  cent  of  the  group, 
have  usually  a  slight  to  medium  nasion  depression,  a  high,  medium  to 
broad  root,  and  a  high,  broad  bridge;  the  tip  is  of  moderate  thickness  in 
most  cases,  and  usually  elevated;  the  wings  are  seldom  compressed.  Their 
foreheads  usually  have  little  slope,  their  browridges  are  of  moderate 
development;  occipital  flattening  of  some  degree  is  present  in  almost  all 
who  were  born  in  Syria. 

The  Lebanese  are  Mediterraneans  of  the  same  type  found  in  Palestine 
and  northern  Arabia,  brachycephalized  through  the  agency  of  the  Alpine 
race.  They  differ  from  the  brachycephals  of  Anatolia,  who  antedate  the 
Osmanli  Turks  in  origin,  in  very  few  characters;  one  is  the  possession  of 
black  hair,  as  opposed  to  dark  brown,  in  half  the  group;  another  is  a 
greater  incidence  of  pure  brown  eyes.  The  difference  between  the  two 
is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  Arabian  type  of  Mediterranean  is  natu- 
rally more  brunet  than  the  principal  element  in  Anatolia.  Among  the 
Lebanese,  dark  brown-eyed,  black-haired  individuals  tend  to  be  shorter, 
longer-headed,  and  narrower-faced  than  the  group  as  a  whole,  and  thus 
lean  in  a  Mediterranean  direction;  the  blonds  or  near-blonds  are  the 
tallest,  longest-faced,  and  narrowest-nosed.  They  thus  assume  the  Noric 
form  typical  of  a  Nordic  strain  in  this  type  of  mixture.  The  Lebanese  on 
the  whole  are  Dinaricized  Mediterraneans,  but  do  not  entirely  merit  the 
term  Armenoid,  any  more  than  do  the  Osmanli  Turks. 

We  cannot  date  the  brachycephalization  of  the  Syrians  exactly,  but 
we  know  that  brachycephals  began  travelling  from  that  part  of  the  world 
by  sea  as  early  as  approximately  2200  B.C.  Cyprus,  an  early  center  of 
maritime  Bronze  Age  activity,  is  today  inhabited  by  a  Graeco-Turkish 
population,  in  which  the  Greeks,  both  linguistically  and  in  religion,  are 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  625 

the  preponderant  element.149  The  living  Cypriots  are,  like  their  Dinaric 
forebears,  moderately  tall,  with  a  mean  stature  of  169  cm.;  they  are 
moderately  brachycephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  82.5,  and  their 
anthropometric  character  in  general  is  fully  Dinaric.  Slightly  more  than 
half  of  the  Cypriots  have  brown  eyes,  and  of  the  others  the  majority  are 
greenish-brown.  Thirty-five  per  cent  have  black  hair,  most  of  the  others, 
dark  brown.  On  the  basis  of  available  information,  it  is  possible  to  admit 
both  Greek  and  Turkish  influences  in  a  physical  sense,  while  the  major 
inheritance  must  be  from  the  Cypriots  of  the  Bronze  Age. 

It  has  long  been  believed  by  physical  anthropologists  that  the  quintes- 
sence of  Near  Eastern  brachycephaly  is  to  be  found  in  the  Armenians; 
the  racial  term  Armenoid  being  named  for  them.  The  Armenians  have 
long  been  established  in  the  territory  which  is  now  only  partly  theirs; 
they  had,  before  the  arrival  of  the  Turks,  a  powerful  kingdom,  which 
covered  most  of  the  territory  between  the  Gulf  of  Alexandretta  and  the 
Caucasus.  Their  kingdom  had  its  roots  in  the  Early  Iron  Age,  and  a  possi- 
ble derivation,  in  part  at  least,  from  that  of  the  Hittites.  The  endogamy  of 
the  Armenians  in  modern  times  is  well  known,  and  there  is  every  reason  to 
suppose  that  they  have  preserved  a  pre-Turkish  racial  complex  with  some 
fidelity.  Endogamy,  however,  functions  best  under  adversity,  and  there 
is  reason  to  believe  that  in  the  time  of  their  greatest  power  the  Armenians 
absorbed  other  Near  Eastern  peoples  into  their  linguistic  and  cultural 
body.  There  was,  furthermore,  a  strong  social  division  into  military 
aristocrats  and  peasantry. 

The  present  Armenians  are  greatly  scattered,  and  so  great  has  been  the 
exodus  from  their  own  country  that  series  measured  elsewhere  should 
show  little  influence  of  selection.  A  series  of  1100  men,  measured  in 
America  but  adult  at  the  time  of  immigration,  furnishes  ample  material 
for  the  study  of  this  people.150  They  belong,  as  is  well  known,  to  the 

u»  por  an  excellent  account  of  the  modern  Cypriots,  and  a  survey  of  the  history  of  Cy- 
prus, see  The  Memoirs  of  Sir  Ronald  Storrs. 

For  the  anthropometry  of  the  island,  see:  Buxton,  L.  H.,  JRAI,  vol.  50,  1920,  pp.  183- 
235. 

160  I  am  relying  almost  entirely  upon  an  unpublished  work:  Hughes,  B.  O.,  The 
Physical  Anthropology  of  Native  Born  Armenians.  Accepted  as  a  PhD.  thesis  at  Harvard 
University,  1938. 

Other  sources  include : 

Bunak,  V.,  Crania  Armenica. 

Chantre,  E.,  Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  VAsie  Occidentale;  BSAL,  vol.  13,  1895, 
pp.  49-101. 

Erckert,  R.  von,  AFA,  vol.  18,  1889,  pp.  263-281;  vol.  19,  1890,  pp.  55-84,  211-249, 
332-356. 

Seltzer,  C.  C.,  The  Racial  Characteristics  of  Syrians  and  Armenians. 

Twarjanowitsch,  J.  K.,  Materialen  z,ur  Anthropologie  der  Armenier.  Resume*  in  AFA, 
vol.  26,  1899,  pp.  178-184. 

Weissenberg,  S.,  AFA,  vol.  13,  1915,  pp.  383-387. 


626  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

planoccipital  brachycephalic  division  of  the  white  race,  a  division  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  possesses  only  such  unity  as  that  which  results  from  a 
common  principle  of  heredity. 

They  are  men  of  medium  stature,  with  a  mean  of  166  cm.;  this  varies 
extensively  in  accordance  with  geography;  the  eastern  Armenians,  from 
Van,  Erivan,  Bitlis,  and  Erzerum,  are  considerably  taller  than  those  in 
the  west,  who  come  from  Sivas,  Kaisarie,  and  Marash,  while  those 
geographically  intermediate,  from  Kharput  and  Diarbekr,  are  inter- 
mediate in  stature  as  well.  The  extremes  are  the  Van  people,  with  a 
mean  of  169  cm.,  and  those  from  Kaisarie  and  Marash,  with  means  of 
164  cm.  They  are,  for  their  weight,  very  heavy  people^  with  a  mean  of 
160  Ibs.;  the  lateral  bodily  habitus  which  the  foregoing  weight-stature 
ratio  indicates  is  predominant  in  all  regional  groups,  except  Van.  Mem- 
bers of  the  western  groups,  on  the  whole,  are  more  lateral  than  those 
from  the  east.  The  relative  span,  104,  and  the  relative  sitting  height,  53,2, 
fall  into  the  general  Alpine  category. 

The  mean  cephalic  index  for  Armenians  is  85.4;  this  varies  from  84  in 
Van  and  Erivan,  to  86  in  Sivas  and  87  in  Erzerum.  The  mean  head 
length,  185  mm.  for  the  total,  reaches  188  mm.  in  the  east,  and  183  mm. 
in  the  west.  The  breadth  mean,  1 58  mm.,  is  relatively  constant.  The  auric- 
ular height,  with  a  mean  of  126  mm.,  is  also  subject  to  this  east-west  differ- 
entiation; local  means  reach  129  mm.  in  the  east,  124  mm.  in  the  west. 
The  lateral  dimensions  of  the  face,  108  mm.  for  the  minimum  frontal, 
144  mm.  for  the  bizygomatic,  and  110  mm.  for  the  bigonial,  show  no  geo- 
graphical variation;  they  are  comparable  to  the  breadth  dimensions  found 
among  moderate-sized  Binaries  in  Europe,  although  the  jaw  width  is  more 
reminiscent  of  Asia  Minor  and  Greece.  The  inverse  jaw-forehead  ratio  is 
the  opposite  from  that  of  Albanian  Binaries. 

Vertical  diameters  of  the  face  are  again  divided  geographically,  the 
total  face  height  mean  is  128  mm.,  ranging  from  130  mm.  in  the  east  to 
125  mm.  in  the  west;  the  upper  face  height  similarly  varies  from  78  mm. 
to  75  mm.,  with  a  mean  for  the  whole  of  77  mm.;  the  facial  and  upper 
facial  indices  vary  in  consequence.  The  group  as  a  whole  is  on  the  upper 
border  of  mesoprosopy,  and  mesene.  Only  Van  is  leptoprosopic  and 
leptene. 

The  Armenian  nose  is  extremely  long,  with  a  mean  height  of  60  mm., 
and  quite  wide,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  38  mm.  The  nasal  index,  64, 
is  leptorrhine,  but  by  no  means  as  leptorrhine  as  the  noses  of  European 
Binaries.  The  difference  between  Albanian  Binaric  and  Armenian 
nasal  indices  lies  entirely  in  the  breadth.  Like  all  other  vertical  dimensions, 
the  nose  height  among  Armenians  is  subject  to  geographical  variation, 
but  this  is  slighter  than  with  most  other  characters,  since  a  long  nose  is  an 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  627 

essential  Armenoid  feature.  The  width  also  varies,  from  37.4  mm.  in 
Van,  to  38.4  mm.  in  Kaisarie. 

Taking  these  measurements  as  a  whole,  there  is  seen  to  be  a  strong  east- 
west  division  within  Armenia;  this  division  is  especially  prominent  in 
weight,  stature,  segments  of  stature,  head  length,  the  cephalic  index,  the 
auricular  height,  the  face  heights,  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in  both  nasal 
dimensions.  Linear  traits  of  the  head  and  face  as  well  as  of  the  body  are 
greater  in  the  east,  while  the  lateral  dimensions  are  much  the  same  every- 
where. 

The  Armenians  are  metrically  very  much  like  the  northern  Albanians  in 
most  characters;  the  chief  differences  are  the  greater  face  length  and  greater 
nasal  breadth  of  the  Armenians.  Although  the  differences  between  Arme- 
nians and  Albanians  are  no  greater  than  those  between  a  number  of  Euro- 
pean groups  which  collectively  enjoy  the  designation  Dinaric,  the  Ar- 
menians do  stand  at  one  extreme  of  the  Armenoid-Dinaric  combination, 
while  the  Osmanli  Turks  and  the  Syrian  brachycephals  fall  much  closer 
to  the  European  end. 

The  skin  color  of  the  Armenians  has  been  designated  as  pinkish-white, 
brunet,  swarthy,  and  light  brown.  The  two  middle  categories  share 
almost  equally  over  85  per  cent  of  the  total.  Pink  skin,  which  includes 
8  per  cent,  is  far  commonest  at  Van,  light  brown  at  Kaisarie.  The  east- 
west  division  holds  in  skin  color  as  in  other  features.  The  hair  color  is 
mostly  dark  brown;  58  per  cent  belongs  to  this  category  while  black  and 
medium  brown  account  for  18  per  cent  each.  The  remaining  6  per  cent 
is  almost  entirely  reddish  brown.  The  men  with  black  and  dark  brown 
head  hair  have,  as  a  rule,  beards  of  the  same  color;  but  the  brown-haired 
men  have  reddish  brown  or  red  beards,  in  most  cases.  Thus,  at  least  75 
per  cent  of  the  group  may  be  considered  completely  brunet  in  hair  color 
tendencies.  The  brown  and  reddish  hair  shades  are  commonest  in  the 
Lake  Van  region,  the  black  in  the  south  and  west,  nearest  Syria. 

To  match  the  ratio  of  pure  brunet  hair,  one  finds  73  per  cent  of  brown 
eye  color;  this  is  divided  almost  evenly  between  dark  brown,  light  brown, 
and  mixed-brown  classes,  the  latter  implying  an  iris  form  in  which  more 
than  one  brown  shade  is  present.  The  high  ratio  of  this  class,  one-fourth 
of  the  total  series  and  one-third  of  the  pure  dark  eyes,  is  due  to  the  accu- 
racy of  the  observer  rather  than  to  any  peculiar  condition.  It  means  that 
more  than  one  brunet  strain  is  present  among  Armenians,  a  fact  which 
other  evidence  confirms.  Dark  brown  eyes  are  most  numerous  in  the 
west,  where  they  form  36  per  cent  of  the  whole,  and  rare  in  the  Lake  Van 
region,  where  they  form  1 3  per  cent.  Mixed  and  light  eyes,  mostly  green- 
brown,  but  including  2  per  cent  of  pure  blue,  total  34  per  cent  in  Van, 
and  but  1 1  per  cent  in  Kaisarie. 


628  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

The  hair  form  of  the  Armenians  is  mostly  low  waves;  their  pilosity  is 
abundant.  Beards  are  usually  very  heavy,  and  body  hair  as  well;  hairiness 
is  an  outstanding  Armenian  feature.  As  with  most  hairy  people,  many  of 
the  Armenians  grow  bald  with  advancing  age.  The  eyebrows  are  usually 
thick,  and  in  73  per  cent  of  cases,  concurrent.  The  foreheads  of  the 
Armenians,  unlike  those  of  Syrians  and  Turks,  and  of  many  European 
Binaries,  are  as  a  rule  quite  sloping,  more  so  than  is  found  in  the  majority 
of  white  racial  groups.  The  browridges,  however,  are  seldom  very  heavy; 
the  heaviest  are  found  in  the  east. 

The  Armenian  nasal  features  are  extreme  and  consistent;  the  nasion 
depression  is  usually  slight,  but  almost  always  present;  both  the  root  and 
the  bridge  are  very  high  and  quite  broad.  It  is  this  breadth  of  the  nose, 
from  root  to  tip,  that  differentiates  it  most  from  those  of  European  Binaries. 
The  profile  is  convex  in  62  per  cent  of  cases,  and  very  few  are  concave. 
The  tip  is  thick  in  over  50  per  cent  of  cases,  and  depressed  in  about  70 
per  cent.  The  wings  are  usually  medium  or  flaring,  compressed  in  only 
20  per  cent.  Thinner  roots  and  bridges  and  more  compressed  wings  are 
characteristic  of  Armenians  from  the  Lake  Van  country,  thicker  and  more 
flaring  in  those  from  the  south  and  west. 

The  Armenian  orbit,  high  on  the  skull,  does  not  permit  frequent  eyefolds; 
these  are  usually  external  or  median,  and  are  found  mostly  in  the  east. 
The  eye  opening  is  usually  great,  and  there  is,  in  nearly  half  the  group, 
some  obliquity  of  axis,  although  this  is  usually  slight.  The  Armenians  are 
as  a  rule  thin-lipped,  with  medium  to  great  chin  prominence,  a  palpable 
bilateral  cleft  in  the  chin,  and  flaring  gonial  angles.  'Mid-facial  progna- 
thism  is  found  in  about  one-fourth  of  the  group,  but  it  is  seldom  great; 
alveolar  prognathism  is  very  rare. 

The  occipital  region  is  seldom  protuberant,  but  more  so  among  eastern 
than  western  Armenians;  occipital  flattening  is  found  among  75  per  cent, 
and  its  absence  is  commoner  in  the  east  than  in  the  west.  There  can  be 
little  doubt  that  its  intensity  is  partly  due  to  unintentional  cradling  defor- 
mation, especially  since  the  cradle  was  more  commonly  used  in  the  west 
than  in  the  east  at  the  time  that  the  men  studied  were  infants.  As  in 
Albania,  pronounced  cranial  asymmetry,  a  concomitant  of  unbound  oc- 
cipital flattening,  is  frequent. 

In  the  characters  of  the  nose,  in  the  form  of  the  skull,  especially  of  the 
occipital  region,  in  pilosity  and  in  the  prevalence  of  brunet  pigmentation, 
the  Armenians  from  all  regions  form  a  definite  whole.  Yet  the  variability 
of  the  different  characters  is  so  linked  that  the  component  factors  in  the 
blend  may  be  seen  upon  analysis,  and  the  composition  of  the  Armenoid 
racial  type  revealed.  The  partially  blond  element,  as  best  designated  by 
eye  color,  is  quite  different  from  the  group  as  a  whole;  persons  with  mixed 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  629 

or  light  eyes  are  much  more  linear  in  build,  taller,  longer  and  higher- 
headed,  longer-  and  narrower-faced,  and  longer-  and  narrower-nosed. 
The  brunet  skin  color  is  associated,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  whole  com- 
bination of  characters,  especially  those  concerned  with  bodily,  cranial,  and 
facial  breadths;  whereas  the  first  type  is  Nordic,  the  second  is  Alpine  in 
directional  implication.  The  most  brunet  group,  on  the  basis  of  skin 
color,  is  bimodal;  it  includes  a  long-faced,  long-nosed,  heavily  bearded 
Irano-Afghan  strain,  and  a  smaller  Mediterranean  type,  which  is  also 
a  factor  in  the  composition  of  the  Syrian  brachycephals. 

The  Armenoid  type  is  a  stable  hybrid  between  two  principal  elements, 
the  Alpine  race  and  the  Irano-Afghan  division  of  the  Mediterranean  stock, 
mixed  at  the  ratio  of  2  of  the  latter  to  1  of  the  former.  The  combination 
has  produced  a  greater  laterality  than  either  parent  stock,  an  excess  of 
brachycephaly,  and  an  excess  of  facial  length  and  nasality.  In  northern 
and  eastern  Armenia,  a  strong  Nordic  infusion  has  altered  the  blend  in  a 
linear  direction,  and  has  infused  a  minority  with  partial  blondism;  in 
southern  and  western  Armenia,  a  parallel  infusion  of  Mediterranean 
factors,  comparable  to  those  found  in  Syria  and  Arabia,  has  reduced  the 
stature  and  other  linear  dimensions,  while  increasing  the  brunet  character 
of  the  pigmentation. 

Thus  the  Armenoid  race  is  a  product  of  the  same  principle  of  hybridiza- 
tion which  has  produced  Binaries  in  Europe,151  the  chief  difference  being 
that  among  the  Armenians  the  Mediterranean  factor  involved  is  Irano- 
Afghan,  while  in  countries  farther  east  it  is  one  of  several  varieties  more 
familiar  to  Europeans.  In  tracing  relationships  between  Binaries  and 
Armenoids,  as  between  groups  of  Binaries,  it  is  futile  to  look  for  historic 
associations,  since  the  relationship  is  parallel  rather  than  derivative. 
Racial  analysis  has  indicated  something  that  archaeology  has  only  begun 
to  reveal;  that  Anatolia,  the  Syrian  highlands,  and  the  Armenian  plateau 
are  not,  in  all  likelihood,  basic  Mediterranean  racial  territory,  but  the 
former  homelands  of  a  population  similar  to  that  living  in  Europe  during 
late  glacial  times.  The  Alpine  race,  here  as  in  central  Europe,  from  France 
to  Albania,  has  reemerged,  and  in  so  doing  has  blended  with  Mediter- 
ranean forms  in  a  characteristic  way.  Another  conclusion  which  one  may 
make  from  this  study  is  that  Anatolia  was  never,  until  the  time  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  an  important  highroad  of  racial  movements;  its  main 
r&le  has  been  that  of  a  refuge  area,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  Syrian 
mountains  and  those  of  Armenia. 

181  The  general  application  of  this  principle  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Hughes's  analysis  of 
his  Armenian  material.  For  the  conclusions  as  to  the  hybrid  character  of  the  Armenians 
and  as  to  their  component  elements,  and  for  the  principle  involved,  I  am  indebted  to 
Dr.  Hughes,  whose  work  on  the  living  confirms  the  conclusions  of  Bunak  derived  from 
his  study  of  Armenian  crania.  See  Bunak,  V.  V.,  Crania  Armenica, 


630  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

A  separate  group  of  brachycephalic  Near  Eastern  people  living  until 
recently  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  eastern  Armenians  is  that  of  the 
Aissores,  or  Assyrians,  Christians  who  still  speak  the  old  Syriac  language, 
now  used  in  Syria  in  a  ritual  sense  only,  but  once  widespread  also  in 
Mesopotamia.  These  Assyrians,  Christians  in  Mesopotamia  since  their 
conversion  in  70  A.D.,  were,  at  the  time  of  the  Arab  conquest  of  their 
country,  granted  a  firman  issued  by  the  Prophet  himself  permitting  them  to 
practice  their  religion  without  hindrance.  Under  this  sanction  they 
flourished  greatly,  sent  missionaries  to  China,  and  founded  a  colony, 
which  still  exists,  in  India.152  At  the  time  of  the  Mongol  invasions,  between 
1230  and  1400  A.D.,  their  country  was  laid  waste,  and  those  who  survived 
the  calamity  fled  northward  into  Turkey,  settling  in  the  mountain  district 
of  Hakkiari,  in  Kurdish  country,  south  of  Lake  Van  and  west  of  Lake 
Urmia.  In  1914,  80,000  of  them  were  still  established  there,  while  another 
35,000  lived  in  Iran,  near  Lake  Urmia,  and  10,000  more  had  returned  to 
the  lowlands  of  Iraq,  near  Mosul.  During  the  World  War  and  in  the  two 
decades  since,  the  Assyrians  have  suffered  further  political  disasters  which 
have  left  them  homeless  and  have  greatly  reduced  their  numbers. 

These  Assyrians,  whose  ancestors,  presumably  plainsmen  from  Iraq, 
may  have  been  no  different  in  a  physical  sense  from  the  other  inhabitants 
of  that  valley,  are  now,  after  some  six  hundred  years  of  living  in  the 
mountains,  more  brachycephalic  than  the  Armenians.153  Their  mean 
stature  is  about  167  cm.,  their  cephalic  index  mean  about  87,  with  series 
by  different  authors  varying  from  85  to  90.  They  are  almost  purely  brunet, 
and  characteristically  aquiline  in  nasal  profile.  Their  total  resemblance 
to  Armenians,  however,  is  not  close;  the  faces  of  the  Assyrians  are  both 
shorter  and  narrower  than  those  of  the  Armenians,  and  their  noses  are 
likewise  smaller.  It  is  possible  that  mixture  with  Armenians  produced  the 
initial  stimulus  toward  hyperbrachycephaly,  but  whatever  its  immediate 
origin,  the  facial  dimensions  show  that  the  basic  Mediterranean  type 
involved  is  western,  and  not  I rano- Afghan. 

Even  more  of  a  refuge  area  than  Asia  Minor,  the  Caucasus  mountain 
range  and  the  valleys  to  either  side  provide  shelter  to  an  extremely  varied 
conglomeration  of  peoples.  Besides  the  Armenians,  the  Aissores,  the 
Kurds,  the  Tats,  who  are  Iranians  living  near  Baku,  and  the  Azerbaijani 
Turks,  and  some  Tatars  and  Mongols,  the  Caucasus  contains  the  Cau- 
casians proper,  who  are  the  speakers  of  Caucasic  languages,  and  the 

162  Browne,  Brig.-Gen.,  J.  G.,  GM,  vol.  4,  #6,  April,  1937,  pp.  431-448. 

163  Aruntinow,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  30,  1904,  pp.  222-224. 

Ghantre,  E.,  BSAL,  1891,  vol.  10,  pp.  103-126;  Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  VAsie 
Occidental. 

Djawachischwili,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  48,  1 925,  pp.  77-89. 
Kappers,  C.  U.  A.,  KAWA,  vol.  36,  1933,  pp.  3-11. 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE 


631 


Ossetes,  whose  language  is  Iranian  and  for  whom  descent  is  claimed  from 
the  Alans,  the  last  ethnic  survivors  of  the  Sarmatians  recorded  in  history.154 
The  Caucasic  speakers  are  divided  into  four  main  branches,  each  of 
which  has  many  subdivisions;  these  branches  are  the  Lesghians,  the 
Chechens,  the  Gherkesses  or  Circassians,  and  the  Georgians.  Map  16 
will  show  the  distribution  of  these  peoples.  The  various  subdivisions  of 


^k    • . '  •'  :•'•'  •'•     ^ HL  ^^-^^-i^^^®^Bw5 


X.  V  ~  ^>*v<^N)*  *fr«2N  *  .te^/*£i^        M'»  !  i!  I  !i!i 


MAP  16 

PEOPLES  OF  THE  CAUCASUS 

The  Caucasic-speaking  peoples  have  been  shown  by  unbroken  lines  and  cross  hatch- 
ings; Indo-European  and  Altaic  speaking  peoples  by  other  symbols.  Russians,  Ossetes, 
Armenians,  Tats,  and  Kurds  are  Indo-European  speakers;  Kalmucks  are  Mongolic- 
speakers,  while  Kirghiz,  Nogai,  and  Kumyk  Tatars  are  all  Turkic-speakers.  Small 
settlements  of  Russians,  Germans,  and  Jews  in  this  region  have  been  left  unrepresented, 
to  avoid  confusion.  (After  Jochelson,  W.,  Peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia,  Map  6,  with  alter- 
ations and  additions.) 

these  peoples,  living  in  their  separate  valleys,  follow  different  forms  of 
Christianity  and  of  Islam,  while  the  presence  of  Jewish  villages  complicates 
the  religious  pattern.  The  Georgians,  however,  are  mostly  Christian,  the 
Cherkesses  mostly  Moslems;  with  the  Russian  conquest  of  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  Caucasus,  many  of  the  latter  emigrated  to  Ottoman  Turkish 

164  The  bibliography  dealing  with  the  Gaucasic  peoples  is  exhaustive;  for  a  brief, 
lucid,  and  accessible  exposition,  however,  Jochelson,  W.,  Peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia,  is 
recommended. 


632  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

territory,  including  Syria  and  the  Balkans.  Most  of  the  Lesghians  are 
also  Moslems,  while  the  Chechen  are  for  the  most  part  Christians,  as  is 
the  majority  of  the  Indo-European-speaking  Ossetes.  The  Tats  are 
Moslems. 

As  is  frequently  the  case  in  regions  of  great  ethnic  complexity,  the  racial 
situation  is  simpler  than  the  linguistic  or  cultural.  The  Tats,  to  begin  with, 
are  tall  and  mesocephalic,  and  resemble  the  Persians  of  Iran,  to  whom 
they  are  related.155  The  Ossetes,166  who  live  in  the  middle  of  the  Caucasus, 
mostly  on  the  southern  side  of  the  watershed,  are  tall  people,  with  a  mean 
stature  of  169  cm.,  sub-brachycephalic,  with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  82, 
and  of  medium  head  size,  a  head  length  of  189  mm.,  and  a  breadth  of 
155  mm.;  they  are  only  moderately  leptorrhine,  with  a  mean  nasal  index 
of  65,  and  somewhat  broad-faced,  with  a  mean  bizygomatic  diameter  of 
145  mm.  About  half  have  pinkish-white  skins,  the  other  half,  brunet- 
white;  similarly  over  half  have  black  or  dark  brown  head  hair,  the  rest, 
brown,  light  brown,  or  light.  Some  54  per  cent  are  said  also  to  be  brown- 
eyed,  the  rest,  mixed  and  light.  Over  60  per  cent  are  considered  definitely 
brunet  in  general  pigmentation,  some  10  per  cent  definitely  blond.  It 
is  of  course  the  latter  minority,  and  a  comparison  with  the  other  Caucasic 
peoples,  which  has  given  the  Ossetes  a  reputation  for  blondism. 

As  far  as  one  can  tell  from  present  material,  the  Ossetes  do  possess  a 
Nordic  strain,  which  has,  however,  been  partly  altered  by  local  admixture 
into  Noric;  other  elements  are  one  or  more  forms  of  Mediterranean,  not  all 
of  which  were  high-headed  or  long-faced,  and  Alpine.  On  the  whole,  the 
result  might  be  called  incipiently  Dinaric.  That  the  Ossetes  are  the 
result  of  a  mixture  of  Scytho-Sarmatian  refugees  from  the  plains  to  the 
north  with  indigenous  peoples  is,  on  the  basis  of  the  physical  data,  quite 
possible. 

The  Caucasic-speaking  peoples  157  differ  from  their  Ossete  neighbors  in  a 

166Chantre,  E.,  BSAL,  vol.  10,  1891,  pp.  103-126;  Recherchts  anthropologiques  dans 
I'Asie  Occidentalg. 

lw  Gil'chenko,  N.  V.,  TVMA,  1890.   Resume*  in  BZL,  vol.  11,  #9-10,  1891. 

Djawachischwili,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  48,  1925,  pp.  77-89. 

Erckert,  R.  von,  AFA,  vol.  18,  1889,  pp.  262-281,  297-335;  vol.  19,  1890,  pp.  55-84, 
211-249,  331-356. 

The  last  two  are  general  works  on  Caucasian  anthropometry;  the  first  a  separate 
source  on  the  Ossetes. 

167  An  exhaustive  bibliography  of  the  physical  anthropology  of  the  Caucasus  will  be 
found  in  Djawachischwili,  A.,  AFA,  vol.  48,  1925,  pp.  77-89.  Besides  the  comprehen- 
sive works  of  Chantre  and  of  von  Erckert  previously  cited,  these  include  both  special 
and  general  studies  by  the  following:  Aruntinow,  A.;  Dirr,  A.;  Erikson,  E.;  Kurdov,  K.; 
Malinin,  K.;  Pantuchov,  J.;  Schwidersky,  N.;  Stshukin,  J.;  Vishogrod,  J.;  and  Voro- 
biev,  V.  To  this  list  should  be  added  Djavakhov,  A.,  RAJ,  vol.  7,  1907,  pp.  127-167, 
and  Sommier,  S.,  APA,  vol.  21,  1901,  pp.  413-457.  Most  of  the  Russian  authors  have 
published  in  the  RAJ,  but  the  works  of  some  are  to  be  found  in  the  publications  of  the 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  633 

number  of  respects,  one  of  which  is  that  they  are  nearly  all  shorter  in 
stature.  The  mean  stature  for  Georgians  is  165  cm.,  and  most  of  the 
Cherkess  groups  fall  at  the  same  level,  although  the  Kabardians  have  a 
mean  2  cm.  higher.  The  Lesghians  vary  by  tribal  groups  from  1 64  cm.  to 
168  cm.,  while  the  Chechen  mean  is  about  168  cm. 

Nearly  all  are  br  achy  cephalic  or  sub-brachycephalic;  the  Georgian 
means  stand  consistently  at  about  84,  as  do  those  of  the  Chechens,  while 
the  Lesghians  are  more  brachycephalic,  with  means  of  86  and  87,  and  the 
Cherkess  less  so,  with  means  of  81  and  82  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Caucasus,  and  83  and  84  on  the  south  of  it.  As  a  rule  the  faces  of  the 
Caucasic-speaking  peoples  are  of  moderate  height,  in  the  low  or  middle 
120's,  and  in  the  middle  140's  in  breadth;  facial  indices  are  all  meso- 
cephalic;  the  noses,  too,  lack  the  great  size  of  those  of  the  Armenians  or  of 
the  long-headed  Kurds  and  Azerbaijanis;  nasal  indices  are  moderately  lep- 
torrhine  only,  with  indices  of  approximately  65. 

The  Caucasian  peoples  are,  as  a  whole,  dark-mixed  in  pigmentation. 
In  most  of  the  tribal  series,  dark  hair  and  dark  eyes  total  well  over  50 
per  cent,  while  the  presence  of  a  little  more  than  a  third  of  light-mixed 
individuals  in  each  group  is  sufficient  to  create  the  impression,  fostered  by 
the  Turks,  that  they  are  fair.  Light  skin  is  commoner  than  light  hair  or 
eyes,  and  it  is  for  their  skin  color  more  than  for  their  blondism  that 
Circassian  beauties,  among  others,  are  famous. 

Aside  from  the  Ossetes,  the  Georgians  are  the  blondest,  as  well  as  the 
shortest,  of  the  peoples  of  the  Caucasus.  The  Cherkesses,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  the  darkest  as  well  as  the  tallest  and  least  brachycephalic;  they 
seem,  in  view  of  their  geographical  location  on  the  northeastern  shore  of 
the  Black  Sea,  to  contain  much  of  the  brunet  Mediterranean  or  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  racial  strain  which  we  have  already  studied  in  Bulgaria, 
Rumania,  and  the  Ukraine,  and  which  the  Russian  anthropologists  call 
the  Cherkess  or  Pontic  type  when  found  elsewhere  in  Russia. 

The  Caucasic-speaking  peoples  'as  a  whole,  from  an  anthropometric 
standpoint,  represent  a  blend  between  a  local  Alpine  racial  nucleus  and 
several  kinds  of  Mediterraneans.  The  Georgians  and  the  Lesghians  are 
the  most  Alpine,  the  Cherkesses  the  least  so.  The  facial  dimensions  pre- 
clude, in  most  groups,  the  presence  of  a  long-faced  Irano-Afghan  element 
in  any  quantity;  except  among  the  Cherkesses,  the  head  size,  with  mean 
lengths  in  the  low  180's,  limits  the  possible  Mediterranean  elements  to 
the  smaller-headed  varieties.  These  are  apparently  both  Danubian  and 

Anthropological  section  of  the  Moscow  Natural  History  Society  (IILE,  etc.),  and  of  the 
Military-Medical  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg  (VMZ,  TVMA,  etc.),  as  well  as  in  those 
of  the  Georgian  State  University  at  Tiflis.  In  Djawachischwili's  compilation,  as  well  as  in 
that  of  farkho,  A.,  AZM,  1 932,  #2,  pp.  49-82,  the  reliable  figures  from  the  earlier  authors 
are  presented. 


634  THE  RACES   OF   EUROPE 

Cappadocian;  there  is  too  much  true  facial  Dinaricism  for  the  Danubian 
to  be  the  only  factor,  and  too  much  blondism  and  nasal  concavity  for  the 
Cappadocian. 

The  Georgians,  with  a  high  incidence  of  concave  noses,  as  well  as  the 
greatest  blondism,  are  the  most  nearly  Danubian;  except  for  the  Cherkesses, 
most  of  the  other  peoples  are  more  Dinaric.  On  the  whole,  the  Dinaricism 
of  the  Caucasian  area  is  only  partial;  there  are  too  many  unaltered  Medi- 
terraneans, and  too  many  Alpine-Danubian  mixtures,  which,  here  as  in 
Croatia  and  Slovenia,  fail  to  assume  a  Dinaric  facial  form,  to  make  the 
Caucasus  as  Dinaric  a  country  as  the  Tyrol  or  Albania. 

Syria,  Anatolia,  Armenia,  and  the  Caucasus  form  a  zone  of  Alpine 
reemergence  on  the  border  of  Mediterranean  racial  territory.  In  all  four 
regions  there  has  been  a  major  blending  with  Mediterraneans,  and  the 
differences  between  the  racial  characters  of  the  regions  depend  upon  (a) 
the  relative  degree  of  Alpine  reemergence,  and  (b)  the  kinds  and  relative 
amounts  of  Mediterranean  involved  in  each.  The  linguistic  complexity, 
involving  Semitic,  Uralic,  Altaic,  Indo-European,  and  Caucasic  languages, 
merely  reflects  the  racial  complexity  within  the  Mediterranean  component 
of  this  primary  refuge  area. 

(19)   TURKESTAN  AND   THE  TAJIKS 

Beyond  the  stretch  of  steppes  and  desert  immediately  east  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  where  the  brunet  Mediterranean  race,  through  the  agency  of  the 
Turkomans,  is  brought  into  direct  contact  with  mongoloids,  lies  the  once 
densely  populated  oasis  country  of  Russian  Turkestan,  sparsely  watered 
by  the  Amu  Daria  or  Oxus,  which  rises  in  the  Pamirs  and  flows  past 
Bokhara  and  Khiva  into  the  Aral  Sea,  and  by  the  smaller  Syr  Daria, 
which,  from  its  source  in  the  Tian  Shan  Mountains,  provides  irrigation  for 
Ferghana,  Samarkand,  and  Tashkent. 

Russian  Turkestan  was  once  a  seat  of  Iranian-speaking  civilization;158 
but  since  the  sixth  century  A.D.  it  has  been  constantly  overrun  by  invaders 
from  different  quarters.  First  the  Turks  subjugated  the  Iranian  farmers, 
then  the  Chinese  defeated  the  Turks  and  ruled  the  country  for  a  century; 
then  the  Arabs,  entering  Turkestan  by  way  of  Persia,  defeated  the  Chinese 
in  751  A.D.,  and  remained  in  power  until  the  thirteenth  century,  since 
which  time,  until  the  Russian  conquest,  Turkestan  has  been  ruled  by 
various  bodies  of  Turks  and  by  Mongols. 

The  present  peoples  of  Russian  Turkestan  are  numerous  and  varied, 
but  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  groups,  the  Tajiks  and  the  Turkish- 
speakers.  The  Tajiks,  who  number  over  a  million  in  Russian  Turkestan, 

168  This  brief  introduction  is  based  largely  on  Jochelson's  Peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
Chapter  4.  See  also,  K.  E.  von  Ujfalvy,  Les  Aryens  au  Nord  et  au  Sud  de  FHindou  Kouch. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  635 

have  between  one  and  two  million  brethren  in  Afghan  territory.  In  the  for- 
mer country  they  inhabit  the  oases  of  Ferghana,  Samarkand,  and  Bokhara, 
where  they  live  as  farmers  marvelously  skilled  at  irrigation;  they  are  the 
linguistically  unaltered  descendants  of  the  pre-Turkish  cultivators.  Their 
western  geographical  limit  is  the  Bokhara  country;  there  are  no  Tajiks 
in  Khiva.  On  the  plains  the  Tajiks  proper  form  but  a  small  proportion 
of  the  population,  since  many  others  have  been  absorbed  into  the  Turkish 
ethnic  world.  Besides  these  plainsmen,  there  are  many  more  in  the  moun- 
tains, who  live  in  farming  villages  as  a  unified  population  reaching  over 
the  Pamirs  into  Afghanistan.  These  mountain  people  have  presumably 
been  less  subjected  to  Turkish  influences  than  have  those  of  the  plain. 

The  second  principal  ethnic  and  linguistic  group,  that  of  the  Turkish- 
speakers,  is  divided  into  two  principal  and  many  minor  subdivisions;  the 
important  ones  are  the  Uzbegs  and  the  Sarts.  The  Uzbegs  are  pastoral 
nomads  linguistically  related  to  the  Kirghiz,  who  have  settled  down  in 
considerable  numbers  during  the  last  century.  They  are  tfcie  descendants 
of  a  mixture  of  Turks,  Mongols,  and  Iranians,  whose  principal  ancestors 
were  recruited  from  the  Turkish  tribes  of  northern  Turkestan,  and  con- 
verted to  Islam  in  the  fourteenth  century.  They  are  the  aristocrats  of  the 
country  and  the  rulers  of  some  of  the  city  khanates  have  been  drawn  from 
their  ranks. 

The  Sarts  are  assimilated  Tajiks  with  the  addition  of  considerable 
Turkish  blood;  they  are  farmers,  townsmen,  and  traders,  living  in  all  of 
the  oases  west  of  Khiva.  Other  Turkish  speakers  are  the  Turkomans, 
particularly  numerous  in  Khiva  and  on  the  plains  to  the  west,  Kipchaks, 
Kara  Kalpaks  or  Black  Hats,  Tatars  from  Russia,  and  Turkish-speaking 
Moslems  from  Chinese  Turkestan.  There  are  also  Mongol  Kalmucks  in 
Russian  Turkestan  in  small  numbers,  Moslems,  whereas  their  kinsmen 
elsewhere  are  Buddhists.  A  few  thousand  Arabs  left  over  from  the  early 
Moslem  conquest  still  remain,  although  most  of  them  were  absorbed  by 
the  Uzbegs.  Persians,  Hindus,  Gypsies,  and  an  ancient  colony  of  Jews, 
centered  at  Bokhara,  make  up  the  rest  of  the  non-Russian  population. 

The  Uzbegs,  who  as  partial  whites  concern  us  here  in  only  a  collateral 
sense,  are  hardly  sufficiently  unified  in  race  to  be  dealt  with  as  a  single 
body.159  Many  of  them  are  purely  or  nearly  purely  white,  others  are 
apparently  pure  Mongols,  while  the  majority  occupy  positions  in  between. 
Nearly  all  are  brachycephalic,  for  few  long-headed  elements  have  been 
absorbed  into  their  body;  many  of  them  belong  to  that  hybrid  type,  called 
Turanid  by  von  Eickstedt,  16°  and  characterized  by  brachycephaly,  con- 
vergent parietal  walls,  a  nearly  straight  beard  of  medium  abundance,  a 

169  Vishnevsky,  B.  N.,  ACIA,  3me  sess.,  1927,  pp.  243-248. 
MO  See  Chapter  VIII,  section  6,  p.  287. ' 


636  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

long,  broad  face,  a  low-rooted,  long,  and  often  convex-profiled  nose,  with 
a  high-orbitted  but  heavy-lidded  eye.  The  Sarts  are  also  a  variable  group, 
but  are  much  less  mongoloid  on  the  whole  than  the  Uzbegs,  and  in  many 
cases  are  identical  with  the  Tajiks. 

Since  the  Tajiks  form  the  basis  of  the  population  of  Russian  Turkestan 
as  well  as  of  the  mountains  to  the  south,  and  since  all  other  elements  in 
the  population  are  known  and  have  been  described,  our  only  concern 
here  is  the  elucidation  of  the  racial  position  of  the  Tajiks.  This  is  a  com- 
paratively easy  task.161  The  Tajiks  are  of  moderate  stature,  with  a  mean  of 
166  cm.,  the  same  in  the  oases  of  Samarkand  and  Ferghana,  in  the  foot- 
hill country  of  Ura-Tuba  and  Pedjerent,  and  in  the  mountains,  lying  be- 
tween the  headwaters  of  the  Syr  Daria  and  those  of  the  Amu  Daria,  in 
Afghanistan.  Their  arm  length  and  arm  segment  proportions  show  them  to 
resemble  closely  southern  Germans  and  Frenchmen,  in  other  words  Alpines; 
at  the  same  time  they  differ  profoundly  in  these  respects  from  mongoloids. 
In  shoulder  breadth,  and  in  an  especially  great  pelvic  width,  they  again 
show  their  lateral  constitutional  tendency,  and  their  Alpine  body  build. 

The  dimensions  and  proportions  of  the  heads  and  faces  of  the  Tajiks  as  a 
whole  are  as  ideally  Alpine  as  one  can  find  in  any  unsorted  population 
series;  they  might  equally  well  have  been  measured  upon  samples  from 
the  most  purely  Alpine  districts  of  France  or  Bavaria.  The  head  length 
mean  is  180  mm.,  the  head  breadth  155  mm.,  the  cephalic  index,  86. 
The  auricular  height  is  127  mm.,  and  the  series  hypsicephalic.  The  mini- 
mum frontal  is  107  mm.,  the  bizygomatic,  141  mm.,  and  the  bigonial, 
108  mm.;  the  face  height,  124  mm.,  the  nose  height,  55  mm.,  and  the  nose 
breadth,  34.  The  facial  index  is  88,  on  the  border  between  mesoprosopy 
and  leptoprosopy;  the  nasal  index,  65. 

On  the  whole,  the  mountaineers  and  the  people  of  Ura-Tuba  and  Ped- 
jerent are  the  same,  but  the  oasis-dwellers  of  Samarkand  are  narrower- 
headed,  narrower-faced,  and  narrower-nosed,  while  at  the  same  time  wider 
in  the  distance  between  the  eyes,  with  a  cephalic  index  of  84,  and  a  nasal 
index  of  62.  Another  difference  between  the  Samarkand  series  and  the 
mountaineers  is  in  the  biorbital  diameter,  taken  between  the  outer  eye 
corners;  94  mm.  in  Samarkand,  and  92  mm.  in  the  others.  At  the  same 
time,  the  interorbital  distance,  between  the  inner  corners,  is  actually 
narrower  in  the  Samarkand  group  (30.7  mm.)  than  in  the  mountains 
(34.5  mm.).  Hence  the  divergence  of  the  Samarkand  people  from  the 
mountaineers  cannot  be  in  a  mongoloid  direction.  The  series  from  the 

161  Thanks  to  the  generosity  of  Prof.  Boris  N.  Vishnevsky,  of  the  Institute  of  Anthro- 
pology and  Ethnography  at  Leningrad,  who  has  most  graciously  permitted  me  to  make 
use  of  his  fully  documented  series  of  over  300  Tajiks,  hitherto  published  only  in  part  and 
in  a  preliminary  report. 

Vishnevsky,  B.  N.,  ACIA,  3me  sess.,  1927,  pp.  243-248. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  637 

oases  of  Ferghana  differs  from  the  mountain  group  in  the  same  direction, 
but  not  to  the  same  degree  as  that  of  the  Samarkand  Tajiks.  This  direction 
points,  in  a  metrical  sense,  toward  the  Irano-Afghan  Mediterranean  type 
prevalent  among  the  Turkomans,  and  also,  as  we  shall  see  later,  toward 
that  of  the  Bokharan  Jews. 

The  skin  color  of  the  Tajiks  is  a  brunet-white  to  a  light  brown,  from 
von  Luschan  #10  to  #16;  it  is  lighter  on  the  plain  than  in  the  mountains. 
About  55  per  cent  have  dark  eyes,  with  a  great  majority  of  light  brown; 
the  remainder  are  mostly  dark-mixed,  of  both  blue-brown  and  green- 
brown  shades.  The  plainsmen  of  Samarkand  and  Ferghana  run  to  85 
per  cent  of  dark  eyes,  with  many  dark  browns.  The  head  hair  color  is 
black  in  35  per  cent  of  the  mountain  group,  and  over  60  per  cent  in  the 
oases;  the  rest  are  dark  brown  in  both,  except  for  a  very  small  incidence 
of  partial  blondism.  The  beard  color  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  head  hair, 
as  a  rule,  although  there  is  a  slight  tendency  to  reddish  brown. 

The  hair  form  is  usually  straight  on  the  beard  as  well  as  on  the  head; 
the  eyebrows  are  usually  thick  and  concurrent.  The  beard  development 
reaches  a  maximum  white  condition,  with  heavy  growth  on  the  cheek 
and  jaw  as  well  as  on  the  mustache  and  chin.  There  is,  however,  a  10 
per  cent  minority  with  weak  development.  Hair  is  also  usual  on  the  chest, 
abdomen,  arms,  and  legs;  12  per  cent  even  have  it  on  their  backs.  In 
this  maximum  pilosity  the  mountaineers  are  outstanding;  the  Tajiks  of 
Samarkand  and  Ferghana,  while  still  very  hairy,  are  less  so. 

Most  of  the  Tajiks  have  pentagonoid  or  oval  faces,  the  latter  form  being 
especially  marked  in  the  lowlands;  the  horizontal  profile  of  the  face, 
however,  is  flattish  in  over  50  per  cent  of  the  group,  in  marked  contrast  to 
the  narrowness  and  beakiness  of  Turkomans  and  Persians.  That  this 
condition  is  Alpine  rather  than  rnongoloid  is  shown  by  the  lack  of  forward 
malar  projection. 

The  mountain  Tajiks  have  noses  that  are  definitely  Alpine  in  most  cases; 
the  root  is  usually  of  medium  depth,  under  moderate  browridges;  the 
bridge  is  medium  to  high,  with  oblique  walls,  the  tip  is  of  moderate  thick- 
ness, often  slightly  bifurcated,  and  usually  horizontal;  the  wings  of  medium 
lateral  extension.  Straight  or  wavy  profiles  are  found  among  60  per  cent, 
convex  among  25  per  cent,  concave  among  the  rest.  The  noses  of  the 
oasis  people,  on  the  other  hand,  tend  to  high  roots,  lack  of  nasion  depres- 
sion, convex  profiles,  and  compressed  wings. 

A  few  Tajiks  have  round  nostrils,  and  others  a  horizontal  nostril  axis; 
these  show  definitely  rnongoloid  tendencies,  as  do  some  4  per  cent  with 
slight  epicanthic  eyefolds.  Armenoid  or  Dinaric  tendencies  are  more 
prevalent;  some  17  per  cent  of  occipital  flattening  is  found  in  the  total 
group,  but  it  is  more  frequent  on  the  lowlands  than  in  the  mountains, 


638  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

where  it  reaches  but  8  per  cent.  Lambdoid  flattening  is  commoner.  The 
great  majority  have  curvoccipital,  globular  cranial  vaults,  with  both  high 
and  broad  foreheads  which  are  rarely  more  than  slightly  sloping. 

The  mountain  Tajiks,  both  metrically  and  morphologically,  are  as  pure 
Alpines  as  it  is  possible  to  find  anywhere  in  the  white  racial  area  today;  but 
like  other  Alpines,  they  show  a  minor  tendency  toward  a  Dinaric  or  Arme- 
noid  form,  owing  to  the  presence  of  Mediterranean  strains  in  their  midst. 
The  Nordic  racial  element  which  the  bearers  of  Iranian  speech  may  have 
brought  to  this  population  has  been  almost  entirely  absorbed,  although  a 
few  blonds,  resembling  those  found  among  the  Ossetes  in  the  Caucasus, 
are  to  be  seen.  Mongoloid  admixture  is  present  in  small  quantity;  most  of 
the  mongoloid  racial  characters  are  so  at  variance  with  those  of  the  Tajiks 
that  when  present,  mongoloid  blood  may  easily  be  perceived. 

On  the  plain,  in  the  oases  of  Ferghana  and  at  Samarkand,  there  is  a 
strong  admixture  of  narrow-headed,  narrow-faced,  thin-nosed,  high- 
nosed,  brunet  Mediterraneans,  of  the  general  Irano- Afghan  type.  This 
divergence  from  the  mountain  Tajik  type  is  at  variance  with  the  theory 
that  mongoloids  have  mixed  with  the  people  of  the  oases.  The  acquisition 
of  this  Mediterranean  strain  may  be  explained  by  any  one  or  more  of  the 
following  theses:  (a)  admixture  of  Turkomans  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Turkish  invasion;  (b)  the  absorption  of  Persian  slaves;  (c)  the  absorption 
of  Jews;  (d)  the  survival  of  an  early  Turkish  strain  in  the  oases  from  the 
days  of  initial  food  production,  or  of  the  beginnings  of  horse  nomadism. 
Historically,  any  of  the  first  three  may  or  may  not  be  possible;  the  fourth 
is  rendered  possible  only  by  a  tentative  acceptance  of  the  theory  of  Turkish 
origins  propounded  earlier  in  this  volume. 

How  much  farther  eastward  the  zone  of  Alpine  reemergence  goes  beyond 
Russian  Turkestan,  cannot  be  told  on  the  basis  of  available  published 
data.  If  it  extends  beyond  the  Tian  Shan,  it  has  been  so  modified  through 
mixture  with  mongoloids  that  its  identification  would  be  difficult.  The 
Tajiks  form  the  last  complete  outpost  in  the  wide  zone  of  Alpine  survival 
or  reemergence  which  reaches  eastward  with  few  breaks  from  France 
over  a  stretch  of  nearly  5,000  miles.  Like  their  counterparts  in  the  far 
west,  they  are  more  Alpine  and  less  altered  by  Mediterranean  admixture 
than  most  of  those  who  live  in  between. 

(20)  THE  BRACHYCEPHALIZED  JEWS:  ASIA  AND 
CENTRAL  EUROPE162 

Our  study  of  the  Alpine  peoples  and  their  mixed  derivatives  leads 
directly  to  that  of  the  European  and  central  Asiatic  Jews,  for  their  racial 

162  Here  as  in  Chapter  II,  section  7,  I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  Professor  Harry 
Wolfson  for  elucidating  the  historical  and  cultural  aspects  of  the  Jewish  racial  problem. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  639 

history  is  an  intimate  part  of  the  problem  of  Central  European  brachy- 
cephaly,  and  deserves  treatment  in  that  connection.  At  the  same  time,  the 
Jews  cannot  be  treated  as  a  geographical  unit;  they  are  ubiquitous  within 
certain  economic  and  cultural  horizons.'  Their  distribution  is  definitely 
limited,  but  its  limits  are  not  fundamentally  spatial.  For  this  reason  their 
racial  character  has  been  affected  more  by  social  and  economic  consider- 
ations than  by  latitude  and  longitude. 

In  Chapter  XI,  section  7,  we  have  already  surveyed  the  racial  position 
of  the  Sephardic  Jews,  i.e.,  the  descendants  of  the  Jews  expelled  from  Spain 
and  Portugal  in  1492,  as  well  as  of  the  Oriental  Jews  who  live  in  the  stretch 
of  Mediterranean  racial  territory  extending  from  Morocco  to  Iran.  By 
means  of  this  survey  we  have  established  the  existence  of  a  definite  and 
very  constant  Jewish  racial  entity,  variable  within  itself  but  varying 
equally  in  all  geographical  groups.  This  Jewish  racial  entity  is  almost 
purely  Mediterranean,  and  is  the  result  of  the  combining  of  several 
Mediterranean  types  in  Palestine  and  elsewhere  during  the  courses  of 
Jewish  history.  Having  established  what  appears  to  be  the  basic  Jewish 
racial  entity,  our  next  step  is  to  discover  what  alterations  this  entity  has 
undergone  in  the  course  of  the  complex  history  of  the  Ashkenazic  Jews 
in  Europe  and  of  the  Oriental  Jews  living  in  parts  of  Asia  other  than  those 
already  studied. 

Let  us  first  study  the  Jews  of  Turkestan,  who  are  descended  from  off- 
shoots of  the  ancient  Persian  colony,  and  who  were  isolated  from  the  rest 
of  the  Jewish  world  for  several  centuries  before  the  Russian  occupation 
of  the  central  Asiatic  khanates.  These  Jews  have  been  made  the  subjects 
of  an  especially  thorough  study  and  merit  detailed  attention.163 

In  the  first  place,  the  Jews  of  Bokhara  and  Samakand  are  the  same,  and 
seem  in  turn  to  be  identical  with  those  living  in  Herat  in  Afghanistan. 
Thus  these  northeastern  and  eastern  Jewish  peoples  who  speak  a  Persian 
dialect  form  a  single  racial  unit.  They  are  of  moderate  stature,  166  cm., 
nearly  the  same  as  the  Tajiks  among  whom  they  (the  Bokharan  Jews) 
have  lived  for  over  a  millennium.  They  are  narrower-shouldered  than  the 
Tajiks,  shorter- trunked,  and  longer-legged;  their  bodily  proportions 
preserve  more  of  a  Mediterranean  racial  character.  Their  heads  are 
absolutely  short,  with  a  mean  length  of  1 80  mm. ;  narrower  than  those  of 
the  Tajiks,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  153  mm.,  but  fully  brachycephalic, 
with  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  85.  Despite  this  brachycephalization  they 
preserve  distinctive  traits  in  the  diameters  of  the  face;  their  minimum 

i«3  Weissenberg,  S.,  MAGW,  vol.  43,  1914,  pp.  257-272. 
Vishnevsky,  B.  N.,  ACIA,  3me  sess.,  1927,  pp.  234-248. 

Professor  Vishnevsky  has  given  me  permission  to  use  the  detailed  data  of  his  Turke- 
stan Jewish  series,  along  with  those  of  hisi  Tajik  series. 


640  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

frontal  mean  is  104  mm.,  their  bizygoinatic,  139  mm.,  and  bigonial,  104 
mm.  Thus  they  are  definitely  narrower  in  all  three  dimensions  than  their 
non-Jewish  neighbors,  are  not  much  wider  in  the  essential  facial  diameters 
than  long-headed  Jews.  Their  interorbital  (31.3  mm.)  and  biorbital 
(90.9  mm.)  diameters  are  narrower  than  those  of  other  central  Asiatic 
peoples;  they  have  thus  also  preserved  the  original  Jewish  narrowness 
between  the  eyes.  Their  faces,  with  a  mean  length  of  125.4  mm.  are  2 
mm.  longer  than  those  of  their  neighbors;  their  noses,  with  a  mean  length 
of  57  mm.,  also  2  mm.  longer.  Their  facial  index  of  90.5  is  leptoprosopic, 
their  nasal  index,  62,  3  to  4  points  lower  than  those  of  the  narrowest 
noses  of  the  other  peoples  of  Turkestan  with  whom  they  are  in  contact. 

Metrically,  therefore,  it  would  be  wrong  to  infer  from  the  cephalic 
index  alone  that  the  Bokharan  Jews  were  simply  Judaized  Tajiks,  or  Sarts, 
or  Judaized  Turkestan  people  in  general;  what  they  actually  are  is 
brachycephalized  Jews,  who  have  preserved  their  Mediterranean  facial 
characters  almost  intact. 

They  are  almost  all  brunet- white  in  skin  color,  lighter  than  the  Tajiks 
as  a  whole;  in  eye  color,  57  per  cent  are  purely  brunet,  and  mostly  light 
brown,  while  of  the  mixed  eyes,  the  great  majority  are  dark-mixed.  Fifty 
per  cent  have  black  head  hair;  40  per  cent,  dark  brown;  and  another  10 
per  cent,  brown  to  blond.  In  their  general  pigment  character  they  are 
approximately  the  same  as  the  mountain  Tajiks,  but  somewhat  lighter 
than  those  of  the  oases.  They  are,  however,  as  heavily  bearded  as  the 
Tajiks,  and  as  abundantly  supplied  with  body  hair. 

They  are  mostly  dlipsoid  in  facial  form,  and  have  much  less  malar 
projection  than  the  Tajiks,  in  fact  their  malars  are  usually  compressed, 
in  great  contrast  to  those  of  the  partly  mongoloid  Sarts  and  Uzbegs.  In 
their  nose  form  their  non-mongoloid  and  non-Alpine  character  is  fully 
expressed;  44  per  cent  have  convex  profiles,  40  per  cent  straight,  and  9 
per  cent  wavy,  while  only  7  per  cent  are  concave.  The  tip  is  depressed 
in  37  per  cent  of  cases.  To  match  the  nasal  convexity  and  tip  depression 
is  a  17  per  cent  ratio  of  occipital  flattening,  and  a  high  incidence  of  small, 
slanting  ears. 

The  observational  material  confirms  the  metrical  data;  the  Jews  of 
Russian  Turkestan  are  true  Palestinian  Mediterraneans  who  have  been 
brachycephalized  by  a  process  of  Dinaricization;  the  agent  of  brachy- 
cephalization  is  Alpine,  and  undoubtedly  the  same  as  the  Alpine  ele- 
ment among  the  Tajik.  The  Turkish  and  Mongol  invasions  of  Turke- 
stan, which  brought  much  mongoloid  blood  to  the  general  population, 
have  left  the  Jews  almost  unaffected.  One  case  of  epicanthus  observed 
by  Vishnevsky  alone  provides  an  exception. 

If  the  endogamy  of  the  Bokharan  Jews  has  been  sufficient  to  exclude 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  641 

mongoloid  influences  almost  entirely,  it  has  also  preserved  a  Jewish  racial 
type  since  before  the  mongoloid  arrival.  The  amount  of  Alpine  infusion 
necessary  to  generate  the  brachycephalization  of  this  people  must  have 
been  slight.  Some  of  it  may,  indeed,  have  been  acquired  in  transit  across 
northern  Persia.  The  lesson  taught  by  this  particular  study  is  that  brachy- 
cephaly  among  Jews  does  not  in  itself  imply  the  absence  of  a  basic  Pales- 
tinian racial  character. 

Let  us  continue  our  study  of  brachycephalized  Oriental  Jews  who  live 
in  various  geographical  units  derived  from  different  Jewish  sources.  The 
Jews  of  Asia  Minor  are  descendants  of  the  Byzantine  Jews,  reenforced  by 
many  Sephardim.  In  Kurdistan  there  is  a  very  old  settlement  of  Aramaic- 
speaking  Jews,  who  have  no  rabbis  but  who  worship  the  tombs  of 
prophets,  and  who  live  with  the  Kurds  symbiotically  as  traders  and  makers 
of  jewelry  for  the  Kurdish  women.  In  the  Caucasus  there  are  Jewish  settle- 
ments dating  back,  according  to  local  tradition,  to  Assyrian  times,  but 
historically  these  settlements  were  first  mentioned  in  the  fifth  century  A.D., 
and  the  Jews  who  composed  them  were  said  to  have  come  from  Persia, 
The  main  Jewish  section  of  the  Caucasus  is  Daghestan,  in  Lesghian  country; 
the  Jews  here,  numerous  in  the  time  of  the  Khazars,  are  now  scattered  in  a 
few  mountain  villages,  and  speak  the  same  Persian  dialect  as  do  the  Tats. 
Another  group  of  Jews,  known  as  Georgian  Jews,  lives  in  Georgia,  espe- 
cially in  Tiflis. 

In  the  Crimea  there  are  still  settlements  of  Karaite  Jews,  who  speak 
the  Jagatai  Turkish  of  the  Khazars,  as  do  the  Krimchaks,  but  the  latter 
are  rabbinical  whereas  the  Karaites  are  not,  and  the  Krimchaks  have 
absorbed  Jews  from  Italy.  Some  of  the  Karaites  are  found  in  small 
colonies  in  Poland  and  Lithuania,  as  well  as  in  the  Crimea. 

The  Jews  of  the  Caucasus 164  including  the  mountain  Jews  of  Daghestan, 
the  Georgian  Jews,  and  the  Shemakha  Jews  who  live  in  Azerbaijan,  are 
highly  brachycephalic.  Metrically,  samples  of  all  these  groups  are  much 
alike,  with  mean  statures  ranging  from  163  to  166  cm.,  and  cephalic 
indices  of  85  and  86.  They  are  all  predominantly  brunet,  and  have 
straight  or  convex  nasal  profiles.  Their  faces  are  of  medium  length  (125 
mm.),  and  broader  than  those  of  the  Bokharan  Jews  (141  mm.  ca.). 
They  are,  however,  still  extremely  leptorrhine,  with  nasal  indices  of  59 
to  63.  The  general  racial  character  is  Dinaric,  with  more  Alpine  mixed 
with  the  original  Jewish  Mediterranean  strains  than  in  Turkestan.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  call  them  Armenoid,  for  their  faces  and  noses  do  not  approach 
those  of  the  Armenians  in  either  length  or  breadth.  Any  Armenian  can 

164  Chantre,  E.,  Recherches  anthropologiques  dans  I'Asie  Occidentals. 
Dzhavakhov,  A.  N.,  RAJ,  vol.  8,  1912,  pp.  57-75. 
Weissenberg,  S.,  AFA,  ns.  vol.  10,  19.11,  pp.  233-239, 


642  THE  RACES   OF  EUROPE 

distinguish  with  ease  between  a  fellow  Armenian  and  a  Jew,  and  the 
distinction  is  substantiated  metrically. 

Little  difference  may  be  found  between  the  Karaite  Jews  of  the  Crimea,165 
whose  relatives  contributed  a  small  but  renowned  element  to  the  com- 
position of  the  European  Ashkenazim  body,  and  those  of  the  Caucasus. 
The  mean  stature  of  the  Karaites  is  164.5  cm.,  their  mean  cephalic  index 
85,  their  nasal  index  60;  75  per  cent  of  them  are  brunet,  but  5  per  cent 
are  light  or  prevailingly  light  in  complexion.  Their  facial  dimensions  are 
the  same  as  those  of  the  Caucasus  Jews,  and  the  same  conclusions  drawn 
in  regard  to  the  latter  apply  to  the  Karaites. 

Karaites  living  outside  of  the  Crimea,  however,  have  failed  to  preserve 
their  characteristic  metrical  position.  Those  settled  in  the  Egyptian 
Delta  166  have  a  mean  cephalic  index  of  74.6  and  are  little  different  from 
other  Egyptian  Jews,  while  Karaites  of  Lithuania  167  have  a  mean  cephalic 
index  of  81,  a  stature  of  162  cm.,  and  55  per  cent  of  fair  skin  color  and  an 
equal  amount  of  mixed  eye  hues.  Over  40  per  cent  have  also  brown  or 
light  brown  hair  color.  Concave  noses,  the  antithesis  of  a  Jewish  condition, 
are  found  among  50  per  cent,  while  nasal  convexity  is  almost  entirely 
absent.  The  Lithuanian  Karaites  have  apparently  been  thoroughly 
mixed  with  Neo-Danubian  peoples  either  locally  or  in  transit;  their 
stature  level  is  very  low,  but  this  may  be  accounted  for  environmentally. 
On  the  basis  of  available  data,  there  is  little  to  connect  the  Lithuanian 
Karaites  with  those  of  the  Crimea,  except  their  retention  of  brunet  pig- 
mentation in  nearly  half  the  group.  However,  further  data  than  is  now 
available  would  be  needed  to  make  this  conclusion  certain. 

Having  reviewed  the  racial  characters  of  the  rest  of  the  Jews  in  Europe, 
North  Africa,  and  Asia,  insofar  as  available  data  have  permitted,  we  are 
now  faced  with  the  task  of  studying  the  Ashkenazim.  These  modern 
central  European  Jews,  concentrated  in  the  Ukraine,  White  Russia, 
northern  Rumania,  Galicia,  Poland  in  general,  Lithuania,  Germany, 
Bohemia,  and  Austria,  have  been  subjected  to  considerable  study,  espe- 
cially those  living  in  Poland  and  Lithuania  and  the  countries  to  the  east.168 

166  Weissenberg,  S.,  AFA,  vol.  34,  1907,  pp.  219-220. 
166  Weissenberg,  S.,  MAGW,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp.  85-102. 
187  Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  MAAE,  vol.  7,  1904,  pp.  44-100. 

168Fishberg,  M.,  ANY  A,  vol.  16,  part  2,  1905,  pp.  155-297  is  the  most  exhaustive 
single  treatise,  and  contains  a  bibliography  of  previous  works. 
Other  works  used  in  the  present  study  include : 
Beddoe,  J.,  TESL,  vol.  1,  part  2,  1861,  pp.  222-237. 
Davenport,  (X,  and  Love,  A.,  Army  Anthropometry. 
Deckert,  E.,  ZFE,  vol.  9,  1877,  pp.  39-41. 
Dubowski,  W.,  ResuraS  in  AFA,  vol.  14,  1883,  pp.  61-71. 
Fligier,  C.,  MAGW,  vol.  9,  1880,  pp.  155-157. 

(Continuee^on  page  643.) 


THE   CENTRAL  ZONE  643 

These  studies,  especially  that  of  Fishberg,  show  a  number  of  important 
points  clearly.  One  is  that  the  Jews  as  a  whole,  without  regard  to  specific 
political  divisions,  form  an  ethnic  community  with  as  much  statistical 
homogeneity  as  do  most  ethnic  groups  which  have  elsewhere  been  treated 
as  units.  Although  varied  in  racial  origin  and  varied  individually,  in  the 
racial  characters  measured,  the  usual  distribution  pattern  is  an  approxi- 
mation to  a  bell-shaped  curve.  The  Ashkenazim  of  eastern  Europe,  at 
least,  form  a  biological  unit.  This  is  only  to  be  expected  when  one  con- 
siders the  spatial  mobility  of  the  Jews  in  history,  and,  by  contrast,  their 
endogamy  within  the  larger  religious  community. 

Another  is  that  stature  among  the  Ashkenazim  is  environmentally  and 
socially  conditioned  to  a  large  extent,  and  geographically  variable  in  a 
much  lesser  degree.  Mean  statures  for  regional  groups  vary  from  162 
cm.  to  167  cm.,  with  a  general  mean  around  the  figure  164  cm.  In  a 
rough  way,  the  stature  level  corresponds  to  that  of  the  local  Gentiles,  but 
is  one  or  two  centimeters  lower  in  each  region.  In  England,  where 
the  Jews  have  enjoyed  relatively  favorable  living  conditions,  and  in 
America  among  the  American  born  Jews,  the  stature  rises  to  high  levels. 
In  Europe,  indoor  workers  such  as  tailors  and  shoemakers  have  the  smallest 
statures,  professional  men  the  tallest;  the  occupational  range  is  from  160 
cm.  to  over  170  cm.  Since  the  mean  stature  of  the  Palestinian  Jews  was  at 
least  166  cm.  in  the  days  before  the  Diaspora,  and  since  the  purely  Jewish 
element  in  the  modern  Jewish  body  must  almost  everywhere  be  potentially 
as  tall  as  that  of  the  Gentiles  among  whom  they  live,  if  not  taller,  the 
short  stature  of  eastern  European  Jews  as  a  whole  is,  therefore,  entirely  a 
reflection  of  environmental  and  occupational  forces.  Their  rapid  size  in- 
crease on  American  soil,  in  response  to  better  living  conditions  and  perhaps 
also  to  a  relief  from  a  constant  nervous  tension,  may  be  partly  interpreted 

Guthe,  C.,  AJPA,  vol.  1,  1918,  pp.  213-223. 

Himmel,  H.,  MAGW,  vol.  18,  1888,  pp.  83-84. 

Hrdlifcka,  A.,  7'he  Old  Americans. 

Jacobs,  J.,JRAI,  vol.  15,  1886,  pp.  23-62. 

Lempertowna,  G.,  Kosmos,  vol.  52,  1927,  pp.  782-819. 

Lipiec,  M.,  MAGW,  vol.  42,  1912,  pp.  115-195;  ACIA,  2me  sess.,  1926. 

Kossovitch,  N.,  and  Benoit,  F.,  RDAP,  vol.  42,  1932,  pp.  99-125. 

Majer,  J.,  and  Kopernicki,  I.,  ZWAK,  vol.  9,  1885,  pp.  1-92. 

Pantuchow,  J.  J.,  PRAO,  vol.  1,  1888,  pp.  26-30;  R6sum6  in  AFA,  vol.  26,  1899, 
pp.  211-213. 

Pittard,  E.,  Les  Peuples  des  Balkans. 

Rutkowski,  L.,  MAAE,  vol.  2,  1910,  pp.  65-121. 

Sailer,  K.,  ZFMA,  vol.  32,  1933,  pp.  125-131. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  ZWAK,  vol.  16,  1892;  R6sume  in  MAGW,  vol.  21,  1891, 
p.  63. 

Weissenberg,  S.,  AFA,  vol.  23,  1894-95,  pp.  347-423,  531-579;  ZFE,  vol.  44,  1912, 
pp.  269-274. 

Wiazemsky,  Prince,  A  nth,  vol.  22,  1911,  pp.  197-201. 


644  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

as  a  fulfilment  of  their  genetic  possibilities  and  cannot  necessarily  be 
claimed  as  something  entirely  new.  In  the  same  sense,  the  inferior  chest 
diameters  of  the  East  European  Jews,  once  considered  a  racial  character, 
are  seen  to  rise  to  the  non-Jewish  standard  in  America. 

The  head  form  of  the  Ashkenazim  is  relatively  constant  within  the 
regions  of  maximum  Jewish  concentration;  in  Germany  the  mean  cephalic 
index  for  Jews  is  about  81,  rising  to  83.5  in  Baden;  in  Galicia  again  it 
reaches  the  level  of  Baden,  and  in  Bukovina  attains  84,  but  elsewhere, 
from  Austria  to  the  Ukraine  and  Lithuania,  it  centers  about  the  mean  of 
82.  There  is  a  slight  tendency  for  the  cephalic  index  level  to  vary  region- 
ally as  does  that  of  the  corresponding  Gentiles,  but  this  tendency  is  neither 
strong  nor  wholly  consistent.  It  is  chiefly  manifest  in  the  relatively  high 
indices  in  Galicia  and  Bukovina.  Everywhere  in  central  and  eastern 
Europe,  except  in  comparatively  long-headed  regions  such  as  Moldavia, 
the  Jews  are  less  brachycephalic  than  the  Gentiles.  The  central  European 
Jews  have  been  only  partly  brachycephalized,  less  so  than  the  Christians, 
and  in  view  of  their  wide  geographical  spread,  have  maintained  a  remark- 
able racial  continuity  in  head  form. 

A  third  consideration,  that  of  pigmentation,  is  found  to  agree  in  principle 
with  stature  and  with  head  form;  the  Jews  are  mainly  brunet,  with  about 
55  per  cent  of  dark  hair  and  eye  color  combinations,  and  less  than  10  per 
cent  which  can  be  construed  as  blond.  In  countries  where  the  Gentiles  are 
predominantly  blond,  or  more  blond  than  brunet,  the  Jews  are  relatively 
dark;  in  countries  such  as  Rumania  where  the  Gentiles  are  prevailingly 
brunet,  the  Jews  are  blonder  than  the  Gentiles.  The  Jews  have,  therefore, 
struck  a  pigment  balance  which  is  as  constant  as  their  balance  in  head  form. 

In  the  dimensions  of  the  head  and  face,  the  Jews  have  likewise  developed 
certain  consistencies  which  operate  regardless  of  geography.  The  head 
length  is  always,  except  in  socially  selected  groups,  less  than  190  mm.,  and 
often  less  than  185  mm.  The  bizygomatic  is  less  than  140  mm.,  with  the 
same  exceptions,  and  usually  stands  at  the  level  of  135  mm.  or  136  mm., 
and  the  nose  breadth  mean  ranges  usually  between  34  and  36  mm.  The 
vertical  diameters  of  the  face  and  nose  are,  in  existing  material,  seldom 
reliable,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  upper  face  height  is  relatively 
long  in  reference  to  the  total  face  height,  which  is  a  Mediterranean  racial 
character.  Convexity  of  the  nose,  a  popular  diagnostic  of  Jews,  is  usually 
found  in  far  fewer  than  50  per  cent;  straight  noses  are  in  all  regional 
Jewish  groups  the  commonest  of  profile  forms,  while,  in  southern  Russia, 
concave  profiles  are  more  frequent  than  convex. 

The  physical  composition  of  the  central  European  Jewish  body  has 
not  been  difficult  to  determine.  The  Ashkenazim  are  a  reasonably  uniform 
people  in  a  statistical  sense;  furthermore,  many  of  their  metrical  characters, 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  645 

as  far  as  we  know  them,  are  not  markedly  different  from  those  of  their 
Mediterranean  Jewish  ancestors.  The  facial  diameters,  for  example,  relate 
them  closely  to  the  Mediterranean  prototype,  in  strong  contrast  to  the 
broader  faces  of  the  Alpines  and  Neo-Danubians  among  whom  most  of 
them  live.  The  head  form,  on  the  other  hand,  shows  a  partial  brachy- 
cephalization  which  must  be  due  to  the  absorption  of  Gentile  blood. 
At  the  same  time  the  presence  of  a  strong  minority  with  mixed  or  light 
pigmentation  makes  such  an  absorption  necessary.  The  Jews  are  not 
simply  Judaized  central  Europeans;  they  are  central-Europeanized  Jews. 

It  has  been  remarked  by  some  anthropologists  that  the  Jews  look 
"Armenoid,"  and  that  this  Armenoid  appearance  must  be  due  either  to 
Hittite  admixture  or  to  a  sojourn  in  Asia  Minor  before  their  arrival  in 
Europe.  This  remark  implies  a  misunderstanding  of  Jewish  history  as 
well  as  of  the  nature  of  the  Armenoid  race.  Many  Ashkenazic  Jews,  it 
is  true,  possess  the  combination  of  a  brachycephalic  head  with  a  narrow 
face  and  convex  nose,  but  there  is  not  enough  Alpine  in  the  Jewish  body 
to  make  this  Dinaricization  prevalent  or  standard.  It  is  found  among 
blond  as  well  as  brunet  Jews,  and  is  an  individual  rather  than  a  group 
phenomenon. 

Individual  central  European  Jews  vary  greatly  in  facial  and  cranial 
appearance.  Among  them  may  be  picked  out  without  trouble  apparently 
pure  Palestinian  types;  the  convex-nosed,  long-faced  sub- type,  which  is 
frequently  found  among  Sephardim,  and  is  especially  known  to  the  world 
through  the  faces  of  Disraeli  and  Lord  Reading  in  England,  is  on  the 
whole  rare  among  Ashkenazim;  the  straight-nosed,  more  typically  Medi- 
terranean form,  such  as  is  represented  by  the  actors  Al  Jolson  and  Eddie 
Cantor,  is  much  commoner.  Leon  Trotsky  represents  a  brachycephalic, 
Dinaricized  Jewish  type,  and  Albert  Einstein  is  a  good  example  of  another. 

Among  Russian  Jews  it  is  not  difficult  to  select  individuals  with  large 
malars,  broad,  snubbed  noses,  and  high  alveolar  segments  of  the  upper 
face,  who  are  as  nearly  mongoloid  'as  many  Volga  Finns.  Among  German 
Jews  may  be  found  individuals  who  are  to  all  purposes  Nordic,  and  others 
who  belong  to  the  Borreby  race,  which  is  the  most  numerous  single  type 
among  Gentiles  in  Germany.  Alpine  Jews  are  commoner  than  the  inci- 
dence of  Alpines  in  central  and  eastern  Europe  would  perhaps  warrant, 
and  some  of  their  Alpinism  must  have  been  derived  from  their  sojourn  in 
France  and  in  the  Rhinelands  before  their  march  eastward  across  central 
Europe. 

On  historical  grounds  it  is  very  likely  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Ashken- 
azim mixed  more  with  Gentiles  in  western  Europe,  before  the  time  of  the 
first  Crusade,  than  their  more  recent  forebears  have  in  Slavic  countries. 
The  heavy  beard  growth,  the  abundance  of  the  body  hair,  and  the  wavy 


646  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

hair  form  of  many  brachycephalic  Jews  imply  a  French  or  German  Alpine 
infusion  rather  than  any  racial  increment  which  they  could  have  assimilated 
in  Slavic  countries.  The  racial  contribution  of  the  western  Jews  to  the 
Ashkenazic  body  seems  to  have  been  far  greater  than  that  of  their  Byzantine 
and  Crimean  colleagues. 

Although  all  of  the  racial  types  enumerated  above,  and,  in  fact,  every 
racial  type  known  in  Europe,  may  be  picked  out  of  the  Jewish  body,  most 
of  the  Jews  represent  a  blend  in  one  way  or  other  of  several  of  them,  and 
most  of  them,  for  one  reason  or  another,  look  Jewish.169  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  the  original  Mediterranean  blend  of  Palestine  is  the  most 
important.  If  one  were  to  hazard  a  guess,  one  might  suggest  that  it 
actually  accounted  for  more  than  half  of  the  whole;  that  it  is  strongest  in 
Poland,  and  weakest  in  Germany.  As  with  the  Bokharan  Jews,  its  most 
persistent  metrical  features  in  mixture  are  to  be  found  in  the  facial  dimen- 
sions. A  careful  study  of  the  soft  parts  of  the  nose  might  reveal  further 
persistences,  but  there  are  apparently  no  corresponding  peculiarities  of 
the  facial  skeleton.170 

The  central  European  Jews  have  lived  in  central  Europe  since  the 
beginning  of  the  period  when  the  Germans  and  Slavs  began  to  grow 
brachycephalic.  Their  recent  racial  history  has,  therefore,  run  parallel 
in  time  to  that  of  their  Gentile  neighbors,  in  comparison  with  whom  they 
must  have  remained  relatively  constant.  The  racial  character  of  the  South 
Germans,  of  the  Poles,  and  of  the  Russians,  has  changed  much  more 
during  the  last  millennium  than  has  that  of  the  Jews.  The  modifications 
which  the  latter  have  undergone  in  one  generation  in  America  are  as 
great  in  some  respects  as  those  which  have  affected  their  ancestors  in 
twenty. m 

(21)   CONCLUSIONS 

The  conclusions  to  this  chapter  have  been  partly  anticipated  in  the 
introduction;  an  elaborate  resume  is  unnecessary  here.  There  are,  however, 
several  matters  which  have  been  brought  to  light  by  the  survey  which 
has  just  been  completed,  and  which  were  not  fully  anticipated. 

In  the  first  place,  the  geographical  extent  of  the  Alpine  racial  type  is 
enormous,  reaching  from  France  to  China.  Throughout  this  extent  it 
maintains  a  nearly  constant  form,  in  stature,  in  the  dimensions  of  the 
head  and  face,  in  pilosity,  and  in  general  morphological  features.  Its  wide 
milieu  suggests  that  its  presence  in  Europe  is  merely  an  extension  of  its 

"» See  Chapter  XI,  section  7,  pp.  441-442. 

170  Matiegka,  J.,  AnthPr,  vol.  4,  1926,  pp.  163-219. 

171  For  the  question  of  changes  in  American  Jews,  see  Boas,  F.,  ZFE,  vol.  45,  1913, 
pp.  1-22,  and  also,  Morant,  G.  M.,  and  Samson,  O.,  Biomctrika,  vol.  28,  1936,  pp.  1- 
31. 


THE  CENTRAL  ZONE  647 

original  range,  for  it  could  not  have  gone  from  Europe  to  Turkestan. 
If,  as  has  been  assumed  for  the  purposes  of  this  book,  it  was  originally  a 
part  of  the  racial  complex  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  hunters  of  Late  Pleisto- 
cene Europe  and  North  Africa,  then  the  former  spatial  extent  of  the  cul- 
tures in  which  these  hunters  participated  must  reach  far  into  Asia. 

The  same  forces,  furthermore,  which  derived  the  Alpine  from  the 
larger-bodied  and  less  infantile  Upper  Palaeolithic  group  as  a  whole 
must  have  operated  across  the  entire  zone  now  occupied  by  Alpines.  The 
consistency  of  the  Alpines  in  this  zone  is  clear;  what  is  more  difficult  to 
explain  than  this  consistency  is  the  failure  of  the  northwestern  European 
relatives  of  the  Alpines  to  undergo  a  similar  reduction.  The  difference 
in  pigmentation  between  various  Alpine  groups,  and  between  Alpines 
and  the  unreduced  Palaeolithic  survivors,  is  of  little  importance;  we  have 
seen  that  the  white  racial  stock  is  extraordinarily  fluid  in  regard  to  pigment 
changes. 

The  second  phenomenon  revealed  by  our  study  is  the  fact  that  when 
Mediterranean  racial  types  are  blended  in  a  two  to  one  proportion  with 
Alpines,  something  totally  different  from  either  results,  and  this  product 
is  not  in  all  characters  intermediate.  The  facial  breadths  are  Mediterra- 
nean, the  nose  and  face  are  often  elongated,  the  cranial  length  reduced  to  an 
Alpine  dimension,  and  the  breadth  similarly  increased;  at  the  same  time 
the  foramen  magnum  and  the  auricular  passages  retain  a  metrical  position 
in  reference  to  the  anterior  landmarks  of  the  cranial  and  facial  skeleton 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  ancestor.  The  occipital  region  undergoes  a 
certain  degree  of  flattening,  and  the  nasal  bridge,  in  harmony  with  this 
motivation  from  the  rear,  becomes  prominent.  The  process  described 
above  is  one  of  Dinaricization,  and  the  hybrid  types  produced  by  this 
principle  are  Binaries  and  Armenoids. 

There  are  more  Binaries  and  Armenoids  in  the  world  than  there  are 
Alpines;  this  is  due  to  historical  reasons.  When  the  food  producers  entered 
the  territory  formerly  occupied  by  Upper  Palaeolithic  hunters,  the  former 
were  much  more  numerous  than  the  latter,  who  either  retired  to  environ- 
mental pockets  economically  unfavorable  to  the  food  producers,  or  were 
absorbed  into  the  ethnic  corpus  of  the  latter.  The  adjustment  of  the  earlier 
population  element  to  the  new  conditions  and  their  reemergence  through 
the  Mediterranean  group  made  a  combination  of  the  two  basic  racial 
elements  in  a  genetic  sense  necessary.  Thus  the  majority  of  Europeans 
are  actually  permanently  blended,  secondary  hybrids  between  the  old  and 
the  new;  pure  Mediterranean  populations  and  individuals  who  are  purely 
Mediterranean  from  the  genetic  as  well  as  the  anthropometric  standpoint, 
are  to  be  found  only  outside  of  Europe,  except  for  the  Iberian  peninsula 
and  the  western  Mediterranean  islands.  At  the  same  time  and  in  the 


648  THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

same  strict  sense  pure  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors,  themselves  initially 
hybrids,  are  probably  not  to  be  found  at  all  in  Europe,  although  many 
individuals  who  may  recapitulate  Upper  Palaeolithic  man  of  different 
varieties,  with  considerable  fidelity,  are  to  be  seen. 

This  survey  of  the  living  Europeans  which  we  have  just  finished  sim- 
plifies the  whole  white  racial  problem  enormously;  it  reduces  the  white 
race  to  two  least  common  denominators,  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Upper  Palaeolithic  group,  which  in  turn  means  Mediterranean  and 
Mediterranean-Neanderthaloid  in  the  widest  sense.  This  simplification 
must  not  be  accepted  without  caution;  the  Neanderthaloid  hybrid  hypoth- 
esis seems  most  reasonable  in  view  of  present  evidence,  but  that  evidence, 
while  clear  in  implication,  is  small  in  quantity.  Furthermore  this  sim- 
plification, if  tentatively  accepted,  must  not  be  overworked.  The  two 
basic  stocks  which  it  postulates  are  each  enormously  varied  and  the  white 
races  and  sub-races  which  have  resulted  from  their  conjunction  are  also 
numerous.  Without  a  wholesale  judgment  of  Solomon  all  whites  cannot 
be  divided  simply  into  two  groups,  any  more  than  they  could,  in  accordance 
with  Ripley's  simplification,  into  three. 


Chapter  XIII 
CONCLUSION 

(1)   COMMENTS  AND  REFLECTIONS 

Since  the  classification  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  white  race  has  already 
been  given  in  Chapter  VIII,  it  seems  unnecessary  to  review  it  here;  the 
second  part  of  the  book  has  been  summarized  in  advance.  The  work  as  a 
whole  is  an  attempt  to  deal  with  the  materials  of  physical  anthropology 
in  terms  of  archaeology  and  of  history,  in  recognition  of  the  facts  that  the 
human  body  is  one  unit  in  a  social  group  of  bodies  and  cannot  be  studied 
profitably  out  of  its  biological  and  social  context.  Furthermore,  it  cannot 
be  studied  with  more  than  indifferent  profit  in  the  flat  two-dimensional 
plane  of  the  present;  reference  must  be  had  to  the  past,  and  thoughts  may 
be  legitimately  entertained  as  to  the  future. 

It  has  been  borne  home  to  me,  in  the  perusal  of  the  body  of  anthro- 
pometric  literature  concerning  the  living  members  of  the  white  race, 
that  one  good,  accurately  measured  study  of  a  few  hundred  men,  which 
includes  all  of  the  more  important  measurements  permitted  by  the  Monaco 
agreement  and  specified  by  Rudolf  Martin,  as  well  as  a  large  number  of 
accurately  taken  morphological  observations,  is  better  than  a  general 
survey  of  a  few  characters  on  a  million.  Studies  of  this  nature  have  so  far 
been  made  principally  by  Americans,  Norwegians,  Germans,  Austrians, 
and  Russians.  In  tribute  to  the  volume  and  accuracy  of  their  observational 
data,  it  is  my  feeling  that  we  anthropometrists  of  the  rest  of  the  world 
must  take  off  our  hats  to  our  colleagues  in  Moscow.  Their  activities  in 
both  the  European  and  the  Asiatic  portions  of  their  country  have  been 
extremely  productive  and  have  served  to  cast  much  light  upon  the 
definition  of  the  mongoloid  race,  and  upon  the  racial  history  of  the  Uralic- 
and  Altaic-speaking  peoples.  For  a  systematic  investigation  of  their  own 
people,  the  palm  is  divided  between  Norway  and  Germany;  in  the  latter 
case  it  goes  especially  to  the  editors  and  authors  of  the  Deutsche  Rassenkunde. 

For  many  years  physical  anthropologists  have  found  it  more  amusing 
to  travel  to  distant  lands  and  to  measure  small  remnants  of  little  known 
or  romantic  peoples  than  to  tackle  the  drudgery  of  a  systematic  study  of 
their  own  compatriots.  For  that  reason  the  sections  in  the  present  book 
which  deal  with  the  Lapps,  the  Arabs,  the  Berbers,  the  Tajiks,  and  the 
Ghegs  may  appear  more  fully  and  more  lucidly  treated  than  those  which 
deal  with  the  French,  the  Hungarians,  the  Czechs,  or  the  English.  What 

649 


650  CONCLUSION 


is  needed  more  than  anything  else  in  this  respect  is  a  thoroughgoing  study 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  principal  and  most  powerful  nations  of  Europe. 

Much  more  badly  needed,  however,  than  data  on  the  living  is  the 
publication  of  skeletal  material  of  all  cultural  periods  in  European  pre- 
history and  history.  European  museums  and  private  collections  abound 
with  skulls  and  long  bones,  only  a  small  proportion  of  which  have  as  yet 
been  made  available  through  the  literature.  Most  of  these  are  of  Neolithic 
or  later  date;  when  a  skull  of  alleged  or  real  glacial  age  is  discovered,  it  is, 
as  a  rule,  soon  published. 

In  the  reconstruction  of  the  racial  history  of  the  white  race  which 
appears  in  the  preceding  chapters,  the  reader  may  readily  discover  that 
there  are  many  weak  places  and  gaps,  which  have  been  bridged  by  the 
use  of  far  too  little  data.  This  has  been  done  intentionally,  so  that  the 
picture  may  appear  as  a  whole,  and  so  that  a  logical,  if  hypothetical,  scheme 
may  be  devised.  It  is  inevitable  that  between  the  writing  and  the  printing 
of  this  sentence,  some  of  these  gaps  will  have  been  filled  by  the  discovery  or 
collection  of  new  data,  and  that  some  of  the  reconstructions  will  be  proved 
false,  while  others,  we  hope,  may  perhaps  be  confirmed.  He  who  offers  a 
scheme  explaining  the  totality  of  anything  must  be  bold  or  his  scheme  is 
useless;  he  must  not,  above  all,  be  afraid  of  exposure.  The  theorizers  of 
one  generation  furnish  pleasure  to  the  fact  finders  of  the  next,  by  giving 
them  something  to  tear  down,  and  by  daring  to  be  wrong. 

Before  a  second  edition  of  this  book  is  written,  or  other  books  compiled 
to  disprove  or  replace  it,  it  is  my  sincere  wish  that  more  light  will  be  shed 
by  the  fraternity  of  diggers  and  measurers  upon  at  least  the  following 
problems:  (a)  the  skeletal  history  of  the  Mediterranean  race  in  pre-food- 
producing  times;  (b)  the  unveiling  of  that  great  European  mystery,  the 
Mesolithic;  (c)  the  origin  and  history  of  the  Alpines;  (d)  the  same  for  the 
Corded  people;  (e)  the  same  for  the  bearers  of  the  Megalithic  culture  into 
the  western  Mediterranean  and  northwestern  Europe.  There  are  many 
other  weak  spots  in  our  fabric,  but  these  seem,  to  me  at  least,  to  be  the 
weakest. 

(2)  THE  WHITE  RACE  AND  THE  NEW  WORLD 

Since  the  recession  of  the  last  glacier,  the  principal  movement  of  the 
white  race  has  been  northward  and  westward,  until  the  center  of  popula- 
tion and  of  civilization  has  shifted  from  Africa  and  Asia  to  southern 
Europe,  and  from  southern  Europe  to  the  northwest.  From  roughly 
3000  B.C.  until  1492  A.D.,  the  various  branches  of  the  Mediterranean  race 
which  had  followed  the  rain  belts  into  Europe  were  busy  expanding  in  the 
countries  which  they  had  settled,  and  in  assimilating  the  stray  remnants 
of  the  older  hunting  population,  which  they  had  absorbed. 


CONCLUSION  651 


Before  1492  A.D.,  for  at  least  five  centuries,  the  racial  history  of  many 
parts  of  Europe  consisted  of  an  internal  genetic  adjustment,  in  the  process 
of  which  the  Mediterranean  strains,  so  much  more  numerous  at  the  time 
of  their  settlement  in  Europe  than  the  total  of  the  aborigines,  were  to  a 
certain  extent  bred  out  and  replaced  by  a  reemergence  of  the  old  types, 
and  to  a  larger  extent  recombined  genetically  with  the  old  types  in  re- 
emergence  to  produce  something  new.  Even  within  the  Mediterranean 
stock,  different  strains  in  one  population  have  showed  differential  survival 
values  and  often  one  has  reemerged  at  the  expense  of  others. 

In  1492  A.D.,  the  maximum  survival  of  Mediterraneans  (in  the  widest 
sense)  in  Europe  in  the  face  of  these  reemergences  was  to  be  found  in  pe- 
ripheral countries;  Spain,  Portugal,  England,  the  Netherlands,  Sweden, 
and  parts  of  Norway.  It  was  precisely  these  countries,  especially  Spain, 
Portugal,  England,  and  the  Netherlands,  which  furnished  the  materials 
for  the  initial  peopling  by  Europeans  of  the  New  World,  and  to  the  New 
World  in  the  sense  of  the  two  Americas  were  soon  to  be  added  South 
Africa,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand. 

The  Mediterraneans  who  peopled  the  New  World  were  of  two  principal 
varieties,  Nordics  and  small,  or  Ibero-Insular  (in  Deniker's  sense),  Mediter- 
raneans. The  Nordics  went  to  North  America,  South  Africa,  Australia,  and 
New  Zealand,  the  Mediterraneans  proper  to  Central  and  South  America. 
Wherever  the  Nordics  went,  they  found  lands  occupied  by  scattered  tribes 
of  hunters  and  gatherers,  or  of  river-side  agriculturalists  who  were  too  few 
to  offer  them  successful  resistance.  The  wars  with  the  Blackfeet  and  the 
Sioux  were  long  and  bloody,  but  the  Blackfeet  and  the  Sioux  have  lost 
their  racial  hold  on  their  land  as  completely  as  have  the  Arunta.  Dispos- 
session and  gradual  extinction  has  been  the  fate  of  those  who  opposed  the 
English  and  the  Dutch,  whether  their  opponents  were  Bushmen  or  Tasma- 
nians  or  Beothuks. 

The  Spanish,  on  the  other  hand,  went  mostly  to  countries  where  a  dense 
native  population  lived  close  to  the  soil,  and  where  mighty  empires  had 
already  arisen;  their  colonization  was  largely  a  matter  of  conquest  and 
subjugation,  and  in  all  the  American  countries  of  Spanish  settlement, 
excepting  Argentina  and  Chile,  the  Indian  farmer  has  reemerged,  and  the 
Spaniard  forms  but  an  upper  crust.  The  Portuguese,  carving  out,  in 
Brazil,  a  vast  empire  of  river  and  forest,  found  but  little  land  suitable  for 
the  habitation  of  whites,  and  into  this  they  brought  black  men  from 
Africa  whose  descendants  are  now  the  chief  possessors  of  the  soil. 

The  expansion  of  the  Mediterraneans,  using  the  word  in  the  larger 
sense,  into  the  New  World,  was  an  extension  of  their  earlier  expansion  into 
Europe.  North  America  became,  by  the  nineteenth  century,  the  greatest 
Nordic  reservoir  in  the  world.  But  the  century  which  saw  the  erection 


652  CONCLUSION 


of  this  reservoir  also  witnessed  the  beginnings  of  its  change  in  character; 
the  tide  of  immigration  brought  with  it  members  of  all  the  other  races  of 
Europe.  The  people  who  came  to  America,  from  the  time  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers  to  the  imposition  of  the  laws  restricting  immigration,  were  selected; 
none  were  fully  representative  of  the  countries  from  which  they  came.  In 
America  they  were  subjected  to  environmental  forces  of  a  new  and 
stimulating  nature,  so  that  changes  in  growth  such  as  their  ancestors  had 
not  felt  for  centuries  produced  strange,  gangling  creatures  of  their  children. 
In  America  we  have  before  our  eyes  the  rapid  action  of  race-building 
forces;  if  we  wish  to  understand  the  principles  which  have  motivated  the 
racial  history  of  the  Old  World,  it  behooves  us  to  pay  careful  attention 
to  the  New. 


APPENDICES 


Appendix  I 

MEANS  OF  PRINCIPAL   CRANIAL  SERIES 
USED   IN  CHAPTERS   II-VII 


Series 

1 .  European  Upper  Palaeolithic 

2.  Afalou  bou  Rummel,  Algeria 

3.  TeViec,  Brittany 

4.  Al  eUbaid,  Sumeria 

5.  Kish  A-Graves,  Sumeria 

6.  Naqada,  Predynastic  Egypt 

7.  Upper  Egypt,  6-1 2th  Dynasties 


8.  Lower  Egypt,  26~30th  Dynasties 

9.  La  Solana,  Spain 

10.  Ticuso,  Spain 

1 1 .  Danubian  Neolithic 

12.  Corded,  Bohemia  and  Silesia 

13.  English  and  Scottish  Neolithic 

14.  Chamblandes,  Switzerland 

15.  L'homme  Mort,  France 

16.  Beaunies  Chaudes 

17.  Neolithic  Brachycephals,  Belgium 

1 8.  Swedish  Neoli  thic  dolichocephals 

(C.  I.  -  x  -  77.9) 

19.  Swedish  Neolithic  brachycephals 

(C.  I.  =  78  -  x) 

20.  Bronze  Age,  Cyprus 

21.  Bell  Beaker,  W6rms 


Author 

Page 

Footnote 

Morant 

30 

21 

Boule, 

Vallois, 

Verneau 

40 

44 

Boule, 

Vallois 

65 

18 

Keith 

87 

8 

Buxton 

88 

9 

Fawcett, 

(Morant) 

95 

21 

Randall, 

Mac-Iver, 

(Morant) 

96 

22 

Morant 

96 

22 

Hoyos  Sainz, 

Barras  de  Aragon 

100 

32 

Barras  de  Aragon, 

Verneau 

100 

33 

f  105 

. 

47 

composite 

\  106 

48 

Reche, 

Stocky 

107 

50 

Morant 

110 

57 

Schenk 

115 

70 

Wallis 

116 

74 

Topinard 

(von  Bonin) 

117 

76 

composite 

118 

80 

Retzius, 

Fiirst 

123 

88 

Retzius, 

Fiirst 

123 

88 

Fiirst, 

Buxton 

138 

11 

Bartels 

156 

62 

655 

656 


APPENDIX  I 


Series 

Author 

Page 

Footnote 

22.  British  Bronze  Age,  planoccipital 

brachycephals 

Davis, 

Thurman 

159 

— 

23.  Same,     curvoccipital     brachy- 

cephals 

Davis, 

Thurman 

159 

— 

24.  Same,  Corded  type  dolichocephals 

Davis, 

Thurman 

159 

— 

25.  Scottish  Bronze  Age 

Reid, 

Morant 

160 

67 

26.  Irish  Bronze  Age 

composite 

161 

70 

27.  Aunjetitz,    Lower   Austria    and 

Moravia 

Szombathy 

163 

74 

28.  Aunjetitz,  Bohemia 

Stocky 

164 

76 

29.  Aunjetitz,  Bohemia 

Hellich 

164 

77 

30.  Esthonian  Bronze  Age 

Fried  en  thai 

167 

90 

31.  Minussinsk,  Siberia 

Goroshchenko 

169 

97 

32.  Austrian  Hallstatt 

composite 

182 

16 

33.  La  Tene,  Bohemia 

Hellich 

189 

30 

34.  Gallo-Roman,  Marne 

Wallis 

190 

35 

35.  British  Iron  Age 

Morant 

191 

39 

36.  Irish  Iron  Age  and  Early  Christian 

composite 

191 

— 

37.  Scythians 

Doni£i 

199 

57 

38.  Armenian  Iron  Age 

Bunak 

201 

67 

39.  Danish  Iron  Age 

Nielsen 

203 

71 

40.  Swedish  Iron  Age 

Retzius, 

Fiirst 

204 

72 

41.  Norwegian  Iron  Age 

Schreiner 

204 

73 

42.  Hannover  Germans 

Hauschild 

207 

78 

43.  Anglo-Saxons,  London  Museum 

Morant;  Brash, 
Layard,  Young 

f  207 
I  209 

79 
82 

44.  Bajuvars,  Reihengraber 

Wallis 

211 

89 

45.  Merovingians 

Wallis 

215 

99 

46.  Old  Slavic,  Poland 

Majewski 

218 

103 

47.  Old  Slavic,  Wends 

Asmus 

219 

104 

48.  Old  Slavic,  Bohemia 

Matiegka 

219 

106 

49.  Anan'ino,  Early  Finnic 

Debetz 

224 

4 

50.  Polom,  9th  Century  Finnic 

Debetz 

225 

6 

51.  Avars,  Margarethen  am  Moos, 

Hungary 

Lebzelter 

230 

9 

52.  Jutas,  Hungary 

Bartucz 

232 

14 

53.  Tiszaderz,  Hungary 

Bartucz 

232 

15 

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NO   OS   «^ 


p  e*j  in 
|   co  co  o 


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CO          «-» 


SCO  ON  ON  •*** 
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ITi    T-H    NO 

OO  ON   OO 


o  •«-<  t-< 

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Appendix  II 
GLOSSARY 

ADRIATIC.     A  name  given  by  Deniker  to  the  Dinaric  race.    See  p.  282. 
AENEOLITHIC.     The  Copper  Age,  a  period  of  transition  between  the  Neolithic 

and  the  Bronze  Age. 
AFALOU  TYPE.     The  rugged,  oversized  racial  type  found  at  Afalou  bou  Rummel 

in  Algeria. 
AFGHANIAN.     Name  proposed  in  the  present  work  for  the  skeletal  counterpart  of 

the  Irano-Afghan  race.    See  p.  85. 
AHRENSBURG.     A  tanged-point  culture  of  the  Early  Mesolithic  in  northwestern 

Europe.    See  p.  70. 

ALBINO.     A  person  totally  deficient  in  pigmentation. 
ALOPECIA.     Baldness. 
ALPINE.     A  name  proposed  by  Ripley  and  used  in  this  work  in  its  original  sense. 

The  main  group  of  reduced  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors  in  Europe  and  in 

western  and  central  Asia.    See  p.  291. 
ALTAIC.     A  linguistic  stock  widely  prevalent  in  Asia  and  to  a  lesser  extent  in 

Europe,   including  Turkish,   Mongolian,   Tungusic,    and   possibly   Korean. 

See  pp.  236-240. 

ALVEOLAR.     Pertaining  to  the  tooth-bearing  segments  of  the  maxillary  bones. 
ALVEOLAR  PROGNATHISM.     A  protrusion  of  the  jaws,  specifically  in  the  region 

lying  between  the  nose  and  the  teeth. 
ALVEON  (also  prosthion).     The  most  anterior  point  on  the  alveolar  border  of  the 

upper  jaw,  on  the  median  line  between  the  two  upper  median  incisors. 
ANAN'INO.     An  Iron  Age  culture  of  east-central  Russia,  supposedly  associated 

with  Finnic-speaking  peoples.    See  p.  224. 

ANCYLUS.     Name  given  the  Baltic  lake  in  Boreal  times.    See  pp.  70-71. 
ANDRONOVO.     A  Late  Bronze  Age  culture  of  southwestern  Siberia. 
ANGLO-SAXON  TYPE.     A  sub-type  of  Nordic  which  contains  unreduced  Upper 

Palaeolithic  mixture.    See  p.  293. 
ANNULAR  CONSTRICTION.     An  artificial  method  of  altering  the  head  shape  by  the 

application  of  bands. 

ANTHROPOMETRY.     The  measurement  of  the  bodily  characters  of  human  beings. 
ARCTIC  CULTURE.     An  early  Post-Glacial  Stone  Age  culture  of  northwestern 

Europe,  with  marked  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivals. 
ARCUS  SENILIS.     A  deposit  of  fat  in  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  which  looks  gray  or 

blue  and  often  creates  a  false  impression  of  partial  eye  blondism.   See  p.  244. 
ARMENOBD.     A  Dinaricized  Irano-Afghan  type.   See  p.  293. 
ARTIFACT.     Any  object  fashioned  by  man  for  use. 

ASCENDING  RAMUS.     The  paired  portion  of  the  jawbone  which  rises  from  the 

666 


GLOSSARY  667 

gonial  region  at  the  back  of  the  tooth-bearing  portion  of  the  jaw  to  the  con- 
dyle  and  coronoid  process. 

ASH-BLOND  (also  cendr6).  A  class  of  hair-blondism  in  which  rufosity  is  totally 
absent;  ash-blond  hair  has  a  grayish  or  "platinum"  appearance. 

ASSYRIOID.     Deniker's  name  for  the  Armenoid  racial  type.    See  p.  282. 

ASTURIAN.     A  Mesolithic  culture  of  northwestern  Spain. 

ATERIAN.  A  protracted  and  specialized  derivative  of  the  Mousterian  culture 
which  persisted  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Morocco  into  presumably  Post- 
glacial times.  See  p.  39. 

"ATHLETIC."  The  second  of  the  three  constitutional  types  postulated  by  the  stu- 
dents of  human  constitution;  somatic — heavily  muscled,  heavy-boned,  square. 

ATLANTIC.  Name  given  Period  III  of  Baltic  Mesolithic  chronology,  5600- 
2500  B.C.  See  pp.  70-72. 

ATLANTO-MEDITERRANEAN.  A  tall  brunet  Mediterranean  sub-race,  the  living 
equivalent  of  the  skeletal  Megalithic.  Name  originally  given  it  by  Deniker. 
See  p.  282 — see  also  p.  292  for  definition  in  present  classification. 

ATLAS.  The  topmost  cervical  vertebra,  which  bears  the  lower  pair  of  condyles 
upon  which  the  skull  balances. 

AUNJETITZ  (Uneticfc).     The  Early  Bronze  Age  culture  of  the  Danubian  region. 

AURICULAR.     Pertaining  to  the  ear  or  ear  hole. 

AURICULAR  HEAD  HEIGHT.  The  height  of  the  cranial  vault  measured  from  the 
top  of  the  ear  hole,  or  from  tragion,  to  vertex.  This  measurement  is  taken  on 
both  crania  and  the  living;  on  the  living  it  is  the  only  head  height  dimension 
commonly  taken. 

AURIGNACIAN.  The  first  of  the  three  Upper  Palaeolithic  cultures  of  western 
Europe,  beginning  in  the  warm  Laufen  Interglacial  and  ending  during  the 
Wurm  II  advance.  More  recently  found  in  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

AUSTRALOID.  One  of  the  major  racial  divisions  of  mankind,  typified  by  the 
aborigines  of  Australia. 

Axis,  AXILLARY.  The  arm  pit.  Axis  also  means  the  second  cervical  vertebra  from 
the  top. 

AZILIAN.     A  Mesolithic  culture  of  western  Europe. 

BADARIAN.     A  predynastic  culture  of  Upper  Egypt.    See  p.  94. 

BANDED,     A  type  of  Neolithic  pottery,  found  first  in  Danubian  I,  decorated  by 

bands  of  incisions. 
BASION.     An  anatomical  point  on  the  midpoint  of  the  posterior  border  of  the 

foramen  magnum. 

BASION-BREGMA  HEIGHT.     The  height  of  the  cranial  vault  from  basion  to  bregma. 
BATTLE-AXE  PEOPLE.     Another  name  for  the   Corded   people,  who  habitually 

buried  double-bitted  stone  battle-axes  with  their  dead. 
BEAKER.     See  Bell  Beaker,  Zoned  Beaker.    The  term  Beaker,  used  alone,  serves 

conveniently  to  designate  either  or  both  subdivisions. 
BELL  BEAKER.     A  type  of  Early  Bronze  Age  pottery  characteristic  of  a  culture 

which  is  believed  to  have  arisen  in  Spain,  and  which  had  wide  ramifications 

in  western  and  central  Europe. 


668  APPENDIX  II 


BELL-SHAPED  CURVE  (normal  probability  curve).  A  statistical  phenomenon;  the 
distribution  curve  which  results  under  conditions  of  random  sampling  when 
frequencies  of  consecutive  metrical  categories  are  plotted  in  a  significant 
biometric  sample. 

BIACROMINAL  DIAMETER.  Shoulder  breadth,  the  distance  between  the  acromion 
processes  of  the  scapulae  (shoulder  blades)  in  the  living. 

BICONDYLAR  DIAMETER.  The  maximum  external  distance  between  the  condyles 
of  the  mandible. 

BIGONIAL  DIAMETER.  The  maximum  distance  between  the  external  gonial  angles 
of  the  mandible,  taken  both  on  the  dry  mandible  and  on  the  living. 

BI-ILIAC  DIAMETER.  The  distance  between  the  iliac  crests  of  the  pelvis;  maximum 
hip  breadth. 

BIMAXILLARY  BREADTH.  The  distance  between  the  lower  borders  of  the  malar- 
maxillary  sutures  of  the  facial  skeleton. 

BIMODAL.  The  condition  which  occurs  when  two  metrically  distinct  factors  are 
present  in  a  numerically  adequate  frequency  curve  so  that  the  curve  has  two 
distinct  peaks. 

BIOMETRIC.     Pertaining  to  the  accurate  measurement  of  living  beings. 

BIORBITAL  DIAMETER.  The  distance  between  the  outer  borders  of  the  two  bony 
orbits. 

BIZYGOMATIC  DIAMETER.  The  maximum  distance  between  the  two  zygomatic 
arches;  face  breadth. 

BOAT-AXE.  Another  name  for  the  perforated,  double-bitted  stone  battle-axe 
used  by  the  Corded  people. 

BODILY  HABITUS.     Constitutional  type,  bodily  build. 

BOREAL.     Period  II  of  the  Baltic  Mesolithic,  from  6800  to  5600  B.C.  See  pp.  70-71 . 

BORREBY.  An  unreduced  brachycephalic  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivor.  See 
page  291. 

BRACHYCEPHALIC.  Possessing  a  cephalic  index  of  81.0  to  85.4;  round  or  short 
headed. 

BRACHYCEPHALIZATION.  The  process  of  producing  brachycephaly  within  a  pop- 
ulation. 

BRACHYCEREBRAL.  A  term  coined  to  indicate  a  round  or  relatively  short-brained 
condition. 

BRACHYCRANIAL.  Possessing  a  cranial  index  of  80.0  and  over,  round-  or  short- 
skulled. 

Head  height  X  100     ^      .      f.  .        L     ,    .  . 

BREADTH-HEIGHT  INDEX.  — 1| — -Hr -JTJ- —  On  the  living  the  height  meas- 
urement is  the  auricular  height;  on  the  skull  the  basion-bregma  height  is 
usually  employed. 

BREGMA-LAMBDA  ARC.  The  sagittal  length  of  the  parietal  bones,  measured  on 
the  outer  surface  of  the  cranial  vault. 

BROCH.  A  type  of  corbelled  stone  tower  of  Bronze  Age  date  found  in  Scotland. 
See  p.  148. 

BROWRIDGE.  A  prominence  of  the  frontal  area  immediately  above  the  orbits 
and  nasal  root,  and,  on  the  living,  underlying  the  eyebrows. 


GLOSSARY  669 


BRUNN.  Name  of  a  city  in  Czechoslovakia,  and  of  a  number  of  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic skulls  found  nearby.  In  the  present  work  it  also  designates  a,  living 
racial  type  which  recapitulates  that  of  the  dolichocephalic  Aurignacian 
peoples  of  central  Europe.  See  p.  291. 

BRYTHONIG.     Kyrnric,  P-Keltic  of  England  and  Wales. 

BURGWALL.  Name  given  to  Slavic  moated  villages  of  the  early  Christian  era. 
See  p.  216. 

BURYAT-MONGOL.  A  brachycephalic  mongoloid  race  with  extreme  mongoloid 
features. 

BUSHMAN.  A  native  of  South  Africa.  The  Bushmen  and  Hottentots  form  to- 
gether one  of  the  primary  racial  divisions  of  mankind. 

CALVA.     The  skull  cap,  lacking  the  face  and  the  base  of  the  skull. 

CALVARIUM.     The  entire  skull  with  the  exception  of  the  mandible. 

CANINE  FOSSA.  A  depression  in  the  maxillary  bone  immediately  under  the  infra- 
orbital  foramen  of  the  cranium. 

CAPPADOCIAN.     See  p.  85. 

CAPSTAN.     See  p.  35. 

CAUCASIC.  Languages  spoken  in  the  Caucasus,  including  Georgian,  Circassian, 
Chechen  and  Lesghian — these  languages,  which  may  or  may  not  be  mutu- 
ally related,  form  the  nucleus  of  Marr's  "Japhetic"  stock.  (See  Japhetic.) 

CELT.     A  polished  stone  axe  or  adze. 

CENOZOIC.  The  division  of  geological  time  extending  from  the  end  of  the  Meso- 
zoic  to  the  present. 

CENTUM.  One  of  the  two  primary  divisions  of  the  Indo-European  linguistic 
stock,  based  on  the  retention  of  the  consonant  K. 

CEPHALIC  INDEX.    — p — TT: — J~T The  ratio  of  head  length  to  head  breadth; 

the  most  commonly  used  index  of  the  human  body  in  racial  studies. 

_  Head  length  +  head  breadth  +  auricular  height 

CEPHALIC  MODULE. ~ —  The  aver- 
age of  the  three  principal  diameters  of  the  cranial  vault  on  the  living;  thus 
a  measure  of  absolute  head  size. 

CERVICAL.     Pertaining  to  the  neck. 

CHALCOHTHIC.     The  Copper  Age.    See  Copper  Age,  Aenolithic. 

CHAMAEGONCH.     Possessing  an  orbital  index  of  82,9  and  under;  low-orbitted. 

CHAMAERRHINE.  Possessing  a  nasal  index  of  51.0  and  over  on  the  skull;  relatively 
wide-nosed. 

CHATELPERRONIAN.  A  division  of  the  Aurignacian  of  western  Europe  distin- 
guished on  the  basis  of  a  special  flint-chipping  technique  and  formerly  known 
as  the  Lower  Aurignacian. 

^  Maximum  clavicle  length       „«          .     ,  , 

CLAVICOHUMERAL  INDEX.     -— — : ,    &  v  •     The  ratio  between  the 

Maximum  humerus  length 

length  of  the  clavicle  (collar  bone)  and  that  of  the  humerus  (upper  arm  bone); 
see  p.  41. 
COEFFICIENT  OF  VARIATION.     See  p.  246. 


670  APPENDIX  II 


COMBED  POTTERY.     See  p.  125.  A  Neolithic  pottery  type  found  at  various  points 

in  the  forest  belt  stretching  across  three  continents  from  the  Baltic  to  New 

England. 
CONDYLES.     The  paired  articulating  surfaces  of  a  bone  at  a  movable  joint;  occipital 

condyles  are  the  surfaces  of  the  base  of  the  skull  which  articulate  with  the 

axis;  mandibular  condyles  are  the  hinges  of  the  jaw. 
CONSTITUTIONAL  TYPE.     See  pyknic,  somatic,  leptosome.    A  division  of  mankind 

into  specific  types  on  the  basis  of  total  bodily  form,  cutting  across  conven- 
tional racial  lines. 
COPPER  AGE.     A  period  of  transition  between  the  Neolithic  and  the  Bronze  Age, 

also  called  Aenolithic. 
CORDED.     A  type  of  pottery  decoration  made  by  applying  cords  to  the  surface 

of  the  pot  when  wet;  the  people  who  habitually  used  these  pots;  the  skeletal 

racial  type  of  these  people.    See  p.  85. 

CORNEA.     The  outer  layer  of  eye  tissue  immediately  over  the  iris. 
CORRELATION.     The  established  relationship  between  two  or  more  variables;  see 

p.  250. 
CORRIDOR  TOMB.     A  late  Megalithic  burial  chamber  in  the  form  of  a  long  corridor. 

Cranial  length  X  100 

CRANIAL  INDEX.    — ~ .  ,  ,        ,  T — 

Cranial  breadth 

CRANIOLOGY,  CRANIOLOGICAL.     The  science  of  the  skull. 

CRANIUM.     The  entire  skull,  including  the  mandible. 

CRESWELLIAN.     A  Postglacial  culture  of  Great  Britain,  Mesolithic  with  strong 

Aurignacian  tradition. 

CURVOCCIPITAL.     Having  a  curved  occipital  region. 

CUSHITIG.     A  term  used  to  designate  the  Hamitic  languages  of  East  Africa. 
CYPRIOTE.     Pertaining  to  the  Bronze  Age  in  Cyprus. 

DALO-NORDIG.  See  p.  285.  Paudler's  name  for  dolichocephalic  unreduced 
Upper  Palaeolithic  survivors.  Also  called  Falish  by  Gunther. 

DANUBIAN.  The  small  mesorrhine  or  chamaerrhine  Mediterranean  racial  type 
which  introduced  Neolithic  food  production  into  central  Europe.  See  p.  85. 

DARDIC.     A  division  of  Satem  Indo-European  speech  closely  related  to  Iranian. 

DIASPORA.  Scattering,  migration  in  many  directions,  applied  specifically  to  his- 
torical Jewish  movements. 

DINARIC.  A  racial  type  concentrated  in  the  mountain  zone  reaching  from  Switzer- 
land to  Epirus.  See  p.  293. 

DINARICIZATION.  A  special  process  of  hybridization;  see  Chapter  XII,  sees.  11, 
12,  17;  also  legend  to  plate  35. 

DOLICHOCEPHALIC.  Possessing  a  cephalic  index  of  75.9  and  under;  long-  or 
narrow-headed,  or  both. 

DOLICHOCRANIAL.  Possessing  a  cranial  index  of  74.9  and  under;  long-  or  narrow- 
skulled,  or  both. 

DOLMEN.     A  megalithic  chambered  rock  tomb,  originally  covered  with  earth. 

DOMINANCE.  In  Mendelian  terminology,  the  ability  of  a  given  genetic  trait  or 
character  to  assert  itself  over  a  so-called  "recessive"  trait  or  character. 


GLOSSARY  671 


DRAVIDIAN.     A  language  family  of  southern  India  and  Baluchistan.  Also  a  racial 
type  designated  by  Deniker.   See  p.  282. 

EAST  BALTIC.    A  composite  race  found  in  eastern  Baltic  lands,  of  composite 

origin.   See  p.  292. 
ELMENTEITAN.     A  microiithic  culture  found  by  Leakey  in  East  Africa,  and  called 

Mesolithic.    Its  exact  time  position  is  in  doubt.   See  p.  57. 
ENDOCRANIAL.     Referring  to  the  inner  surface  of  the  cranial  vault. 
ENDOCRINE.     Pertaining  to  the  ductless  glands. 
EPICANTHUS.     See  mongoloid  fold. 

EPIPALAEOLITHIC.     A  name  given  the  early  Mesolithic  cultures  of  largely  Palaeo- 
lithic inspiration. 
ERTEB0LLE.     A  mesolithic  culture  of  the  Baltic  region  during  A  dan  tic  times 

(Period  III).    See  pp.  70-72. 
ETHNIC  UNIT.     A  concept  which  has  both  sociological  and  biological  implications: 

a  community  in  the  larger  sense  of  the  word;  an  intermarrying  group  of 

people  united  in  a  cultural  sense,  and  forming  an  ethnos,  but  not  necessarily 

united  geographically. 
EUR  AFRICAN.     A  name  given  by  Sergi  to  the  entire  white  group  of  dolichocephalic 

tendency,  as  opposed  to  Eurasiatic.    Among  Mesopotamian  archaeologists 

this  word  has  taken  on  a  special  meaning.    See  p.  87. 
EURASIATIC.     Sergi's  word  to  designate  the  entire  body  of  brachycephalic  whites. 

See  p.  284. 
EURYENE.     Possessing  an  upper  facial  index  of  49.9  and  under  on  the  skull;  short 

or  broad  upper-faced,  or  both. 
EURYPROSOPIC.     Possessing  (on  the  living)  a  facial  index  of  83.9  and  under;  short- 

or  broad -faced,  or  both. 
EYE-EAR  PLANE.     A  conventional  or  standard  level  at  which  the  skull  is  placed 

for  craniometric  study,  with  the  lower  border  of  the  left  orbit  on  the  same 

horizontal  plane  as  the  upper  borders  of  the  two  ear  holes. 

FACETS  (SQUATTING).     Supplementary  articulary  surfaces  of  the  foot  and  leg  bones 
thought  to  be  caused  by  habitual  squatting. 

FACIAL  INDEX.   — 2— _ •  usec|  berth  on  the  cranium  and  on  the 

Bizygomatic 

living. 

FALISH.     See  Dalo-Nordic. 

FATJANOVO.     A  Neolithic  culture  of  southern  Russia  and  the  Caucasus. 
FAVUS.    A  serious  scalp  disease  which  causes  baldness  and  reduces  the  regions 

affected  to  scar  tissue. 
FEMUR.  The  thigh  bone. 
FENNO-Nordic.  The  name  given  by  von  Eickstedt  to  a  hypothetical  eastern 

branch  of  the  Nordic  race.   See  p.  282. 

FIBULA.     The  outer  and  thinner  of  the  two  long  bones  of  the  lower  leg. 
FiNNO-Ugrian.    The  major  branch  of  the  Uralic  linguistic  stock,  and  a  possible 

element  in  the  formation  of  Indo-European.   See  pp.  337-339. 
FOETALIZED,  FOETALizATiON.     See  p.  291,  footnote  56. 


672  APPENDIX   II 


FOOD-VESSEL.     A  Bronze  Age  ceramic  type,  used  in  Ireland  and  western  Great 

Britain. 
FORAMEN  MAGNUM.     The  main  opening  at  the  base  of  skull  through  which  the 

brain  is  connected  to  the  major  nerves  of  the  body. 

FRONTAL.     Pertaining  to  the  bone  of  the  skull  which  underlies  the  forehead. 
FRONTAL  BOSSES.     Paired  tuberosities  or  eminences  on  the  forehead. 

GERONTOMORPHIC.  The  opposite  of  foetalized,  paedomorphic,  and  infantile.  A 
word  coined  by  Marett  to  indicate  an  extremely  adult  phenotypical  condition. 

GIBBONOID.  Resembling  the  gibbon,  the  smallest  and  most  arboreal  of  the  four 
man-like  apes. 

GLABELLA.  The  area  of  the  frontal  bone,  usually  projecting,  which  lies  immedi- 
ately above  the  root  of  the  nose  and  which  forms  the  central  portion  of  the 
brow  region. 

GLABELLO-OCCIPITAL  LENGTH.  The  maximum  length  of  the  skull  taken  from 
glabella. 

GLABROUS.     Hairless. 

GONIAL  ANGLES.  The  outer  posterior  angles  or  corners  of  the  lower  jaw,  at  -the 
bases  of  the  ascending  rami. 

GRIMALDIAN.  A  local  form  of  Aurignacian,  found  in  Italy,  which  persisted  with- 
out interruption  to  the  Neolithic.  See  p.  69,  footnote  30. 

GUANCHE.  The  name  given  the  pre-Spanish  inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands. 
Hoo ton's  name  for  the  Afalou-like  Canarian  type  of  skull. 

H  ALLSTATT.     The  first  of  the  two  major  divisions  of  the  central  European  Iron  Age. 

HAMBURG  CULTURE.  A  local  Upper  Palaeolithic  culture  of  northern  Germany, 
in  part  contemporaneous  with  the  French  Magdalenian.  See  p.  70. 

HAMITIG.  A  linguistic  stock  confined  to  the  continent  of  Africa.  Also  used  in  a 
racial  sense  to  designate  the  slightly  negroid  tall  Mediterranean  racial  divi- 
sion associated  locally  in  East  Africa  with  Hamitic  languages. 

HEAD-SPANNER.  A  special  anthropometric  instrument  designed  to  facilitate 
measurement  of  auricular  head  height  on  the  living.  See  p.  243. 

HELL  AD  ic.     A  Bronze  Age  cultural  period  in  Greece. 

HELLENIC.     A  branch  of  Indo-European  speech. 

HORIZONTAL  CIRCUMFERENCE.  The  maximum  circumference  of  the  cranial 
vault  taken  above  the  browridges. 

HUMERUS.     The  upper  arm  bone. 

HYPERBRACHYCEPHALIC,  — Y.  Possessing  a  cephalic  index  of  85.6  and  over;  ex- 
tremely round-  or  short-headed. 

HYPERDOLICHOCEPHALIC.  Possessing  an  extremely  low  cephalic  index;  ex- 
tremely long-  or  narrow-headed,  or  both. 

HYPEREURYENE.  Possessing  an  upper  facial  index  of  44.9  and  under  on  the 
skull,  extremely  long  or  narrow  upper-faced,  or  both. 

HYPERLEPTOPROSOPIC.  Possessing  (on  the  living)  a  facial  index  of  93.0  or  over; 
extremely  long-  or  narrow-faced,  or  both. 

HYPERMASCULINE.  Possessing  in  excessive  quantity  traits  which  may  be  con- 
sidered to  be  male  secondary  sex  characters. 


GLOSSARY  673 


HYPSICEPHALIC.     Possessing  a  length-height  index  of  62.6  and  over  on  the  living; 

high  headed. 
HVPSICONCH.     Possessing  an  orbital  index  of  89.0  and  over;  high'orbitted. 

IBEROINSULAR.  Deniker's  name  for  the  short-statured,  relatively  small  Mediter- 
ranean sub-race,  called  in  this  book  Mediterranean  Proper,  or  small  Medi- 
terranean. See  pp.  282-283. 

INCIPIENT  BLONDISM.  A  minor  incidence  of  mixed  eye  color;  of  reddish  or  brown 
hairs,  most  frequent  on  the  beard;  or  both.  It  is  suggested  that  such  occur- 
rences of  partial  blondism  in  a  population  remote  from  Nordic  centers  may 
be  an  endemic  mutative  tendency  and  not  the  result  of  mixture  with  Nordics 
or  members  of  other  fully  blond  races. 

INCIPIENTLY  MONGOLOID.  A  racial  type  which  has  evolved  part  way  in  a  mongo- 
loid  direction,  and  which  may  have  other,  non-mongoloid  specializations 
of  its  own,  is  called  incipiently  mongoloid. 

INDO-AFGHAN.  Deniker's  name  for  the  racial  type  designated  in  this  book  as 
Irano-Afghan.  See  p.  282. 

INDO-ARYANS.  Name  given  the  Indo-European -speaking  invaders  of  Persia, 
Afghanistan,  and  India. 

INDO-EUROPEAN.  A  linguistic  stock  to  which  most  languages  spoken  in  Europe 
belong;  it  is  thought  to  have  been  originally  a  hybrid  between  Finno-Ugrian 
and  Caucasic  with  an  early  Altaic  infusion.  See  pp.  178-182. 

INFANTILISM.  Presence  in  the  adult  phenotype  of  certain  features  which  appear 
to  be  infant-like;  a  condition  which  is  partially  synonymous  with  foetaliza- 
tion  and  paedomorphism. 

INION.  A  projection  in  the  center  of  the  superior  nuchal  line  of  the  occipital 
bone.  Inion  may  be  absent  in  cases  of  occipital  torus. 

INTEGUMENT.     Skin,  as  opposed  to  membrane. 

INTEGUMENTAL  LIPS.  The  entire  fleshy  section  of  the  outer  face,  covered  with 
integument,  reaching  from  chin  to  nose,  which  may  be  designated  as  upper 
and  lower  lips. 

INTERGLACIAL.  A  geological  period  of  relative  warmth  falling  between  two 
major  glacial  advances. 

INTEROCULAR  DIAMETER.     The  distance  between  the  inner  corners  of  the  eyes. 

INTERORBITAL  DISTANCE.  The  distance  between  the  inner  borders  of  the  bony 
eye-sockets. 

INTERPLUVIAL.     A  geological  period  of  low  precipitation  between  pluvial  maxima. 

IRANO-AFGHAN.     The  living  replica  of  the  skeletal  Afghanian  race.   See  p.  292. 

IRIDICAL.     Pertaining  to  the  iris. 

IRIS.     The  light-diaphragm  of  the  eye. 

JAPHETIC.  A  hypothetical  linguistic  stock  postulated  by  Professor  Marr.  See 
p.  175. 

KAMMKERAMIK.     See  Combed  pottery. 

KELTIC  IRON  AGE  TYPE.  A  sub- type  of  Nordic  associated  with  Keltic-speaking 
peoples  during  the  Iron  Age.  See  pp.  292-293, 


674  APPENDIX   II 


KHOI-SAN.  The  Bushman-Hottentot  linguistic  stock;  also,  the  Bushman-Hotten- 
tot people. 

KITCHEN-MIDDEN.  An  archaeological  shell  deposit,  usually  occurring  along  the 
sea-shore  and  often  of  Mesolithic  date. 

KURGAN.  A  type  of  burial  mound  used  in  eastern  Europe,  especially  southern 
Russia,  from  the  Neolithic  period  through  the  Iron  Age. 

LADIN.  The  Rhaeto-Roman  language  of  the  Engadine,  in  the  canton  of  Orisons, 
Switzerland;  also  in  the  Italian  Tyrol. 

LADING.  The  archaic  Spanish  language  of  the  Sephardic  Jews,  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  the  Rhaeto-Roman  Ladin  of  the  Grisons  and  Tyrol. 

LADOGAN.  An  eastern  European  racial  type  of  Upper  Palaeolithic  origin.  See 
pp.  291-292. 

LAKE  DWELLING  CULTURE.  A  lacustrine  Neolithic  culture  of  western  Switzer- 
land, notable  because  of  the  preservation  of  wooden  objects,  textiles,  and 
vegetable  foodstuffs  in  the  mud  under  the  Lake  Dwellings.  It  is  actually  a 
Mesolithic  survival  with  the  addition  of  a  Neolithic  economy.  See  p.  113. 

LAMBDOID.  Pertaining  to  the  region  of  lambda,  at  the  juncture  of  the  parietal 
and  occipital  bones. 

LAMBDOID  FLATTENING.  An  inheritable  and  non-artificial  flattening  or  depression 
of  the  segment  of  the  sagittal  suture  of  the  skull  immediately  above  lambda. 

LAPPISH.  A  racial  type  identified  with  the  Lapps  in  their  unmixed  form.  See 
p.  292. 

LAPPONOID.     Czekanowski's  name  for  the  Alpine  race.   See  p.  288. 

LA  TENE.     The  second  or  Keltic  Iron  Age  in  central  Europe  and  elsewhere. 

LATERAL.  A  word  used  in  this  work  to  describe  stocky,  thick-set,  wide-bodied 
constitutional  types  or  type  combinations,  implying  somatic,  pyknic,  or  both. 

LAUFEN.  The  name  given  the  Wurm  I-Wurm  II  interglacial  period  of  the  Late 
Pleistocene. 

LAUSITZ.     A  central  European  Urnfields  culture  of  the  Late  Bronze  Age. 

Head  height  X  100     ....  .         ,     ,    .  , 

LENGTH-HEIGHT  INDEX.  — j| — -y^ r On  the  living,  the  height  measure- 
ment is  the  auricular  height;  on  the  skull,  the  basion-bregma  height  is  usu- 
ally employed. 

LiEPTENE.  Possessing  an  upper  facial  index  of  55.0  and  over  on  the  skull;  long 
or  narrow  upper-faced,  or  both. 

-EPTOPROSOPIC.  Possessing  (on  the  living)  a  facial  index  of  88.0  to  92.9;  long-  or 
narrow-faced,  or  both. 

-JEPTORRHINE.  Possessing  a  nasal  index  of  46.9  and  under  on  the  skull,  or  of 
69.9  and  under  on  the  living;  relatively  narrow-nosed. 

-.EPTOSOME.  The  third  component  designated  by  students  of  constitutional 
types;  long,  lean,  narrow,  attenuated. 

JEVALLOiso-MousTERiAN.  A  Middle  Palaeolithic  culture  with  both  Levalloisian 
and  Mousterian  elements. 

-WEAR.  A  word  used  in  this  work  to  describe  slender,  wiry,  thin-bodied  consti- 
tutional types  or  type  combinations,  implying  leptosome,  somatic,  or  both. 


GLOSSARY  675 


p  SEAM.  A  thin  zone  of  connective  tissue  separating  the  membrane  of  the  lips 
from  the  integument. 

TORINA.  The  name  given  the  salt  Baltic  Sea  during  Atlantic  time,  from  5000- 
2400  B.C. 

ITORAL.  An  alternate  name,  employed  by  Deniker,  to  designate  the  Atlan to- 
Mediterranean  race.  See  p.  282. 

>NG  BARROW.  An  earth  covered  Megalithic  tumulus  found  principally  in  the 
British  Isles.  Also,  the  exaggeratedly  long-headed  Mediterranean  racial 
type  associated  with  these  burials.  See  p.  111. 

NGBY.  An  antler  ax  culture  of  the  Early  Mesolithic  in  northwestern  Europe. 
See  pp.  70-71. 

^GDALENIAN.  The  final  cultural  division  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic  in  most  of 
Europe,  lasting  through  the  Wurm  II  maximum. 

\OLEMOSE.  A  Mesolithic  forest  culture  of  northern  Europe  during  Boreal 
times  (6800-5600  B.C.).  See  pp.  70-72. 

\LARS.     The  paired  cheek-bones. 

\NDIBLE.     The  lower  jaw-bone. 

\STICATORY  APPARATUS.  The  mandible,  maxillae,  glenoid  fossae,  teeth,  and 
the  muscles  of  chewing. 

\STOID  CRESTS.     See  supramastoid  ridges. 

\XILLAE.  The  paired  bones  of  the  face  which  bear  the  teeth  of  the  upper 
jaw. 

\XIMUM  BIPARIETAL  BREADTH.  The  maximum  breadth  of  the  skull  taken  above 
the  supramastoid  crests. 

\XIMUM  FRONTAL  DIAMETER.  The  distance  between  the  lower  anterior  extrem- 
ities of  the  frontal  bone  at  the  fronto-maiar  junctures. 

2  AN.     The  statistical  average  of  a  metrical  series. 

IDITERRANEAN.  A  name  used  in  this  work  to  designate  the  entire  family  of 
non-Neanderthaloid  dolicho-  or  mesocephalic  whites,  including  both  blond 
and  brunet  varieties.  In  the  narrower  sense  it  refers  to  the  small  Mediter- 
ranean, Mediterranean  Proper,  or  Ibero-Insular  race.  See  pp.  82—86. 

SGALITHIC.  A  name  given  in  this  work  to  the  skeletal  protype  of  the  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean  race.  See  p.  85. 

SLANIN.     See  definition  on  p.  273. 

EMBRANOUS  LIPS.  The  portion  of  the  lips,  exposed  when  the  mouth  is  nor- 
mally closed,  which  is  covered  by  membrane. 

SNDELIAN.     Pertaining  to  the  laws  of  inheritance  postulated  by  Mendel. 

SNTAL.     Pertaining  to  the  bony  chin.    Also,  the  usual  meaning  of  the  word. 

SNTON.  The  lowest  central  point  of  the  symphysis  of  the  mandible,  beneath 
the  bony  chin. 

SRIMDIAN.     An  Early  Neolithic  culture  of  the  Egyptian  Delta.    See  p.  93. 

EROVINGIAN.  Pertaining  to  the  Germanic  inhabitants  of  France  and  Belgium 
from  the  days  of  the  Frankish  invaders  to  the  fall  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty. 

ESENE.  Possessing  an  upper  facial  index  of  50.0  to  54.9  on  the  skull;  of  moder- 
ate or  intermediate  upper  face  form. 


676  APPENDIX   II 


MESOCEPHALIC.  Possessing  a  cephalic  index  of  76.0  to  80.9;  intermediate  in 
head  form. 

MESOCONGH.  Possessing  an  orbital  index  of  83.0  to  88.9;  of  moderate  or  inter- 
mediate orbital  form. 

MESOCRANIAL.  Possessing  a  cranial  index  of  75.0  to  79.9;  of  moderate  or  inter- 
mediate skull  form. 

MESOLITHIC.     See  page  56  for  definition. 

MESOPROSOPIC.  Possessing  (on  the  living)  a  facial  index  of  84.0  to  87.9;  moder- 
ate in  face  form. 

MESORRHINE.  Possessing  a  nasal  index  of  47.0  to  50.9  on  the  skull,  or  of  70.0 
to  84.9  on  the  living;  of  moderate  nasal  proportions. 

METRICAL  CHARACTERS.  Diameters,  circumferences,  arcs,  and  indices;  anatom- 
ical traits  numerically  expressed. 

MICHELSBERG.  A  Neolithic  pottery  culture  of  southwestern  Germany,  sup- 
posedly of  North  African  inspiration.  See  p.  110. 

MICRO-CEPHALIC.  Pathologically  very  small-headed,  with  an  implication  of 
mental  deficiency. 

MICROLITHS.  Small  flint  blades  characteristic  of  the  Mesolithic  in  Europe  and 
culturally  derived  from  North  Africa,  western  Asia,  or  both. 

MIDDEN.     A  shell  heap. 

MINERAL  DEFICIENCY.  A  deficiency,  over  a  long  period  of  time,  of  certain 
minerals  in  the  human  diet  has  been  proposed  by  Marett  as  one  of  the  basic 
causes  of  human  racial  differentiation. 

MINIMUM  FRONTAL  DIAMETER.  The  minimum  distance  between  the  temporal 
crests  of  the  frontal  bone. 

MODALITY.     The  statistical  character  of  possessing  a  mode  or  modes. 

MODE.  The  value  or  values  with  highest  frequency  in  a  statistical  distribution 
curve. 

MONGOLOID.  One  of  the  major  racial  divisions  of  mankind,  centered  chiefly 
in  the  continent  of  Asia.  The  "yellow  race"  of  Blumenbach. 

MONGOLOID  FOLD.  An  internal  epicanthic  eyefold  common  among  mongoloids, 
and  creating  a  slant-eyed  or  slit-eyed  appearance. 

MORPHOLOGICAL  CHARACTERS.  Non-metrical,  observational  attributes  of  the 
human  body. 

MORPHOLOGICAL  FACE  HEIGHT.  The  height  of  the  face  from  nasion  to  menton. 
Also  called  total  face  height  and  nasion-menton  height. 

MORPHOLOGICAL  UPPER  FACE  HEIGHT.  The  height  of  the  face  from  nasion  to 
alveon  or  prosthion;  on  the  living,  to  the  lower  border  of  the  gums  between 
the  two  upper  median  incisors.  Also  called  simply  upper  face  height. 

MOUSTERIAN.  The  Middle  Palaeolithic  culture  associated  in  western  Europe 
with  Neanderthal  man. 

MUTATION,  MUTATIVE.  An  abrupt  evolutionary  change  of  the  type  postulated 
by  DeVries. 

NAQADA.  A  Predynastic  site  in  Upper  Egypt,  from  which  a  large  cranial  series 
has  been  excavated.  See  p.  95. 


GLOSSARY  677 


Nose  breadth  X  100 

NASAL  INDEX.    ^ .    .  . 

Nose  height 

NASILI.  A  form  of  Indo-European  speech  employed  in  Asia  Minor  during  the 
Bronze  Age.  See  p.  135. 

NASIO-BREGMATIC  ARC.  The  distance,  on  the  external  surface  of  the  skull  in  a 
sagittal  line,  between  nasion  and  bregma;  the  sagittal  arc  of  the  frontal 
bone. 

NASION.     The  midpoint  on  the  naso-frontal  suture;  the  root  of  the  nose. 

NASION  DEPRESSION.  The  depression  in  the  facial  profile  below  glabella,  in  the 
region  of  nasion;  or  the  root  of  the  nose. 

NASION-MENTON  HEIGHT.  The  total  or  morphological  face  height.  See  mor- 
phological face  height. 

NASO-LABIAL  FOLDS.  The  creases  running  from  the  nasal  wings  to  the  corners 
of  the  mouth,  and  delimiting  the  area  of  the  integumental  upper  lip. 

NATUFIAN.     A  Mesolithic  culture  of  Palestine.    See  p.  61. 

NAVETA.     A  type  of  long  barrow  found  in  the  Balaeric  Islands. 

NEGROID.  One  of  the  major  divisions  of  mankind,  centered  in  the  continent  of 
Africa. 

NEOLITHIC.     See  p.  78,  1st  paragraph. 

NORDIC.  A  blond  branch  of  the  greater  Mediterranean  race,  created  by  the 
mixture  of  Corded  and  Danubian  elements,  and  divided  into  several  sub- 
types. See  p.  292.  Unfortunately  this  term  is  also  used  by  archaeologists  to 
designate  a  specific  Neolithic  cultural  complex,  without  racial  implication. 

NORDICISM.  The  misuse  of  racial  terminology  for  political  purposes,  based  on 
the  unproved  assumption  that  Nordics  are  superior  in  mental  and  moral 
attributes  to  members  of  other  races. 

NORIC.     A  blond,  Dinaricized  Nordic.    See  p.  293. 

NORMAL  PROBABILITY  CURVE.     See  bell-shaped  curve. 

NORTHWESTERN.  A  name  given  by  Deniker  to  a  blue-eyed  dark-haired  racial 
element  in  Ireland,  which  he  considered  to  be  a  segment  of  the  Atlan to- 
Mediterranean  race.  See  p.  283. 

NOSE  HEIGHT.  The  height  of  the  nose;  on  the  skull,  from  nasion  to  the  lower 
borders  of  the  piriform  opening;  on  the  living,  from  nasion  to  the  lowest 
point  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  nasal  septum,  where  it  joins  the  upper  lip. 

NURAGHE.     A  type  of  corbelled  stone  tower  of  Bronze  Age  date  found  in  Sardinia. 

OCCIPITAL.     Pertaining  to  the  occiput,  the  bone  which  extends  from  the  foramen 

magnum  to  lambda  and  which  forms  the  lower  posterior  portion  of  the 

brain  case. 
OCCIPITAL  FLATTENING.     A  vertical  flattening  of  the  occipital  bone  below  lambda; 

in  some  cases  of  hereditary  and  in  others  of  artificial  causation. 
OCCIPITAL  TORUS.     A  pronounced  ridging  of  the  superior  nuchal  line  of  the 

occiput. 

OLD  STONE  AGE.    The  Palaeolithic. 
OLOGENESIS.     An  evolutionary  theory  originated  by  Rosa  and  expounded  by 

Montandon.    See  p.  287. 


678  APPENDIX   II 


OPHYRON.     An  arbitrary  point  on  the  median  sagittal  line  of  the  frontal  bone, 

immediately  above,  and  usually  posterior  to,  glabella. 

OPISTHION.     The  midpoint  on  the  posterior  border  of  the  foramen  magnum. 
ORANIAN.     An  archaeological  culture  of  western  Algeria  and  of  Morocco,  during 

Late  Pleistocene  and  Early  Post-Pleistocene  times.   See  p.  39. 
ORBIT.     The  bony  eye  socket. 
ORIENTAL.     Deniker's  name  for  an  eastern  European  racial  type  designated  in  this 

work  as  Neo-Danubian.    See  pp.  282-283. 
ORTHOCEPHALIG.     Possessing  a  length-height  index  on  the  skull  of  74.9  or  undef ; 

on  the  living  of  62.9  or  under;  relatively  low-headed. 
ORTHOGNATHOUS.     Straight-jawed,  as  opposed  to  prognathous. 
OSTEOLOGY.     The  scientific  study  of  bones. 
OSTERDAL  TYPE.     The  classic  Iron  Age  Nordic,  as  found  today  in  the  eastern 

valleys  of  Norway. 
OSTEUROPID.     Von  Eickstedt's  name  for  the  Neo-Danubian  and  East  Baltic  racial 

entities. 

PAEDOMORPHIC.  Child-like  in  bodily  form,  a  partial  synonym  of  foetalized  and 
infantile. 

PAINTED  POTTERY.  A  widespread  type  of  Neolithic  pottery  widely  distributed  in 
Asia  and  coming  into  Europe  in  Danubian  II.  See  p.  105. 

PALAEASIATIC.  A  linguistic  term  designating  the  non-Altaic  languages  of  eastern 
Siberia.  The  word  is  also  applied  by  extension  to  speakers  of  these  lan- 
guages. 

PALAEOLITHIC.  The  age  of  chipped  stone;  chronologically  synchronous,  in  most 
if  not  all  of  the  Old  World,  with  the  Pleistocene. 

PALATAL  TORUS.  A  thickening  and  downward  projection  of  the  central,  sagittal 
line  marking  the  junction  of  the  two  sides  of  the  palate. 

PALPATION.  Feeling  with  the  finger  or  fingers  to  locate  anatomical  land- 
marks. 

PALPEBRAL  OPENING.     The  distance  between  the  eyelids  when  the  eye  is  open. 

PAPUAN.  Pertaining  to  New  Guinea — in  the  racial  sense,  a  prominent-nosed, 
fuzzy-haired,  black-skinned  Oceanic  negroid,  probably  of  composite  origin. 

PARIETAL.  The  parietal  bones,  which  lie  on  either  side  of  the  sagittal  suture  of  the 
skull,  form  the  upper  central  portion  of  the  cranial  vault. 

PASSAGE  GRAVE.     See  corridor  tomb. 

PERMIAN.     A  sub-family  of  Finno-Ugrian. 

PHALANGES.    The  bones  of  the  fingers  and  toes. 

PHRYGIANS.  An  Indo-European-speaking  people  who  invaded  Asia  Minor  from 
the  Balkans  during  the  early  part  of  the  first  millennium  B.C.  See  p.  136. 

PILASTER  (OF  FEMUR).  A  longitudinal  bony  crest  on  the  posterior  surface  of  the 
thigh  bone. 

PILE -DWELLING.  Czekanowski's  name  for  a  hypothetical  Mediterranean -Alpine 
hybrid  race.  See  p.  288. 

PILOUS.     Pertaining  to  hair. 

PIRIFORM  OPENING.     The  aperture  of  the  nasal  passages  in  the  facial  skeleton. 


GLOSSARY  679 


P-KELTIC.     The  Kymric  branch  of  the  Keltic  linguistic  family,  including  Welsh, 

Cornish,  Breton  and  all  known  Continental  forms  spoken  in  antiquity.    See 

pp.  186-187. 

PLEISTOCENE.     See  p,  1,  footnote  1;  also  p.  18,  footnote  3. 
PLUVIAL  PERIOD.     A  long  period  of  exceptional  rainfall  in  regions  remote  from 

centers  of  glaciation,  and  considered  by  some  geologists  to  have  coincided 

with  maximum  glacial  advances  elsewhere. 
POLLEN-ANALYSIS.     A  specialized  study  by  which  palaeobotanists  date  sites  or 

specimens,  especially  in  the  Baltic  Mesolithic.    See  p.  74. 
PONTIC.     A  variety  of  Mediterranean  or  Atlanto-Mediterranean,  so  named  by 

Bunak.    It  is  concentrated  in  Bulgaria  and  in  the  Rumanian  lowlands:  it 

also  is  found  in  the  Caucasus  and  Ukraine  and  westward  sporadically  as  far  as 

Germany,  Poland,  and  Lithuania. 
POOLING.     Combining  samples  for  statistical  purposes. 
POST-MORTEM  DEFORMATION.     Deformation  of  skulls  after  burial,  owing  to  earth 

pressure  or  other  causes.    See  p.  119. 

PRE -SLAVIC.     Czekanowski's  name  for  the  type  called  in  this  work  Neo-Danubian. 
PRIMATE.     The  mammalian  order  to  which  belong  lemurs,  tarsiers,  monkeys, 

apes,  and  men. 

PROBABLE  ERROR.     See  p.  246. 
PROGNATHISM.     A  forward  projection  of  the  jaws. 
PROSTHION.     See  Ale  von. 
PROTO-GEOMETRIC.     A  pottery  name  applied  to  an  archaic,  Iron  Age  cultural 

period  in  Greece. 
PSUEDO-MONGOLOID  FOLD.     A  term  coined  by  Seligman  to  designate  a  class  of 

internal  eyefold  found  among  Sudanese  negroes. 
PUBIS,  PUBIC.     The  region  of  the  pubic  symphysis,  immediately  anterior  to  the 

external  genitalia.    Pubic  hair  is  the  sex-linked  pilous  covering  of  the  genital 

region. 

PUPIL.     The  circular  aperture  in  the  center  of  the  iris  of  varying  diameter,  de- 
pending on  the  brightness  of  the  light  to  which  the  eye  is  exposed. 
PUSHTU.     A  division  of  the  Iranian  branch  of  Satem  Indo-European  speech, 

spoken  mostly  in  eastern  Iran,  in  Afghanistan  and  in  northwestern  India. 
PYGMY.     The  negrito  group,  from  the  Congo  to  New  Guinea,  presumably  one 

of  the  major  racial  divisions  of  mankind. 
PYKNIC.     The  first  component  designated  by  students  of  constitutional  types; 

round,  broad  in  proportion  to  length,  possessing  of  a  small  surface  in  relation- 
ship to  total  bulk. 

Q-KELTIC.     The  Goidelic  branch  of  the  Keltic  linguistic  group,  including  Irish 

and  Scots  Gaelic  and  Manx.   See  pp.  186-187. 
QUERN.     A  hand  mill  for  grinding  grain. 

RACE.     See  pp.  3  seq. 

RACIOLOGIST.     A  student  of  race,  sometimes  used  in  the  political  sense. 

RADIUS.     The  rotating  long  bone  of  the  lower  arm. 


680  APPENDIX   II 


RECENT.     Post-Pleistocene,  post-glacial  time. 

RECOMBINATION.  The  genetic  union  of  traits  originally  associated  with  diverse 
parental  stocks. 

REDUCED  TYPE.  A  racial  type  which  has  grown  smaller  than  its  ancestral  proto- 
type and  has  consequently  changed  in  certain  proportions  as  a  result  of  this 
size  reduction. 

REEMERGENCE.  The  reappearance  of  an  older  racial  entity  through  the  vehicle 
of  a  mixed  population  by  the  mechanism  of  differential  selection. 

REIHENGRABER.  Early  Germanic  cemeteries,  of  pre-Christian  times.  Also  a 
term  applied  to  the  Germanic  form  of  Nordic  skull  associated  with 
them. 

Biacromial  diameter  X  100 


RELATIVE  SHOULDER  BREADTH. 


Stature 


_  Sitting  height  X  100     _,          .       r   .    .       ... 

RELATIVE  SITTING  HEIGHT.     ^ — •    The  ratio  of  sitting  height  to 

Stature 

stature. 

Span  X  100     _.          .      , 

RELATIVE  SPAN,     -~ •    The  ratio  of  span  to  stature. 

Stature  r 

RETINA.  The  posterior  surface  of  the  main  eye  chamber,  sensitized  for  the  recep- 
tion of  images  cast  upon  it  by  the  lens. 

ROMANSGH.  The  Rhae to-Roman  languages  of  the  Bunder  Oberland  in  the  canton 
of  Grisons  Switzerland. 

ROUND  BARROW.  A  tumulus  erected  over  a  simple  grave.  This  was  the  charac- 
teristic burial  type  in  Bronze  Age  Britain.  See  p.  159. 

RUFUS,  RUFOSITY.     Red-haired. 

SAMPLE,  SAMPLING.     In  statistical  parlance,  the  random  selection  of  a  part  of  a 

population  to  represent  the  whole. 
SATEM.     One  of  the  two  primary  divisions  of  the  Indo-European  linguistic  stock, 

based  on  the  consonantal  shift  from  K  to  S. 
SCAPULA.    The  shoulder  blade. 
SCHWEINHIRTENKULTUR.     See  Swineherds. 
SEBILIAN.     A  Mesolithic  culture  of  Upper  Egypt.    See  p.  92. 
SEMITIC.     A  linguistic  stock  including  Hebrew,  Babylonian,  Arabic,  Ethiopic, 

among  other  languages. 

SHOE-LAST  CELT.     A  flint  hoe-blade  used  by  the  Neolithic  Danubians. 
SHORT  CIST.     A  Bronze  Age  burial  vault  of  Ireland  and  Scotland. 
SIGMOID  NOTCH.     The  curved  upper  surface  of  the  ascending  ramus  of  the  man- 
dible between  the  coronoid  process  and  the  condyle. 
SITTING  HEIGHT.    The  height  of  the  human  body  from  chair  to  vertex,  taken  while 

the  subject  is  sitting  erect. 
SOLUTREAN.     The  second  of  the  three  cultural  periods  of  the  Upper  Palaeolithic 

in  western  and  central  Europe. 
SOMATIC.     When  used  by  students  of  constitutional  types,  this  word  indicates 

their  second  component,  the  "athletic,"  or  thick-set,  heavily  muscled,  square; 

otherwise  simply  "pertaining  to  the  body." 


GLOSSARY  681 

SPAN.     The  distance  between  the  two  middle  finger  tips  when  the  arms  are 

stretched  in  opposite  directions;  maximum  arm  stretch. 

SPHINCTERS.     Concentric  "puckering"  muscles,  as  in  the  iris  and  around  the  anus. 
STANDARD  DEVIATION.     See  p.  246. 
SUB-ATLANTIC.     The  latest  of  the  post-glacial  climatic  periods  of  northwestern 

Europe,  beginning  about  500  B.C.     We  are  still  in  it. 
SUB-BOREAL.     The  warm,  dry  climatic  period  in  northwestern  Europe  which 

lasted  from  approximately  2500  to  500  B.C. 
SUB-BRACHYCEPHALIC.     Possessing  a  cephalic  index  of  80.0  to  82.0;  moderately 

round-headed. 
SUB-NORDIC.     Deniker's  name  for  a  racial  group  which  would  fall  partly  in  the 

East  Baltic  and  partly  in  the  Neo-Danubian  categories  of  the  present  book. 

See  p.  283. 
SUPERCILIARY.     The  superciliary  region  is  the  browridge  area,  literally  the  region 

above  the  eyelids. 
SUPRAMASTOID  RIDGES.     Bony  crests  above  the  mastoids,  usually  on  the  temporal 

bones  alone,  but  extending  in  some  cases  onto  the  parietals. 
SUPRAORBITAL  REGION.     The  area  of  the  frontal  bone  immediately  above  the 

orbits. 

SUPRAORBITAL  TORUS.     An  exaggerated  form  of  browridge  in  which  the  promi- 
nence is  continuous. 
SWINEHERDS.     A  word  used  by  Menghin  to  designate  the  Neolithic  invaders  who 

presumably  entered  western  Europe  by  way  of  North  Africa  and  Spain. 
SYMPHYSIAL  HEIGHT  (OF  MANDIBLE).     The  depth  of  the  mandible  from  the  point 

between  the  two  lower  median  incisors  to  men  ton. 

TACHE  NOIRE.  An  area  of  low  stature,  supposedly  due  to  malnutrition,  or  to 
environmental  causes  in  general. 

TALAYOT.  A  type  of  corbelled  stone  tower,  of  Bronze  Age  date,  found  in  the 
Balearic  Islands. 

TANGED  POINT.  A  flint  point  tanged  for  hafting;  found  in  the  Aterian  of  North 
Africa  and  in  some  of  the  Epipalaeolithic  cultures  of  northwestern  Europe. 

TARDENOISIAN.  A  microlithic  culture  of  the  European  Mesolithic,  of  North 
African  or  Asiatic  inspiration,  or  derived  from  both  sources. 

TASIAN.     An  early  Neolithic  culture  of  Upper  Egypt.    See  p.  93. 

TAURODONTISM.  A  dental  condition  characterized  by  the  enlargement  of  the 
pulp  cavities. 

TAXONOMY.     Zoological  classification  into  species,  genera,  etc. 

TEMPORAL.  One  of  the  paired  bones  of  the  side  of  the  skull  which  contains  the 
auditory  mechanism  and  includes  the  mastoid  process  and  the  posterior  seg- 
ment of  the  zygomatic  arch. 

TEMPORAL  MUSCLE.  The  muscle  which  passes  from  the  coronoid  process  of  the 
mandible  under  the  zygomatic  arch  to  its  area  of  attachment  on  the  frontal, 
temporal  and  parietal  bones. 

TERP.  A  habitation  mound  built  on  seasonally  flooded  ground  in  the  Nether- 
lands in  the  days  before  the  dykes  were  erected. 


682  APPENDIX  II 


TERREMARE.     A  type  of  moated  village  built  in  northeastern  Italy  during  the  Late 

Bronze  Age. 

TEUTONIC.     Ripley's  word  to  designate  the  Nordic  race. 
TEUTO-NQRDIC.     Paudler's  name  for  the  Germanic-Nordic  type.   See  p.  285. 
TIBIA.     The  inner  and  thicker  of  the  two  long  bones  of  the  lower  leg. 
TOKHARIAN  B.     An  extinct  Centum   Indo-European  language  spoken  in  the 

early  centuries  of  the  present  era  in  Chinese  Turkestan. 

TORUS.     One  of  the  several  bony  ridges  or  crests  which  may  occur  on  the  cranium. 
TOTAL  FACE  HEIGHT.     See  morphological  face  height. 
TRAGION.     A  point  on  the  upper  side  of  the  fleshy  projection,  called  tragus,  which 

lies  immediately  in  front  of  the  ear  hole.  This  point  is  used  as  a  landmark  for 

taking  auricular  head  height  on  the  living. 
TRANSVERSE  CIRCUMFERENCE.     The  circumference  of  the  skull  across  the  two 

porions  (ear  holes)  and  bregma. 

TREPHINE.     To  remove  a  portion  of  the  skull-vault  surgically. 
TR0NDELAGEN  TYPE,  TR0NDER  TYPE,     A  variety  of  Nordic  with  an  excessive 

Corded  element  and  Upper  Palaeolithic  mixture. 
TUMULUS,  TUMULUS.     A  burial  mound.   In  the  late  Bronze  Age  of  central  Europe 

there  was  a  specific  Tumulus  culture. 
TUNGUSIC.     A  mesocephalic  mongolid  racial  type  common  among  the  living 

Tungus  and  the  historic  Huns. 
TURANID.     Von  Eickstedt's  name  for  a  hybrid  mongoloid- white  racial  type  found 

commonly  among  certain  Turkish-speaking  peoples  of  central  Asia. 
TYMPANIC  PLATE.     That  portion  of  the  temporal  bone  which  forms  the  anterior 

border  of  the  auditory  opening,  or  bony  ear  hole. 

ULNA.     The  non-rotating  long  bone  of  the  lower  arm. 

UPPER  FACE  HEIGHT.  On  the  skull,  the  distance  from  nasion  to  alveon;  on  the 
living,  the  distance  from  nasion  to  the  lowest  point  on  the  gums  between  the 
two  upper  median  incisors,  corresponding  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the 
measurement  on  the  skull. 

TT  Upper  face  height  X  100    TT     ,  ,     ,          .  .  , 

UPPER  FACIAL  INDEX.  — rr    _. %~. Used  both  on  the  cranium  and 

Bizygomatic 

on  the  living. 

URAL-ALTAIC.     A  term  designating  the  two  linguistic  stocks  Uralic  and  Altaic. 

URALIC.  A  linguistic  stock  including  Samoyedic  and  Finno-Ugrian.  For  the 
divisions  of  Finno-Ugrian,  see  p.  339. 

URNFIELDS.  A  group  of  Late  Bronze  Age  cultures  in  central  Europe,  charac- 
terized by  cremation. 

VASCULARITY.     Redness  of  the  skin,  especially  when  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air. 
VEDDOID.     The  racial  group  to  which  the  Vedda  of  Ceylon,  the  Toala  of  the 

Celebes,  the  Shorn  Pen  of  the  Nicobars,  etc.,  belong;  presumably  one  of  the 

major  racial  divisions  of  mankind. 

VERTEX.     The  highest  point  on  a  skull  when  held  in  the  eye-ear  plane. 
VILLANOVA.    An  Iron  Age  culture  of  northern  Italy. 


GLOSSARY  683 


VISTULAN.     Deniker's  name  for  a  supposed  sub-variety  of  the  Oriental  or  Neo- 

Danubian  racial  group.   See  p.  283. 
VQLKERWANDERUNG.    The  main  period  of  Germanic  migrations. 

WILTON   A.     A  Mesolithic   culture   of  East  Africa,   associated  with  ancestral 

Bushmen. 
WINDMILL  HILL.     A  Neolithic  pottery  culture  of  England,  supposedly  of  North 

African  inspiration.    See  p.  110. 
WURM.     The  last  of  the  four  Pleistocene  glacial  advances,  now  divided  into  Wurm 

I  and  Wurm  II,  with  the  Laufen  interglacial  between. 

ZONED  BEAKER.  A  late  Beaker  pottery  form  which  shows  Corded  influence  in 
decoration. 

ZYGOMATIC  ARCH.  The  bony  arch,  formed  of  portions  of  the  malar  and  temporal 
bones,  which  encloses  the  temporal  muscles  and  serves  as  the  upper  attach- 
ment of  the  masseter. 


Appendix  III 
LIST  OF  SERIALS  AND  THEIR  ABBREVIATIONS 

Note:  Every  title  of  more  than  one  word  has  been  abbreviated.  Single  word  titles 
such  as  "Biometrika"  and  "Man"  have  been  spelled  out.  Capitals  refer  to  initial  letters 
of  words,  or  of  sections  of  words  in  German,  i.e.,  RK  is  equivalent  to  "Rassenkunde." 
The  use  of  the  lower  case  refers  to  consecutive  letters  within  words.  Standard  abbrevia- 
tions have  been  followed  when  possible. 

Abbreviations  Serials 

AA  American  Anthropologist,  Menasha,  Wis.,  etc. 

AAM  Anthropologischer  Ausstellung,  Moskau. 

AAnz  Anthropologischer  Anzeiger,  Stuttgart. 

AAPP  Annaes  scientificos  de  Academia  Polytechnica  do  Porto,  Oporto. 

AASF  Annales  Academiae  Scientiarum  Fennicae  (Toimituksia  Suomen 

tiedeakatemia),  Helsingfors. 
AAW  Anzeiger  der  Akademie   der   Wissenschaften,   Vienna.   Philoso- 

phisch-historische  Klasse. 
ACAP  Acts  of  the  15th  International  Congress  of  Anthropology  and 

Prehistoric  Archaeology,   Coimbre,   Porto  and  Lisbon,   1930. 

(Published  in  Paris,  1931.) 
ACIA  Actes  du   congr£s  de   PInstitut    International   d'Anthropologie. 

lime  Session,  Prague,  1924.   Illme  Session,  Amsterdam,  1927. 

(Published  in  Paris.) 

AE  Annals  of  Eugenics,  London. 

AEPC  Asociacion  Espanola  para  el  progreso  de  las  ciencias. 

AF  Antropol6giai  fiizetek,  Budapest. 

AFA  Archiv  fur  Anthropologie,  Brunswick. 

AFSA  Anzeiger  fur  schweizerische  Alter tumskunde,  Zurich. 

AG  Annales  de  Geographic,  Paris. 

AH  Archaeologia  Hungarica,  Budapest. 

AIPH  Archives  de  1'Institut  de  Pal6ontologie  Humaine,  Paris. 

AJA  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  Concord,  N.  H. 

AJKS  Archiv  der  Julius  Klaus-Stiftung  fur  Vererbungsforschung,  Sozial- 

anthropologie,  und  Rassenhygiene,  Zurich. 

AJPA  American  Journal  of  Physical  Anthropology,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

AJSL  American  Journal  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literatures,  Chicago, 

111. 
AMFM  Anthropological    Memoirs    of   the    Field    Museum   of  Natural 

History,  Chicago,  111. 
AMSE  Actas  y  Memorias  de  la  Sociedad  Espanola  de  Antropologia, 

Etnografia,  y  Prehistoria,  Madrid. 
684 


LIST  OF   SERIALS   AND  THEIR  ABBREVIATIONS 


685 


AMSL  Archives  des  Missions  Scientifiques  et  Litteraires,  Paris. 

ANAW  Archiwum  Nauk  Antropologicznych.      Towarzystwo  naukowe 

warszawskie,  Warsaw. 

ANOH  Aarbjzfger  for  Nordisk  Oldkyndighed  og  Historic,  Copenhagen. 

Anth  L'Anthropologie,  Paris.  (1890-;  formerly  Revue  d'Ethnographie, 

Revue  d?  Anthropologie  RDAP;  and  Materiaux  pour  Phistoire 

de  PHomme.) 

AnthPr  Anthropologie,  Prague. 

Anthropos          Anthropos,  Vienna. 
Antiquity  Antiquity,  Southampton,  England. 

AntrK  Antropologiia,  Kiev. 

AntrM  Antropolozhifa,  Moscow. 

ANYA  Annals  of  the  New  York  Academy  of  Sciences,  N.  Y. 

APA  Archivio  per  Fantropologia  e  la  etnologia,  Florence. 

APAM  Anthropological  Papers  of  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 

History,  N.  Y. 
APAW  Abhandlungen  der  Preussische  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften, 

Berlin.    Philosophisch-historische  Klasse. 
APL  Archivo  de  Prehistoria  Levantina,  Valencia. 

APSL  Academic  Polonaise  des  Sciences  et  des  Lettres,  Krakow.    (The 

Bulletin  of  this  Society  is  BAPS.) 
AR  Anthropological  Review,  London. 

ARAL  Atti  Regia  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  Rome. 

ARBS  Annual  Report  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  London. 

Archaeologia      Archaeologia,  Copenhagen. 
ARGB  Archiv    fur    Rassen-    und    Gesellschaftsbiologie,    einschliesslich 

Rassen-  und  Gesellschafts-hygiene,  Berlin  and  Munich. 
ARSI  Annual  Reports  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Washington,  D.  C. 

(The  Miscellaneous  Collections  of  this  Institution  are  MCSI.) 
ASAG  Archives  suisses  d'anthropologie  g6n£rale,  Geneva. 

ASE  Actas  de  la  Sociedad  Espanola  de  Historia  Natural,  Madrid. 

ASRA  Atti  della  societa  Romana  di  antropologia,  Rome. 

ATNL  Archiwum  Towarzystwa  Naukowego  we  Lwowie,  Lemberg. 

ATS  Antiqvarisk  Tidskrift  for  Sverige,  Stockholm. 

AZM  Antropologicheskif  Zhurnal,  Moscow. 

BAG  Bulled  de  l'Associaci6  catalana  d'antropologia,  etnologia  i  pre- 

historia,  Barcelona. 
BAPS  Bulletin  de  PAcad6mie  Polonaise  des  Sciences  et  des  Lettres, 

Krakow. 
BASP  Bulletin  of  the  American  School  of  Prehistoric  Research,  Old 

Lyme,  Conn. 

BAUB  Beitrage  zur  Anthropologie  und  Urgeschichte  Bayerns,  Munich. 

BBMF  Bulletin  of  the  Boston  Museum  of  Fine  Arts,  Boston. 

BGSC  Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society  of  China,  Peiping. 

BIKB  Bericht  des  Internationalen  Kongresses  fur  Bevolkerungs-wissen- 

schaft,  Berlin,  1935.    (Published  in  Munich,  1936.) 


686 


APPENDIX  III 


Biometrika          Biometrika,  London. 

BIPH  Bulletin  et  Archives  de  PInstitut  de  Pal6ontologie  Humaine,  Paris. 

BJ  Biochemical  Journal,  Liverpool  and  Cambridge. 

BMSA  Bulletin  et  rne'moires  de  la  Societe"  d'anthropologie  de  Paris,  Paris. 

BNAV  Bijblad  der  Nederlandsche  anthropologidsche  Vereeniging,  Leiden. 

BRAH  Boletin  de  la  Real  Academia  de  la  Historia,  Madrid. 

BRGK  Bericht  der  romisch-germanish  Kommission,  Leipzig  and  Berlin. 

BRSG  Boletin  de  la  Real  Sociedad  Geografica  de  Madrid,  Madrid. 

BSAB  Bulletin  de  la  Societe"  d'anthropologie  de  Bruxelles,  Brussels. 

BSAL  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6te*  d'Anthropologie  de  Lyon,  Lyons. 

BSAP  Bulletin  de  la  Soci£te*  d'Anthropologie  de  Paris,  Paris. 

BSGA  Bulletin  der  Schweizerischen  Gesellschaft  fur  Anthropologie  und 

Ethnologic,  Bern. 

BSPF  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  pr6historique  Franchise,  Paris. 

BSRB  Bulletin  de  la  Soci£t£  royale  beige  de  geographic,  Brussels. 

BSRS  Buletinul,  Societatea  roma'na  de  sciinte  din  Bucurescf,  Bucharest. 

BSSM  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  Scientifique  et  M6dicale  de  1'Ouest,  Rennes. 

BTTK  Belleten  Turk  Tarih  Kurumu,  Ankara. 

BUMP  Bulletin  of  the  University  Museum,  University  of  Pennsylvania, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

BZB  Biochemische  Zeitschrift,  Berlin 

BZL  Biologisches  Zentralblatt,  Leipzig. 

CEAP  Contribui'Qoes  para  o  Estudo  da  Antropologia  Portuguesa, 

Universidad  de  Coimbra,  Coimbra. 

CIPP  Comitato  Italiano  per  lo  studio  dei  problemi  della  popolazione, 

Rome. 

CL  fiesky  Lid,  Prague. 

COIG  Communications  of  the  Oriental  Institute  of  Chicago  University, 

Chicago,  111.  (The  Publications  of  this  Institute  are  POIC.) 

CRAS  Comptes-rendus  des  S6ances  de  I' Academic  des  Sciences,  Paris. 

CRCA  Compte-rendu,  Session  du  Congr£s  International  d'Anthro- 

pologie et  d'Arch6ologie  Pr6historique,  8me  session,  Budapest, 
1876;  lime  session,  Moscow,  1892;  14me  session,  Geneva,  1912. 

CRIC  Compte-rendu,  International  Congress  of  Anthropological  and 

Ethnological  Sciences,  London,  1934. 

CRSB  Comptes-rendus  des  Stances  de  la  Socie"te*  de  Biologic,  Paris. 

DESM  Dictionnaire  Encyclop6dique  des  sciences  medicales,  Paris. 

DGT  Dansk  Geografisk  Tidsskrift,  Copenhagen. 

Dolgozatok  Dolgozatok,  Szeged.  Tudomdnyegyetem.  Archaeologiai  int6- 
zet6bol,  Budapest. 

DRK  Deutsche  Rassenkunde,  Jena. 

EA  Eesti  Arst,  Tartu. 

ESA  Eurasia  Septentrionalis  Antiqua,  Helsingfors. 

Ethnographic     L'Ethnographie,  Paris. 

Ethnolog  Ethnolog,  Ljubljana. 

Fennia  Fennia,  Helsingfors, 


LIST  OF  SERIALS   AND  THEIR  ABBREVIATIONS 


687 


FKVA  Fornvannen,  Kungliga  Vitterhets  historic  oche  antiqvitets  aka- 

demien,  Stockholm. 

FUL  Forhandlingar,  Uppsala  Lakarefdrening,  Uppsala. 

FVO  Forhandlinger,    Videnskabsselskab    i    Oslo,    Mat.-Nat.    Klasse, 

Oslo  (formerly  Kristiana). 
Globus  Globus,  Brunswick. 

GM  The  Geographical  Magazine,  London. 

GR  The  Geographical  Review,  New  York. 

GT  Geografisk  Tidsskrift,  Copenhagen. 

HAS  Harvard  African  Studies,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

HB  Human  Biology,  Baltimore. 

Hesperis  Hesperis,  Paris. 

HKSV  Handlingar  Kungliga  Svenska  Vetenskapsakademiens,  Stockholm. 

Homme  L'homme,  Journal  Illustr6  des  Sciences  Anthropologiques,  Paris. 

HTR  Henderson  Trust  Reports,  Edinburgh. 

IILE  Izvestiia  Imperatorskago  Obshchestvo  liuvitelef  estestvoznaniia, 

antropologi'i,  i  etnografii,  Moscow. 
INJ  Irish  Naturalists'  Journal,  Belfast. 

ITL  Izdanifa  Tashkentskago  Obshchestvo  dlia  izucheniia  Tadzhikis- 

tana  i  iranskikh  narodnostet  za  ego  predelami,  Tashkent. 
JA  Journal  of  Anatomy,  London. 

JAOS  Journal  of  the  American  Oriental  Society,  New  Haven. 

JAPL  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  London. 

JGAS  Journal  of  the  Galway  Archaeological  and  Historical  Society, 

Galway. 
JNVH  Jahrbuch    des    nordfriesisches    Verein    fur    Heimatkunde    und 

Heimatliebe,  Husum. 

JRAI  Journal  of  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute  of  London,  London. 

JSAI  Journal  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

JVST  Jahresschrift  fur  die  Vorgeschichte  der  Sachsisch-Thuringischen 

Lander,  Halle. 
KAWA  Koninklijk  Akademie  van  Wetenschappen,  Amsterdam.  Afdeeling 

naturkunde. 
KDGA  Korrespondenzblatt  der  Deutsche  Gesellschaft  fur  Anthropologie, 

Ethnologic,  und  Urgeschichte,  Brunswick. 
KMV  Kazanskii  Muzeinii  Vestnik,  Kazan. 

Kosmos  Kosmos,  Rozprawy  Polskiego  Towarzystwa  Przyrodnikow  imienia 

Kopernika,  Lwow. 

Language  Language,  Journal  of  the  Linguistic  Society  of  America,  Baltimore. 

LMB  Logan  Museum  Bulletin.    Beloit  College,  Beloit,  Wisconsin. 

LUA  Lunds  Universitets  Arsskrift,  Lund. 

LUR  Latvijas  Universitates  Raksti,  Riga. 

MAAA  Memoirs  of  the  American  Anthropological  Association,  Menasha, 

Wis.,  etc. 
MAAE  Materyaly      antropologiczno-archeologiczne      i      etnograficzne, 

Komisya  antropologiczna,  Akademja  umieje.tnosci,  Krakow. 


688 


APPENDIX  III 


MAGW  Mitteilungen  der  Anthropologischen  Gesellschaft  in  Wien,  Vienna. 

MAGZ  Mitteilungen  des  Antiquarischen  Gesellschaft  in  Zurich,  Zurich. 

Man  Man  (Published  by  the  Royal  Anthropological  Institute),  London. 

MannusB  Mannus-Bibliothek,  Wurzburg. 

MannusZ  Mannus,  Zeitschrift  fur  Vorgeschichte,  Wurzburg. 

MASB  Mernorie  dell'  Accademia  delle  scienze  dell'  Istituto  di  Bologna, 

Bologna. 

MASI  Memoirs  of  the  Archaeological  Survey  of  India,  Calcutta. 

MASL  Memoirs  read  before  the  Anthropological  Society,  London. 

MBM  Memoirs  of  the  Bernice  Pauahi  Bishop  Museum,  Honolulu. 

MCSI  Miscellaneous  Collections  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  Wash- 

ington, D.  C. 

MDSS  Memoires  et  documents  de  la  Soci6t6  Savoisienne  d'histoire  et 

d'archeologie,  Chambery. 

MEM  Mensch  en  Maatschappij,  Groningen. 

MKEI  Materialy  Komissia  ekspeditsionnykh  issledovanii,  Akademifa 

Nauk  SSSR,  Leningrad. 

MKIS  Materialy  Osobogo  Komissia  po  Issledovaniiu  Soiuznikh  i 

Autonomiikh  Respublik,  Akademifa  Nauk,  SSSR,  Leningrad. 

MMSC  Mitteilungen  des  K.  und  K.  Militar-Sanitats-Comites,  Vienna. 

MODA  Meddelelser  om  Danmarks  Antropologi,  Copenhagen. 

MOG  Meddelelser  om  Gr^nland,  Copenhagen. 

MOKI  Materialy  Osobyf  komitet  po  issledovaniiu  somznikh  i  avtonom- 

nykh  respublik,  Akademiia  nauk  SSSR,  Leningrad. 

MSAE  Memorias  de  la  Sociedad  Espanola  d'Antropologia,  Etnografia,  y 

Prehistoria,  Madrid. 

MSAP  M6moires  de  la  Societ6  d'Anthropologie  de  Paris,  Paris. 

MSGP  Memoires  de  la  Societe  de  Geographic,  Paris. 

MSSR  Memoriile  Sec^iuni  S^iinpfice,  Academia  RomAna*,  Bucuresti. 

NDSN  Neue  denkschriften  der  schweizerischen  naturforschende  Gesell- 

schaft, Zurich. 

NMN  Nyt  Magazin  for  Naturvidenskaberne,  Oslo. 

NMNM  N£prajzi  osztalyanak  6rtesitoje,  Magyar  nemzeti  muzeum,  Buda- 

pest. 

OFVS  Oversigt  af  forhandlingar,  Finska  Vetenskaps-Societeten,  Helsinki. 

OMM  Opisanie  Minusinskogo  Muzeia,  Minussinsk,  1900. 

PAAS  Proceedings  of  the  Anatomical  and  Anthropological  Society  of 

Aberdeen  University,  Edinburgh. 

PAn  Przeglad  Antropologiczny,  Posen. 

PAr  Przeglad  Archaeologiczny,  Posen. 

PAUB  Publications  of  the  American  University  of  Beirut.  Social  Science 

Series,  Beirut. 

PBSS  Proceedings  of  the  Bristol  Spelaeological  Society,  Bristol. 

PCAS  Proceedings  of  the  Cambridge  Antiquarian  Society,  Cambridge, 

PCZA  Proceedings  of  the  4th  Congress  of  Zoologists,  Anatomists,  and 

Histologists  of  the  USSR,  Kiev,  1930. 


LIST  OF   SERIALS  AND  THEIR  ABBREVIATIONS         689 

PGA  Proceedings  of  the  Geologists'  Association,  London. 

PICA  Proceedings  of  the  23rd  International  Congress  of  Americanists, 

New  York,  1928.   (Published  in  N.  Y.,  1930.) 
PICP  Proceedings  of  the  1st  International  Congress  of  Prehistoric  and 

Protohistoric  Sciences,  London,  1932.    (Published  in  London, 

1934.) 

PIIA  Publications  de  1'Institut  Internationale  d'Anthropologie,  Paris. 

PMP  Peabody  Museum  Papers,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

POIC  Publications  of  the  Oriental   Institute  of  Chicago  University, 

Chicago,  111. 

Portugalia          Portugalia,  Oporto. 

PPS  Proceedings  of  the  Prehistoric  Society,  Cambridge. 

PPSC  Proceedings  of  the  5th  Pacific  Science  Congress,  Toronto,  1933. 

PRAO  Protokoly,  Russkoe  antropologicheskoe  obshchestvo,  St.  Peters- 

burg. 

PR  I A  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Dublin. 

PSAS  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  Edinburgh. 

PZ  Praehistorische  Zeitschrift,  Berlin. 

QRB  Quarterly  Review  of  Biology,  Baltimore,  Md. 

QRMS  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Royal  Meteorological  Society,  London. 

RA  Revue   Anthropologique,    Paris.       (191 2-,    formerly   Revue   de 

1'Ecole  d'Anthropologie  de  Paris,  REAP.) 
RAJ  Russkiif  antropologicheskil  zhurnal,  Moscow. 

RBAA  Report  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 

London. 

RCA  Rozpravy  Cesk£  Akademie  FrantiSka  Josefa,  Prague. 

RDAP  Revue  d'Anthropologie,  Paris.    (1872-89;  continued  as  L'Anthro- 

pologie,  Anth.) 

RDAR  Ri vista  di  Antropologia,  Rome. 

Real  Reallexikon  der  Vorgeschichte,  edited  by  Max  Ebert,  15  vols., 

Berlin,  1924-32. 
REAP  Revue  de  Fficole  d'anthropologie  de  Paris.  (1891-191 1,  continued 

as  Revue  Anthropologique,  RA.) 

REHF  Revue  des  Etudes  Hongroises  et  Finno-ougriennes,  Paris. 

RP  Revue  Pr6historique,  Paris. 

RPN  Rudolf  Pochs  Nachlass,  Serie  A.  Physische  Anthropologie,  Vienna. 

RSBH  Reports  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital,  London. 

SAM  Severnaia  Aziia,  Moscow.     (Title  changed  to  Sovietskaia  Aziia.) 

SAWV  Sitzungsberichte    der    Akademie  *der    Wissenschaften,    Vienna. 

Philosophisch-historische  Klasse. 
Science  Science,  Lancaster,  Pa, 

SISK  Skrifter,  Institutet  for  Sammenlignende  Kulturforskning,  Oslo. 

Serie  B:  Skrifter. 
SKNV  Skrifter  af  det  Kongelige  Norske  Videnskabers  Selskabs,  Trond- 

heim. 
Skythika  Skythika,  Prague. 


690 


APPENDIX  III 


SM  Scientific  Monthly,  Lancaster,  Pa. 

SNVO  Skrifter  utgitt  av  det  Norske  videnskaps-akademi  i  Oslo,  I,  Mat. 

Naturv.  Klasse,  Oslo  (formerly  Kristiana). 
SPFM  Spisy    PHrodov£deck£    Fakulta    Masarykova,    Brno    Universita, 

Briinn. 
STNW  Sprawozdania  Towarzystwa  Naukowego  Warszawskiego,  Warsaw. 

(Soci6t6  des  Sciences  et  des  Lettres  de  Varsovie.) 
Swiatowit  Swiatowit,  Warsaw. 

TAM  Turk  Antropologi  Mecmuasi,  Istanbul. 

TBFG  Transactions  of  the  Buchan  Field  Club,  Peterhead,  Scotland. 

TESE  Trudy  fugozapadnyK  otdiel,   Etnograficheskii'-staustichesktf  eks- 

peditsii    v    zapadno-russkii   kral.       Gosudarstvennoe    russkoe 

geograficheskoe  obshchestvo,  Leningrad. 

TESL  Transactions  of  the  Ethnological  Society  of  London,  London. 

TIAE  Travaux  de  PInstitut  d'anatomie  et  d'embryologie,  Faculte"  de 

m6decine  de  Bucarest,  Bucharest. 
TKIP  Trudy  Komissiia  po  izuchenim  plemennogo  sostava  naseleniil, 

Rossii,  Akademiia  nauk  SSSR,  Leningrad. 

TKU  Trudy,  Kazan.  Universitet  Obshchestvo  estestvoispytalele!,  Kazan. 

TPNW  Towarzystwo  Przyjacio!  Nauk  w  Wilnie,  Vilna. 

TRSE  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  Edinburgh. 

TSPA  Trabalhos  da  Sociedade  portugu£sa  de  antropologia  e  etnologia, 

Oporto. 
TVMA  Trudy    antropologicheskoe    obshchestvo,    Voenno-meditsinskail, 

akademiia,  St.  Petersburg. 

TYNU  Transactions  of  the  Yorkshire  Naturalists'  Union,  Hull,  England. 

VGPA  Verhandlungen   der   Gesellschaft   fur   Physische   Anthropologie, 

Stuttgart. 

VMZ  Voenno-Meditsinsktf  Zhurnal,  St.  Petersburg. 

VNGZ  Vierteljahrsschrift  der  Naturforschende  Gesellschaft,  Zurich. 

VUR  Volk  und  Rasse,  Munich. 

WAnt  Wiadomos'ci  Antropologiczne,  Warsaw. 

WArc  Wiadomos'ci  Archaeologiczne,  Warsaw. 

WBKL  Wiener  Beitrage  zur  Kulturgeschichte  und  Linguistik,  Vienna. 

WMBH  Wissenschaftliche  Mitteilungen  aus  Bosnien  und  der  Herzegowina, 

Vienna. 

WPZ  Wiener  Prahistorische  Zeitschrift,  Vienna. 

Ymer  Ymer,  Stockholm. 

ZBFA  Zentralblatt  fur"  Anthropologie,  Brunswick. 

ZDSJ  Zeitschrift  fur  Demographic  und  Statistik  der  Jiiden,  Berlin. 

ZFAE  Zeitschrift  fur  Anatomic  und  Entwickelungsgeschichte,  Leipzig. 

ZFE  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic,  Berlin. 

ZFKL  Zeitschrift  fur  Konstitutionslehre.   Munich,  Berlin,  etc. 

ZFMA  Zeitschrift  fur  Morphologic  und  Anthropologie,  Stuttgart. 

ZFRK  Zeitschrift  fur  Rassenkunde,  Berlin  and  Leipzig. 

ZFRP  Zeitschrift  fur  Rassenphysiologie,  Munich. 


LIST  OF  SERIALS  AND  THEIR  ABBREVIATIONS         691 

ZGTK  Zhurnal  geologo-geografkhnogo  tsiklu,  Kiev. 

ZIGO  Zapiski  Imperatorskago  russkoe  Geograficheskoe  Obshchestvo,  po 

otdieleniui  statistiki,  St.  Petersburg. 
ZRGO  Zapiski  Otdielenie  statistiki,  Etnograficheskit-statistchesktf  ekspe- 

ditsit  v  zapadno-russkiK  krat  Gosudarstvennoe  russkoe  geogra- 

ficheskoe  obshchestvo,  Leningrad. 
ZVAK  Zapiski  Vseukrai'ns'kiK  arkheologichnilf  Komitet,   Vseukrains'ka 

akademiia  nauk,  Kiev. 
ZWAK  Zbior  wiadomos'ci   do   antropologii   krakowej,  Komisya  antro- 

pologiczna,  Akademija  umiejetno^ci,  Krakow. 


Appendix  IV 
LIST  OF  BOOKS 

AICHEL,  OTTO,  Der  deutsche  Mensch,  Jena,  1933. 

AMAT,  C.,  Le  Mzab  et  les  Mzabites,  Paris,  1886. 

AMMON,  O.,  Anthropologische  Untersuchungen  der  Wehrpflichtigen  in  Baden, 

Hamburg,  1890. 
ANONYMOUS,  Anthropometric  Data  from  Baluchistan,  Ethnographic  Survey  of 

India,  Calcutta,  1908. 

ARANZADI,  T.  DE,  El  Pueblo  Euskalduna,  San  Sebastian,  1889. 
— ,  and  BOSCH  GIMPERA,  P.,  Excavacio  de  Sepulcres  Megalitics,  Barcelona,  1920. 

BARONOV,  S.  F.,  BUKE!KHAN,  A.  N.,  and  RUDENKO,  S.  I.,  Kazaki.    Anthropolo- 

gicheskie  ocherki.    MKIS,  Vip.  3,  Leningrad,  1927. 
BARONS,  S.  W.,  A  Social  and  Religious  History  of  the  Jewish  People,  New  York, 

1937. 

BATES,  O.,  The  Eastern  Libyans,  London,  1914. 

BAUR,  E.,  FISCHER,  E.,  and  LENZ,  F.,  Human  Heredity,  New  York,  1931. 
BAXTER,  J.  H.,  Statistics,  Medical  and  Anthropological,  U.  S.  Army,  Washington, 

D.  C.,  1875.    2  vols. 

BEDDOE,  J.,  The  Races  of  Britain,  Condon,  1885. 
— ,  The  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  Bristol,  1887. 
— ,  On  the  North  Settlements  of  West  Saxons,  London,  1895. 
BELLOWS,  H.  A.,  Poetic  Edda.    American  Scandinavian  Foundation,  New  York, 

1936.     (Translation.) 

BENHAZERA,  M.,  Six  Mois  chez  les  Touareg  du  Ahaggar,  Alger,  1908. 
BENT,  T.  J.,  The  Sacred  City  of  the  Ethiopians,  London,  1893. 
BERTHOLON,  L.,  and  CHANTRE,  E.,  Recherches  Anthropologiques  dans  la  BeYberie 

Orientale,  Lyons,  1913. 

BOAS,  F.,  Materials  for  the  Study  of  Inheritance  in  Man,  New  York,  1928. 
BOB,  J.,  and  NUMMEDAL,  A.,  Le  Finnmarkien,  SISK,  Serie  B,  Oslo,  1936. 
BOULE,  M.,  VALLOIS,  H.,  and  VERNEAU,  R.,  with  ARAMBOURG,  C.,  Les  Grottes 

PalSolithiques  des  Beni  Seghoual.  AIPH,  Memoire  13,  Paris,  1934.  Deuxi^me 

Par  tie,  Anthropologie. 
BOWLES,  GORDON  T.,  New  Types  of  Old  Americans  at  Harvard,  Cambridge, 

Mass.,  1932. 

— ,  Data  on  Afghanistan  and  India  (unpublished). 

BRAY,  SIR  DENIS,  Ethnographic  Survey  of  Baluchistan,  Bombay,  1913.    2  vols. 
BREIG,  A.,  Eine  anthropologische  Untersuchung  einer  schwabische  Alb,  DRK, 

vol.  13,  Jena,  1935. 

BRENNSOHN,  I.,  Zur  Anthropologie  der  Litauer,  Dorpat,  1883. 

692 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  693 


BRION,  M.,  Attila,  the  Scourge  of  God,  London,  1929. 
BRYN,  H.,  Der  nordische  Mensch,  Munich,  1929. 
— ,  Homo  Caesius.   SKNV,  #2,  Trondhjem,  1931. 

— ,  and  SCHREINER,  K,  E.,  Somatologie  der  Norweger.  SNVO,  #1,  Oslo,  1929. 
BUNAK,  V.  V.,  Crania  Armenica,  Moscow,  1927. 

BUXTON,  L.  H.  D.,  Appendix  on  the  Human  Remains  Excavated  at  Kish,  in 
Langdon,  S.,  Excavations  at  Kish,  I,  Paris,  1924,  pp.  115-125. 

CAMERON,  JOHN,  The  Skeleton  of  British  Neolithic  Man,  London,  1 934. 

CASTRO,  L.  de,  Nella  Terra  dei  Negus,  Milan,  1915. 

CHANTRE,  E.,  Recherchcs  Anthropologiques  dans  1'Asie  Occidentale,  Lyons,  1895. 

— ,  Recherches  Anthropologiques  dans  FAfrique  Orientale,  Egypte,  Lyons,  1904. 

CHILDE,  V.  GORDON,  The  Dawn  of  European  Civilization,  London,  1925. 

— ,  The  Danube  in  Prehistory,  Oxford,  1929. 

— ,  The  Most  Ancient  East,  New  York,  1929. 

— ,  The  Bronze  Age,  Cambridge,  1930. 

— ,  New  Light  on  the  Most  Ancient  East,  London,  1935. 

— ,  The  Prehistory  of  Scotland,  London,  1 935. 

— ,  Man  Makes  Himself,  London,  1936. 

CLARKE,  J.  G.  D.,  The  Mesolithic  Age  in  Britain,  Cambridge,  1932. 

— ,  The  Mesolithic  Settlement  of  Northern  Europe,  Cambridge,  1936. 

COMAS,  JUAN,  Aportaciones  al  Estudio  de  la  Prehistoria  de  Menorca,  Madrid,  1936. 

COON,  C.  S.,  Tribes  of  the  Rif.    HAS,  vol.  9,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  1931. 

— ,  Contribution  to  the  Study  of  the  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Ethiopians  and 

Somalis,  MS. 
— ,  The  Physical  Anthropology  of  Northern  Albania,  MS. 

DAVENPORT,  C.  B.,  and  LOVE,  A.  B.,  Army  Anthropometry,  Washington,  1921. 
DAVIS,  J.  B.,  and  THURMAN,  J.,  Crania  Britannica,  London,  1865. 
DECHELETTE,  J.,  Manuel  de  1'Archaeologie  Prehistorique.     vol.   3,  Celtique  et 

Gallo-Romaine,  Paris,  1910. 
DE  GEER,  S.,  The  Kernel  Area  of  the  Nordic  Race  within  Northern  Europe,  in 

Lundborg,  L.,  and  Linders,  F.,  Racial  Character  of  the  Swedish  Nation, 

Uppsala,  1926. 

DENIKER,  J.,  The  Races  of  Man,  New  York,  1912. 

DIEBOLD,  V.,  Ein  Beitrag  zur  Anthropologie  der  Kleinrussen,  Dorpat,  1886. 
DUBNOW,  S.,  Die  neueste  Geschichte  des  judipchen  Volkes,  1789-1914,  Berlin, 

1920-1923. 

— ,  History  of  the  Jews  in  Russia  and  Poland,  Philadelphia,  1916. 
DUVEYRIER,  H.,  Les  Touareg  du  Nord,  Paris,  1864. 

ECKER,  A.,  Crania  Germaniae  meridionalis  occidentalis,  Freiburg,  1863. 
EHRICH,  R.  W.,  Appendix  in  Starr,  Richard  F.  S.,  Nuzi,  vol.  1,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

(in  preparation). 

---,  Measurements  on  Bohemians  and  Moravians  (unpublished). 
— ,  Measurements  on  Montenegrins  (unpublished). 


694  APPENDIX  IV 


EICKSTEDT,  E.  VON,  Rassenkunde  und  Rassengeschichte  der  Menschheit,  Stuttgart, 

1934. 
ELLIOT-SMITH,  SIR  G.,  Appendix  B,  in  Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  The  Stone  Age  Races  of 

Kenya,  London,  1935. 
ENGBERG,  R.  M.,  and  SHIPTON,  G.  M.,  Notes  on  the  Chalcolithic  and  Early 

Bronze  Age  Pottery  of  Megiddo.     Oriental  Institute,  Studies  in  Ancient 

Oriental  Civilization,  #10,  Chicago,  1934. 
EVANS,  SIR  A.,  Palace  of  Minos  at  Knossus,  London,  1921,  vol.  1. 

FIELD,  HENRY,  Arabs  of  Central  Iraq,  AMFM,  vol.  4,  Chicago,  1936. 

FISCHER,  E.,  Die  Rehobother  Bastards,  Jena,  1913. 

FLEURE,  H.  J.,  The  Races  of  England  and  Wales,  London,  1923. 

FOURNEL,  H.,  Les  Berbers,  Paris,  1875. 

FRANKOWSKA,  M.  z  R.,  Czazki  z  Lwowskiej  Katedry  Lacinskiej  z  XVII  i  XVIII 

w  i  Lwow,  Lemberg,  1925. 
FRASETTO,  F.,  Note  Anthropologiche  Sulla  Populazione  del  Bolognese,  Bologna, 

1932. 
FURST,   CARL   M.,   Zur  Kranologie   der   Schwedischen  Steinzcit.      HKSV,  #1, 

vol.  49,  Stockholm,  1912. 

GALLOWAY,  A.,  The  Skeletal  Remains  of  Mapungubwe,  in  Fouch£,  L.,  Mapun- 

gubwe,  Cambridge,  1937,  pp.  127-174. 
GARSON,  J.  G.,  Appendix  in  Bent,  J.  T.,  The  Sacred  City  of  the  Ethiopians,  New 

York,  1893. 
GAUTIER,  E.  F.,  Les  Siecles  Obscurs  dans  1'Histoire  du  Magbreb,  Paris,  1927. 

Sahara,  The  Great  Desert.    New  York,  1935. 
GJESSING,  R.,  Die  Kautokeinolappen.    SISK,  #25,  Oslo,  1934. 
GLODT,  H.  R.,    Melanogenesis,    1936.      Thesis   in    Peabody   Museum   Library, 

Harvard  University. 

GOBINEAU,  A.  DE,  Essai  sur  1'inegalite  des  races  humaines,  Paris,  1853-55. 
GOLLNER,  H.,  Volks-  und  Rassenkunde  der  Bevolkerung  von  Friedersdorf,  DRK, 

vol.  9,  Jena,  1932. 

GORING,  C.,  The  English  Convict,  London,  1913. 
GOROSHCHENKO,  K.,  Kurgannie  Cherepa  Minusinskago  Okruga.    OMM,  Minus- 

sinsk,  1900. 
GOULD,  B.  A.,  Investigations  in  the  Military  and  Anthropological  Statistics  of 

American  Soldiers.    Cambridge,  Mass.,  1869. 

GRAY,  J.,  and  TOCHER,  J.  F.,  The  Ethnology  of  Buchan,  Peterhead,  Scotland,  1895. 
GRAU,  R.,  Die  Questenberger,  DRK,  vol.  11,  Jena,  1934. 
GREENLEE,  R.  F,,  The  Association  and  Interrelation  of  the  Microlithic  Cultures  of 

Europe  and  Africa.    Privately  printed,  1935. 

GRUBE,  O.,  Anthropologische  Untersuchungen  an  Esten,  Dorpat,  1878. 
GSELL,  S.,  Histoire  Ancienne  de  FAfrique  du  Nord,  Paris,  1913. 
GUHA,  B.  S.,  The  Racial  Affinities  of  the  Peoples  of  India.    Census  of  India, 

vol.  1,  part  III,  Simla,  1931. 

GUNTHER,  H.,  Rassenkunde  des  deutschen  Volkes,  Munich,  1923. 
— ,  Rassenkunde  des  jiidischen  Volkes,  Munich,  1930. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  695 


HADDON,  A.  G.  and  BROWNE,  C.  R.,  The  Ethnography  of  the  Aran  Islands, 

Dublin,  1893. 

HAECKEL,  E.  H.,  Natiirliche  Schopfungsgeschichte,   7th  ed.,  1879. 
HALL,  H.  R.  H.,  and  WOOLLEY,  C.  L,,  Al-'Ubaid,  Ur  Excavations.      Vol.  1, 

Oxford,  1927. 
HANNESSON,  G.,  Korpermasse  und  Korperproportionen  der  Islander,  Reykjavik, 

1925. 

HATT,  G.,  Notes  on  Reindeer  Nomadism.    MAAA,  vol.  6,  #2,  1919. 
HAWES,  C.  H.,  and  H.  B.,  Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece.    London  and  New 

York,  1909. 
HELLICH,  B.,  Praehistoricke  lebky  v  Cechach  ze  Sbirky  Musea  Kralovstvi  Cesk6ho, 

Praha,  1899. 
HERMANN,  A.,  Die  deutschen  Bauern  des  Burgenlandes.   DRK,  vol.  15/16,  Jena, 

1937. 

HESCH,  M.,  Letten,  Litauer,  Weissrussen.    RPN,  vol.  3,  Vienna,  1933. 
HOOTON,  E.  A.,  The  Ancient  Inhabitants  of  the  Canary  Islands.    HAS,  vol.  7, 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  1925. 

— ,  Indians  of  Pecos  Pueblo,  New  Haven,  1930. 
— ,  Up  from  the  Ape,  New  York,  1931. 
— ,  The  American  Criminal,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  vol.  1,  1938. 
Houz£,  E.,  Les  indices  cephaliques  des  Flamands  et  des  Wallons,  Bruxelles,  1882. 
HRDLI&KA,   A.,  The  Natives  of  Kharga  Oasis,   Egypt.      MCSI,  vol.    59,  #1, 

Washington,  1912. 

— ,  The  Old  Americans,  Baltimore,  1925. 

— ,  The  Skeletal  Remains  of  Early  Man.   MCSI,  vol.  83,  Washington,  1930. 
HUBERT,  H.,  The  Rise  of  the  Celts,  London,  1934. 
HUGHES,  BYRON  O.,  The  Physical  Anthropology  of  Native  Born  Armenians,  1938. 

Thesis  in  Widener  Library,  Harvard  University. 
HULSE,  F.  P.,  The  Comparative  Physical  Anthropology  of  Andalusians  and  Cubans, 

1934.    Thesis  in  Widener  Library,  Harvard  University. 

JANKO,  J.,  Magyar  Typuszok,  Elso  Sorozat:  A  Balaton  Mell6keroL  Budapest,  1900. 
JOCHELSON,  W.,  Peoples  of  Asiatic  Russia,  New  York,  1928. 

KAJAVA,  Y.,  Beitrage  zur  Kenntnis  der  Rasseneigenschaften  der  Lappen  Finlands. 

*  AASF,  ser.  A,  vol.  25,  #1,  Helsingfors,  1925. 

KAPPERS,  C.  U.  A,,  The  Anthropology  of  the  Near  East,  PAUB,  no.  2,  1932. 
— ,  and  PARR,  L.  W.,  An  Introduction  to  the  Anthropology  of  the  Near  East, 

Amsterdam,  1934. 

KASTEIN,  J,,  History  and  Destiny  of  the  Jews,  New  York,  1933. 
KEITER,  F.,  Schwanzen  und  die  Schlei,  DRK,  vol.  8,  Jena,  1931. 
— -,  Russlanddeutsche  Bauern.   DRK,  vol.  12,  Jena,  1934. 
KEITH,  SIR  A.,  The  Antiquity  of  Man,  London,  1916. 
— ,  A  Report  on  the  Galilee  Skull,  in  Turville-Petre,  F.,  Researches  in  Prehistoric 

Galilee,  London,  1927. 
— ,  Report  on  the  Human  Remains,  Ur  Excavations,  vol.  1,  in  Hall,  H.  R.  H., 

and  Woolley,  C.  L.,  Al-Ubaid,  Ur  Excavations,  Oxford,  1927. 


696  APPENDIX   IV 


— ,  New  Discoveries  Relating  to  the  Antiquity  of  Man,  New  York,  1930, 

— ,  and  KROGMAN,  W.  M.,  Appendix  I,  in  Thomas,  B.,  Arabia  Felix,  New  York, 

1932. 
KENDRICK,  T.  O.,  and  HAWKES,  C.  F.  C.,  Archaeology  in  England  and  Wales, 

1914-1931.   London,  1932. 

KHANIKOFF,  N.,  M6moire  sur  P  Ethnographic  de  la  Perse.   MSGP,  Paris,  1866. 
KLENKE,  W.,  and  SGHEIDT,  W.,  Niedersachsische  Bauern.    DRK,  vol.  1,  Jena, 

1929. 

KLENKE,  W.,  Die  Deutsche  und  ihre  Nachbarvolker,  Munich,  1929. 
KOSSINNA,  G.,  Die  Indogermanen.    MannusB,  #26,  Wurzburg,  1926. 
— ,  Ursprung  und  Verbreitung  der  Germanen.  MannusB,  #6a,  Wurzburg,  1928. 
KROGMAN,  W.  M.,  Cranial  Types  from  Alishar  Hiiyuk,  in  Osten,  H.  H.  von  der, 

The  Alishar  Hiiyuk.    POIC,  part  IV,  #30,  Chicago,  1937,  pp.  213-293. 

LAMMENS,  H.,  Islam,  Beliefs  and  Institutions,  New  York,  1926. 

LANSEL,  P.,  The  Raeto-Romans,  Chur,  1937. 

LARSEN,  C.  F.,  Om  Jaedertypen.   SNVO,  #4,  Oslo,  1900. 

LAWRENCE,  COL.  T.  E.,  The  Seven  Pillars  of  Wisdom,  New  York,  1935. 

LAUFER,  B.,  The  Reindeer  and  its  Domestication.   MAAA,  vol.  4,  #2,  1917. 

LEAKEY,  L.  S.  B.,  The  Fossil  Races  of  Kenya,  Oxford,  1935. 

— ,  The  Stone  Age  Races  of  Kenya,  London,  1935. 

— ,  Stone  Age  Africa,  Oxford,  1936. 

LE  PONTOIS,  BERNARD,  Le  Finistere  pr6historique,  ACIA,  I  lime  Session,  Amster- 
dam, 1927,  pp.  9-311. 

LIVI,  R.,  Antropometria  Militare,  Rome,  1896.   2  vols. 

LORIMER,  D.  L.,  The  Burushaski  Language.    SISK,  Oslo,  1935. 

LUNDBORG,  H.,  and  LINDERS,  F.  J.,  The  Racial  Character  of  the  Swedish  Nation, 
Uppsala  and  Stockholm,  1926. 

LUSCHAN,  F.  VON,  and  PETERSEN,  E.,  Reisen  in  Lykien,  Milyas,  und  Kibyratis. 
Vienna,  1889. 

LUSCHAN,  F.  VON,  Uber  eine  Schadelsammlung  von  den  Canarischen  Inseln,  in 
Meyer,  H.,  Die  Insel  Teneriffe,  Leipzig,  1896. 

MACCURDY,  G.  G.,  Human  Origins,  New  York,  1924.   2  vols. 

MALES,  B.,  Antropoloska  Ispitivanja,  Belgrad,  1932. 

MARGOLIS,  M.,  and  MARX,  A.,  History  of  the  Jewish  People,  Philadelphia,  1927. 

MARETT,  J.  R.  DE  LA  H.,  Race,  Sex,  and  Environment,  London,  1936. 

MARMOL  CARAVAIAL,  LUYS  DEL,  Descripcion  de  Affrica,  Granada,  1573. 

MARTIN,  C.  P.,  Prehistoric  Man  in  Ireland,  London,  1935. 

MARTIN,  R.,  Lehrbuch  der  Anthropologie,  2nd  ed.,  Jena,  1928.    3  vols. 

MASPERO,  G.,  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations,  London,  1896. 

MATIEOKA,  J.,  Crania  Bohemica,  Prague,  1891. 

McGovERN,  WM.  M.,  The  Early  Empires  of  Central  Asia,  Chapel  Hill,  North 

Carolina,  1939. 

MEILLET,  A.,  and  COHEN,  M.,  Les  Langues  du  Monde,  Paris,  1924. 
MENDES-CORREA,  A.  A.,  Os  Povos  Primitives  da  Lusitania,  Oporto,  1924. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  697 


MENGHIN,  O.,  Weltgeschichte  der  Steinzeit,  Vienna,  1931. 

MERKENSGHLAGER,  F.,  Zur  Volks-  und  Rassenkunde  des  Spreewaldes,  Cottbus, 
1933. 

MEYER,  H.,  Die  Insel  Teneriffe,  Leipzig,  1896. 

— ,  Uber  die  Urbewohner  der  Canarischen  Inseln,  in  Adolf  Bastians  Festschrift. 

MINNS,  E.  H.,  Scythians  and  Greeks,  London,  1913. 

MOLLISON,  T.,  Some  Human  Remains  Found  in  the  North  Kurgan  at  Anau,  in 
Pumpelly,  R.,  Explorations  in  Turkestan,  vol.  2.  (See  Pumpelly.) 

MONTANDON,  G.,  La  Race,  Les  Races.   Paris,  1933. 

— ,  L'Ethnie  Franchise,  Paris,  1935. 

MOSGHEN,  L.,  Crani  Romani  della  Primera  Epoca  Cristiana,  Torino,  1894. 

MULLER,  F.,  Allgemeine  Ethnographic,  2nd  ed.,  Vienna,  1879. 

MUSIL,  A.,  The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Ruwalla  Bedawin.  Oriental  Explora- 
tions and  Studies  of  the  American  Geographical  Society,  #6,  New  York, 
1928. 

MYRES,  J.  L.,  Who  Were  the  Greeks?  Berkeley,  1936. 

NIEDERLE,  L.,  Slovansk6  Starozitnosti,  Prague,  1925. 

NIKOLSKI,  D.  P.,  Bashkiri,  St.  Petersburg,  1899. 

NORDENSTRENG,  R.}  Origin,  Growth,  and  Racial  Components  of  the  Swedish 

Nation,  in  Lundborg,  H.,  and  Linders,  J.  F.  (see  Lundborg). 
— ,  Europas  Manneskoraser,  och  Folkslag,  3rd  ed.,  Stockholm,  1926. 
NYESSEN,  D.  J.  H.,  The  Passing  of  the  Frisians,  The  Hague,  1927. 

OBERMAIER,  H.,  Fossil  Man  in  Spain,  New  Haven,  1924. 

OESTERLEY,  W.  O.  E.,  and  ROBINSON,  T.  H.,  A  History  of  Israel,  Oxford,  1932. 
OLORIZ  Y  AquiLERA,  F.,  La  Talla  Humana  en  Espafia,  Madrid,  1896. 
OUVAROV,  A.  S.,  Archaeologie  de  la  Russie,  Moscow,  1881. 

PALLAS,  PROFESSEUR,  Voyages  du  Professeur  Pallas,  etc.,  Paris,  1772. 

PAUDLER,  F.,  Die  hellfarbigen  Rassen,  etc.,  Heidelberg,  1924. 

PENNIMAN,  T.  K.,  A  Note  on  the  Inhabitants  of  Kish  Before  the  Great  Flood,  in 

Watelin,  L.  C.,  Excavations  at  Kish,  Paris,  1934. 
PITTARD,  E.,  Les  Peuples  des  Balkans,  Geneva,  1920. 
— ,  and  REVERDIN,  L.,  £tude  de  diverses  series  de  cranes  anciens  de  la  vall£e  du 

Rh6ne  (Valais),  Neuchatel,  1899. 
POLLERA,  A.,  I  Baria  e  I  Cunama,  Roma,  1913. 
PRINCE,  J.  DYNELEY,  Materials  for  a  Sumerian  lexicon,  Leipzig,  1908. 
PUCCIONI,  N.,  Antropologia  e  Etnografia  delle  Genti  della  Somalia,  Bologna,  1931. 

2  vols. 

— ,  Antropometria  delle  Gente  della  Cyrenaica,  Florence,  1934. 
PUMPELLY,  R.,  Explorations  in  Turkestan,  Washington,  1908. 

RAINER,  F.  L,  Enqueues  Anthropologiques  dans  trois  Villages  Roumains  des 
Carpathes.  TIAE,  #1,  Bucharest,  1937, 


698  APPENDIX  IV 


RANDALL-MAC!VER,  D.,  and  WILKIN,  A.,  Libyan  Notes,  London,  1901, 

RASWAN,  C.,  Black  Tents  of  Arabia,  Boston,  1935. 

RECK,  H.,  Oldoway,  die  Schlucht  des  Urmenschen,  Leipzig,  1933. 

RETZIUS,  G.,  Crania  Suecica  Antiqua,  Stockholm,  1900. 

— ,  Finska  Kranier,  Stockholm,  1878. 

— ,  and  FURST,  G.  M.,  Anthropologia  Suecica,  Bcitrage  zur  Anthropologie  der 

Schweden,  Stockholm,  1902. 

RICHTER,  B.,  Burkhards  und  Kaustoss.    DRK,  vol.  14,  Jena,  1936. 
RIED,  H.,  Miesbacher  Bevolkerung.   DRK,  vol.  3,  Jena,  1930. 
RIPLEY,  W.  Z.,  The  Races  of  Europe,  New  York,  1899. 
ROBERTS,  C.,  Manual  of  Anthropometry,  London,  1878. 
ROCCA,  P.,  Les  Corses  devant  1' Anthropologie,  Paris,  1913. 
ROTH,  C.,  A  Short  History  of  the  Jewish  People,  London,  1936. 
RUPPIN,  A.,  The  Jew  in  the  Modern  World,  London,  1934. 
RUTIMEYER,  L.,  and  His,  W.,  Crania  Helvetica,  Basel  and  Geneva,  1864. 

SALLER,  K.,  Die  Keuperfranken.   DRK,  vol.  2,  Jena,  1930. 

— ,  Die  Fehmaraner.    DRK,  vol.  4,  Jena,  1930. 

— ,  Suderdithmarsische  Geestbevolkerung.    DRK,  vol.  7,  Jena,  1931. 

SANCHEZ  FERNANDEZ,  L.,  El  Hombre  Espanol.    AEPC,  Congreso  de  Granada, 

June  20,  1911. 

SCHACHERMEYER,  FRITZ,  EtTuskische  Friihgeschichte,  Berlin,  1929. 
SCHEIDT,  WALTER,  Die  eiszeitlichen  Schadelfunde  aus  dcr  Grossen  Ofnet-hohle 

und  vom  Kaufertsberg  bei  Nordlingen,  Munich,  1923. 
— ,  Die  Rassen  der  jiingeren  Steinzcit  in  N.  W.  Europa,  Munich,  1924. 
— ,  Alemanische  Bauern.    DRK,  vol.  6,  Jena,  1931. 
— ,  and  WRIEDE,  H.,  Die  Elbinsel  Finkenwarder,  Munich,  1927. 
SCHLAGINHAUFEN,  O.,  Die  menschlichen  Skeletrester  aus  der  Steinzeit  des  Wau- 

wilersees,  Jena,  1925. 
SCHLIEMANN,  H.,  Ilios,  City  and  Country  of  the  Trojans.   London,  1880;  Leipzig, 

1885. 

SCHREINER,  A.,  Die  Nord  Norweger.    SNVO,  no.  2,  Oslo,  1929. 
— ,  Anthropologische  Lokaluntersuchungen  in  Norge;  Valle,  Halandsdal,  und 

Eidfjord.   SNVO,  #3,  Oslo,  1929. 
— ,  Anthropologische  Lokaluntersuchungen  in  Norge;  Hellemo  (Tysfjordlappen). 

SNVO,  #1,  Oslo,  1932. 

SCHREINER,  K.  E.,  Zur  Osteologie  der  Lappen.    SISK,  Oslo,  1935. 
SCHWERZ,  Franz,  Die  Volkerschaften  der  Schweiz,  Stuttgart,  1915. 
SELIGMAN,  C.  G.,  and  B.  Z.,  Pagan  Tribes  of  the  Nilotic  Sudan,  London,  1932. 
SELTZER,  C.  C.,  The  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Mediaeval  Icelanders.  MS.  in 

Peabody  Museum,  Cambridge,  Mass.    (Unpublished.) 
— ,  The  Racial  Characteristics  of  Syrians  and  Armenians.     PMP,  vol.  13,  #3, 

1936. 

SERGI,  G.,  Crani  Preistorici  della  Sicilia,  vol.  6,  1889. 
— ,  Specie  e  varieta  umane,  Torino,  1 900. 
— ,  Crani  Antichi  della  Sardegna,  Rome,  1906. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  699 


— ,  Description  of  some  skulls  from  the  North  Kurgan,  Anau;  in  R.  Pumpelly, 

Explorations  in  Turkestan,  vol.  1,  1908. 
— ,  Europa  (L'origine  dei  popoli  europei),  Torino,  1908. 
— ,  L'Uomo,  Torino,  1911. 
- — ,  Crania  Habessinica,  Rome,  1912. 
— ,  Le  Origini  Umane,  Torino,  1913. 
— ,  The  Mediterranean  Race,  London,  1914. 
SEWELL,  R.,  and  GUHA,  B.,  Report  on  the  Bones  excavated  at  Nal.    MASI,  vol. 

35,  Calcutta,  1929,  Appendix  5,  p.  56. 

SHAPIRO,  H.  L.,  The  Heritage  of  the  Bounty,  New  York,  1936. 
— ,  Migration  and  Environment,  New  York,  1939. 
SHETELIG,  H.,  FALK,  H.,  and  GORDON,  E.,  Scandinavian  Archaeology,  Oxford, 

1937. 

SIRELIUS,  LI.  T.,  The  Genealogy  of  the  Finns,  Helsinki,  1925. 
SONNABEND,  H.,  L'Espansione  degli  Slavi.    CIPP,  ser.  1,  vol.  1,  Rome,  1931. 
SPEISER,  E.,  Mesopotamian  Origins,  London,  1930. 
STEIN,  SIR  AUREL,  Serindia,  Oxford,  1921. 

STORRS,  SIR  RONALD,  The  Memoirs  of  Sir  Ronald  Storrs,  New  York,  1937. 
STURLASON,  SNORRE,  Heimskringla,  edited  by  E.  Mousen,  Cambridge,  1932. 
SUK,  V.,  Anthropological  Notes  on  the  Peoples  of  Carpathian  Ruthenia,  Briinn, 

1932. 

TALKO-HRYNCEWICZ,  J.,  Przyczynek  do  Poznania.  Swiata  Kurhanowego  Ukrainy, 

Krakow,  1899. 

TAMAGNINI,  E.,  Os  Antiquos  Habitantes  das  Canarias,  CEAP,  vol.  12,  1933. 
TAPPEINER,  F.,  Studien  zur  Anthropologie  Tirols,  Innsbruck,  1883. 
THOMAS,  BERTRAM,  Arabia  Felix,  New  York,  1932. 
TWARJANOWITSCH,   J.    K.,    Materialien    zur   Anthropologie   der   Armenier    (in 

Russian),  St.  Petersburg,  1897. 

UJFALVY,  K.  E.  VON,  Aus  dem  westlichen  Himalaja,  Leipzig,  1884. 
— ,  Les  Aryens  au  Nord  et  au  Sud  dc  PHindou  Kouch,  Paris,  1896. 

VALLOIS,  H.,  Les  Ossements  Bretons  de  Kern6,  Toul-Bras,  et  Port  Bara.    Vannes, 

1935. 
— ,  Notes  sur  les  T£tes  Osseuses,  in  Conteneau,  G.,  and  Ghirshman,  A.,  Fouilles  de 

T6p6  Giyan.     Mus£e  du  Louvre,  D6partment  des  Antiquit£s  Orientales, 

Serie  Arch6ologique,  vol.  3,  Paris,  1935. 
VAN  DEN  BERG,  L.  W.  C.,  Le  Hadhramout  et  les  Colonies  Arabes  dans  1'Archipel 

Indien,  Batavia,  1886. 

VAVILOV,  N.,  Studies  on  the  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants,  Leningrad,  1926. 
VERNEAU,  R.,  Cinq  Ann6es  de  Sejour  aux  iles  Canaries,  Paris,  1891. 
— ,  Appendix  in  Duchesne-Fournet,  Mission  en  Ethiopie,  Paris,  1909. 
VISHNEVSKY,  B.  N.,  Antropologicheskiia  Danniia  o  Naselentf  Permskaga  Uezda, 

Perm,  1916. 


700  APPENDIX  IV 


WAEBER,  O.,  Beitr&ge  zur  Anthropologie  der  Letten,  Dorpat,  1879. 

WALDHAUER,  F.,  Zur  Anthropologie  der  Liven,  Dorpat,  1879. 

WARNER,  LANGDON,  Report  on  Skeletons  Excavated  at  Anau,  in  Pumpelly,  R., 
Explorations  in  Turkestan,  vol.  2  (see  Pumpelly). 

WEISSGERBER,  H.,  Les  Blancs  d'Afrique,  Paris,  1910. 

WENIGER,  J.,  Rassenkundliche  Untersuchungen  an  Albanern.  RPN,  serie  A,  vol.  4, 
Vienna,  1934. 

WETTSTEIN,  E.,  Zur  Anthropologie  und  Ethnographic  des  Kreises  Dissentis, 
Zurich,  1902. 

WHATMOUGH,  J.,  The  Foundations  of  Roman  Italy,  London,  1937. 

WILLIAMS,  G.  D.,  Maya  Spanish  Crosses  in  Yucatan.  PMP,  vol.  13,  #1,  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  1931. 

WISCHNITZER,  M.,  Die  Juden  in  der  Welt,  Berlin,  1935. 

WILMER,  W.  H.,  Atlas  Fundus  Oculi,  New  York,  1934. 

WILSKMAN,  L,  Tilsfstollisia  tietoja  Suomen  kansan  ruumiilisesta  "kehityksesta," 
III.  Miesten  kasvutilastoa.  Helsinki,  1922. 

WITT,  H.,  Die  Schadelform  der  Esten,  Dorpat,  1879. 

ZOLOTAREV,  D.  A.,  Etnichesktf  Sostav  Naselenia  Sev.-Zap.    Oblasti  i  KarePsko* 

ASSR,  TKIP,  Vyp.  12,  Leningrad,  1927. 
— ,  KoFskie  Lopari,  MKEI,  Vyp.  9,  Leningrad,  1928. 
— ,  Kareli  SSSR,  MKEI,  Vyp.  24,  Leningrad,  1930. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


Abercromby,  J.,  463. 

Adloff,  Paul,  22. 

Aguilo,  Juan  C.,  149. 

Aichel,  Otto,  27,  28,  50,  52,  53,  54,  74, 123. 

Alexandrova,  A.  I.,  345,  349. 

Amat,  C.,  475. 

Andree,  R.,  374. 

Andrews,  T.  H.,  396. 

Annandalc,  N.,  336. 

Anonymous,  588. 

Anserov,  N.  I.,  425. 

Anton,  M.,  150. 

Anuchin,  D.  N.,  573. 

Apostolides,  605. 

Appolinaris,  229. 

Aranzadi,   Telesforo  de,    148,   149,    152, 

493,  502. 
Arbo,  C.  O.  E.,  166,  309,  313,  314,  316, 

336. 

Aristotle,  279. 
Aruntinow,  A.,  630,  632. 
Ashley-Montagu,  M.  F.,  8,  243. 
Asmus,  R.,  219,  562. 
Atgier,  E.  A.,  513. 
Aubert,  513. 
Augusta,  K.,  562. 

Backman,  G.,  242,  362. 

Baer,  C.  E.,  von,  200. 

Bailly,  Ren6,  60. 

Baranov,  S.  F.,  579. 

Baranowska-Malewska,  Z.,  565. 

Bardenfleth,  K.  S.,  332. 

Barge,  J.  A.  J.,  531,  532. 

Barnard,  209. 

Baronas,  I.  O.,  365. 

Barons,  S.,  435. 

Barras  de  Aragon,  F,  de  las,  47,  100,  149, 

152,  153,  206,  491,  492. 
Barros  e  Cunha,  J.  G.  de,  100,  495,  496. 
Bartels,  P.,  156. 
Bartucz,  L.,  155,  156,  229,  230,  232,  233, 

234,  585,  586. 
Baschmakoff,  A.,  224. 
Basler,  A.,  164. 
Bates,  O.,  98,  463,  464. 
Batista  i  Roca,  J.  M.,  149. 
Battaglia,  R.,  148. 
Baudoin,  M.,  191. 


Baur,  E.,  5,  276. 

Bayer,  J.,  105. 

Baxter,  D.,  573. 

Beddoe,  J.,  209,  374,  377,  385,  387,  389, 

390,  392,  528,  532,  642. 
Bedot,  M.,  549. 
Bekri,  el,  463. 
Belloc,  H.,  284-85. 
Bellows,  H.  A.,  321. 
Beloded,  F.  S.,  569. 
Benhazera,  M.,  471. 
Bennett,  111. 

Benoit,  M.  F.,  472,  475,  480,  484,  643. 
Bent,  T.  J.,  448. 
Benyon,  E.  D.,  585. 
Benzengre,  B.,  582. 
Bercerot,  J.,  472. 
Berthillon,  520,  528. 

Berthoion,  L.,  98,  153,  463,  475,  476,  477. 
Biasutti,  R.,  585,  587,  588,  614. 
Bieiskii,  P.  A.,  614. 
Birket-Smith,  K.,  48. 
Black,  D.,  49. 
Bloch,  A.,  147. 
Bloxam,  G.  W.,  386,  388,  390. 
Blurnenbach,  280. 
Boas,  F.,  556,  646. 
Bochenek,  A.,  566. 
Boe,  J.,  69. 

Bogdanov,  A.  P.,  103,  125. 
Bolk,  L.,  532. 

Bonch-Osmolovskii,  G.,  69. 
Bonin,  G.  von,  30,  31,  34,  48,  117. 
Borrow,  G.,  505. 
Bosch-Gimpera,  P.,  150. 
Bouchereau,  A.,  457,  513,  516. 
Bouchet,  Dr.,  171. 
Boule,  M.,  40,  43,  44,  45,  52,  54,  60,  62, 

65,  67,  99. 
Boureau,  R.,  138. 

Bowles,  G.  T.,  9,  201,  416,  419,  420,  431. 
Bradbrooke,  W.,  386. 
Brash,  J.  C.,  209. 
Breig,  A.,  543, 
Bremer,  W.,  192. 
Brennsohn,  I.,  365. 
Breuil,  Abb6,  75. 
Brezina,  E.,  551. 
Brion,  M.,  233. 


701 


702 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


Broca,  P,,  169,  515. 

Brooks,  G.  E.  P.,  10. 

Browne,  G.  R.,  195,  377. 

Browne,  Brig.-Gen.  J.  G.,  630. 

Bruni,  E.,  147. 

Brunton,  G.,  93. 

Bryce,  T.  H.,  Ill,  211. 

Bryk,  J.,  566,  567. 

Bryn,  H.,  9,  275,  301,  302,  304,  309,  310, 

312,317,319,330,477. 
Buketkhan,  A.  N.,  579. 
Bunak,  V.  V.,  201,  234,  339,  346,  573, 

575,  617,  625. 
Burrau,  C.,  332,  334,  335. 
Buxton,  L.  H.,  88,  138,  625. 

Callander,  J.  G.,  160. 

Calori,  C.  L.,  555. 

Oameron,  J.,  148. 

Capus,  G.,  590. 

Cardoza,  F.,  495,  497. 

Carlier,  G.,  513,  517. 

Garret,  J.,  513. 

Carriere,  G.,  513,  517. 

Castro,  L.  de,  448,  450. 

Cervinka,  J.  L.,  219. 

Chadwick,  Nora  K.,  179. 

Chantre,  E.,  98,  169,  418,  421,  425,  457, 

459,  476,  477,  625,  630,  632,  641. 
Chassagne,  A.,  513. 
Childe,  V.  G.,  16,  78,  79,  92,  93,  107, 

113,  115,  125,  141,  148,  150,  155,  160, 

162,  165,  286. 

Chomiakov,  M.  N.,  347,  348. 
Chubinski,  P.  P.,  569. 
Cipriani,  L.,  408,  448. 
Claerhout,  J.,  528. 
Clarke,  J.  G.  D.,  49,  56,  67,  69,  73,  74, 

123. 

Cline,  W.  B.,  468. 
Cohen,  M.,  445. 
Cole,  Fay-Cooper,  40,  59. 
Collignon,  R.,  10,  153,  502,  503,  513,  515, 

516,  518,  519,  522. 
Comas,  J.,  148. 
Conitzer,  H.,  274. 
Coon,  C.  S.,  41,  463,  495,  597,  600. 
Cooper,  J.,  387. 
Coutil,  L.,  167. 
Craig,  J,  459. 
CrawJ.  H.,  160. 
Cripps,  L.,  390. 
Crowfoot,  J.  W.,  619,  621. 
fiucukala,  G.  J.,  605. 
Cunningham,  I.  J.,  273. 
Cvijid,  J.,  588. 


Cwirko-Godyki,  M.,  587. 

Czarnowski,  S.  J.,  103. 

Czekanowski,  J.,  249,  286,  288-89,  306, 

560,  564,  567. 
Czortkower,  S.,  168. 

Danilov,  N.  P.,  418. 

Davenport,  C.  B.,  377,  385,  556,  565,  642. 

Davies,  E.,  386. 

Davis,  J.  B.,  194. 

Debetz,  G.,  126,  168,  169,  171,  200,  219, 

224,  225,  231,  234,  238. 
Debierre,  C.,  513,  517. 
Dechelettc,  J.,  115. 
Deckert,  E.,  642. 
De  Geer,  S.,  254. 
Demianowski,  A.,  571. 
Deniker,  J.,  280,  281. 
DcPauw,  L.,  526. 
Derry,  Douglas,  94. 
Dershinsky,  J.  E.,  566. 
Derviz,  D.,  219,  573. 
Deslaers,  M.  H.,  150. 
Diebold,  V.,  571. 
Dingwall,  D.,  210. 
Dirr,  A.,  632. 
Dixon,  R.  B.,  420,  421. 
Djavakhov,  A.,  632. 
Djawachischwili,  A.,  425,  630,  632. 
Donift,  A.,  106,  199,  200,  614. 
Dos  Santos,  J.  R.  Jr.,  495,  497. 
Dow,  D.  R.,  160. 
Downes,  R.  M.,  390. 
Drontschilow,  K.,  155,  610. 
Dubnow,  S.,  435. 
DuBois,  E,,  264. 
Dubowski,  W.,  642. 
Duckworth,  W.  L.  H.,  141,  209,  264,  498, 

500,  501. 

Duncan,  J.  W.,  387. 
Dunlop,  A.,  386. 
Dupertuis,  C.  W.,  376. 
Durand  de  Gros,  J.  P.,  513,  516. 
Dus,  F.,  126. 
Duveyrier,  H.,  471. 
Dzhavakhov,  A.  N.,  641. 

Ecker,  A.,  211. 

Edwards,  A.  J.  H.,  Ill,  160. 

Enrich,  R.  W.,  88,  101,   105,  411,  421, 

422,  562. 

Eichholz,  E.  R.,  568. 
Eickstedt,  E.  von,  249,  286-88,  289,  386, 

391,  396,  397,  398,  635. 
Elderton,  E.  M.,  390. 
Eliseev,  A.  V.  (Elisiev,  A.),  358,  619. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


703 


El'kind,  A.,  434. 
Elliot-Smith,  Sir  G.,  23. 
Engberg,  R.  M,  138. 
Erckert,  R.  von,  425,  625,  632. 
Erikson,  E.,  632. 
Evans,  Sir  Arthur,  141. 

Falk,  H.,  202. 

Fallot,  A.,  499. 

Fawcett,  E.,  112. 

Fewkes,  V.  J.,  69,  101,  105. 

Field,  Henry,  47,  68,  86,  410,  411,  412, 

413,  418. 

Fischer,  E.,  5,  244,  264,  276,  487,  539. 
Fishberg,  M.,  443,  642,  643. 
Fisher,  R.  A.,  248. 
Fleming,  R.  M.,  386. 
Fleure,  H.  J.,  385,  386,  389,  390,  396. 
Fleury-Cuello,  E.,  212. 
Fligier,  Cl,  642. 
Flower,  W.  H.,  386. 
Folmer,  H.  C.,  531. 
Forbes,  A.,  387. 
Fouche",  L.,  25. 
Fourncl,  H.,  463. 
Fox,  A.  L.,  386,  390. 
Frankfort,  H.,  89,  90. 
Frankowska,  M.  z  R.,  565. 
Frasctto,  F.,  448,  558. 
Freire-Marecco,  B.,  386. 
Friedcnthal,  A.,  32,  167. 
Frizzi,  E.,  538,  553. 
Furst,  Carl  M.,  73,  101,  123,  138,  144, 

145,  156,  326. 

Galloway,  A.,  25. 

Galton,  E.,  388. 

Gardiner,  J.  B.,  387. 

Gardner,  B.,  605. 

Garnicr,  M.,  513. 

Garrod,  D.  A.  E.,  33,  40,  44,  61,  75. 

Garson,  J.  G.,  110,  111,  386,  388,  390, 

448. 

Caspar,  J.,  233. 
Caster,  M.,  504. 
Gaul,  J.,  ix. 
Gautier,  E.  F.,  463. 
Genna,  G.  E.,  147. 
Geyer,  E.,  163,  213,  301,  302,  303. 
Gieseler,  W.,  44,  45. 
GiPchenko,  N.  V.,  632. 
Gini,  C.,  556. 

Giuffrida-Ruggeri,  V.,  147. 
Gjessing,  R.,  301,  302,  305. 
Gladstone,  R.  J.,  264,  392. 
Glodt,  H.  R.,  273. 


Glubb,  Maj.,  411. 
Gliick,  L.,  504. 
Gobineau,  A.  de,  285. 
Gochkevitch,  169. 
Goldman,  H.,  101,  105. 
Gollner,  H.,  546. 
Golomshtok,  E.,  170. 
Gordon,  E.  V.,  202. 
Gordon,  J.  T.,  160. 
Goring,  C.,  386,  391,  393,  394. 
Goroshchenko,  K.,  169. 
Gotze,  A.,  184. 
Gotze,  Walther,  109. 
Gould,  B.  A.,  377,  385. 
Grau,  R.,  545. 
Gray,  J.,  387,  395. 
Greenlee,  R.  F.,  69. 
Greenwell,  W.,  192. 
Greenwood,  R.,  390. 
Gregor,  W.,  387. 
Greguss,  P.,  231. 
Griffiths,  G.  B.,  392. 
Grilliere,  513,  517. 
Gromov,  V.  L,  235. 
Grube,  O.,  353. 
Griinbauni,  O.  F.  F.,  386. 
Gsell,  S.,  463. 
Guha,  B.,  87,  420. 
Gunther,  H.,  289. 
Guthe,  C.,  642. 

Haberlandt,  A.,  591,  597. 

Haddon,  A.  C.,  112,  161,  377,  386. 

Haeckel,  E.  H.,  280. 

Halka,  S.,  565. 

Hamy,  E.  T.,  191,214. 

Hannesson,  G.,  323,  324,  325,  332,  334. 

Hanscn,  A.  M.,  332. 

Hansen,  Fr,  C.  C.,  10. 

Hansen,  S.,  332,  334,  336. 

'Hasluck,  M.  M.,  605,  610,  616,  622. 

Hatt,  G.,  305. 

Hauschild,  M.  W.,  207. 

Hausman,  L.  A.,  274. 

Hawes,  C.  H.,  141,  500,  517,  608. 

Hawes,  H.  B.,  141. 

Heberer,  G.,  109,  164. 

Heiberg,  P.,  332. 

Heinzel,  R.,  324. 

Helena,  Ph.,  149. 

Helena,  Th.,  149. 

Hell,  M.,  213. 

Hellich,  B.,  164,  189,  212,  560. 

Henckel,  K.  O.,  138,  211. 

d'Hercourt,  G.,  476,  478,  500. 

Hermann,  A.,  537. 


704 


INDEX   OF  AUTHORS 


Hermann,  O.,  585. 

Herodotus,  196,  198,  339,  463,  464. 

Herv6,  G.,  100,  513. 

Hesch,  M.,  360,  362,  365,  568. 

Hilaire,  G.  de  St.,  280. 

Hilden,  K.,  354,  357. 

Hillebrand,J.,  155,  166. 

Himmel,  H.,  571,  614,  643. 

Hippocrates,  198,  279. 

Hisinger-Jagerskiold,  E.,  304. 

Hoadley,  M.  F.,  372. 

Hochstetter,  F.  von,  182. 

Hofler,  M.,  538. 

Holder,  H.,  211. 

Holl,  M.,  538. 

Holter,  F.,  212. 

Hooke,  B.  G.  E.,  113,  375,  376. 

Hooton,  E.  A.,  5,  29,  41,  42,  209,  249,  287, 

321,  325,  376-77,  385,  393,  463,  485, 

486,  487,  556,  557. 
Hopwood,  A.  T.,  18,33. 
Horvath,  A.,  185. 
Houssay,  M.,  418. 
Houz£,  E.,  215,  526,  527,  528,  529. 
Hovelacque,  A.,  513. 
Howells,  W.  W.,  377. 
Hoyos  Sainz,  L.,  100,  491,  492. 
Hrdlitka,  A,  28,  377,  460,  461,  556,  565, 

573,  585,  588,  605,  643. 
Hubert,  H.,  186,  188,  203,  372. 
Huck,  M.,  539. 
Hughes,  B.  O.,  430,  625,  629. 
Hulse,  F.  S.,  493. 
Humphreys,  R.,  209. 
Hiis,  211. 
Huszar,  G.,  220. 
Huxley,  H.  M.,  439. 
Huxley,  T.H.,  111,280. 

larkho,  A.  I.  (larcho),  422,  425,  579,  633. 
Ivanovsky,  A.  L.,  200,  349,  574. 
Izzeddin,  N.,  410,  623. 

Jacob,  G.,  188. 
Jacobs,  J.,  643. 
Jacques,  V.,  150,  526. 
James,  T.  C.,  396. 
Janko,  J.,  585. 
Jankowsky,  W.,  156,  274. 
Jantschuk,  N.  A.,  365. 
Jaubert,  L.  J.,  499. 
Jelinek,  B.,  219. 
Jendyk,  R.,  200. 
Jerums,  N.,  362. 

Jochelsen,  W.,  306,  337,  348,  577,  631, 
634. 


Jordan,  J.,  88. 
Jordanes,  229. 
Joyce,  T.  A.,  414,  420,  448. 
Junge,J.,  196. 

Kajava,  Y.,  301,  302,  304,  338,  357. 

Kansu,  S.  A.,  619,  622. 

Kappers,  C.  U.  A.,  418,  421,  422,  623, 

630. 

Karpeles,  B.,  504. 
Karvonen,  J.  J.,  357. 
Kastein,  J.,  435. 
Kazantsev,  A.  L,  235. 
Keiter,  F.,  12,  537,  540,  552. 
Keith,  Sir  Arthur,  21,  26,  33,  48,  49,  53, 

62,  87,  110,  111,  171,  428. 
Kendrick,  T.,  208. 
Khaldun,  Ibn,  463. 
Khanikoff,  N.,  418. 
Kharusin,  A.  N.,  583. 
Khonuakov,  347. 
Kidder,  H.  H.,  477,  478. 
Kimball,  S.,  605. 
Kirkoff,  N.,  610. 
Klenke,  W.,  540,  546. 
Klimek,  S.,  236,  307,  448. 
Klinke,  K.,  274. 
Knobl,  G.,  552. 
Knorre,  G.  von,  354,  362. 
Koettlitz,  R.,  448. 
Kollman,  J.,  114,  211. 
Kolmogorov,  A.  J.,  358. 
Konstantinovic,  B.,  589. 
Kopernicki,  L,  218,  504,  571,  643. 
Koppers,  W.,  179. 
Korolev,  S.  R.,  583. 
Korosi,  M.,  587. 
Kossinna,   G.,   54,   55,  73,  74,   123,   180, 

286. 

Kossovitch,  N.,  443,  480,  484,  643. 
Koumaris,  J.,  144,  145,  605. 
Krasnov,  A.,  569. 
Krauss,  F.  S.,  590. 
Krecsmarik,  E.,  230. 
Krischner,  H.,  442. 
Krischner,  Mrs.  H.,  442. 
Krogman,  W.  M.,  50,  136,  428. 
Kurdov,  K.,  632. 

Lagneau,  G.,  513. 
Lagotala,  H.,  189. 
Laing,  S.,  111. 
Lammens,  H.,  623. 
Langdon,  S.,  88. 
Lansel,  Peider,  548. 
Lapouge,  G.  V.  de,  149,  513. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


705 


Larsen,  G.  F.,  205,  309,  313. 

Laufer,  B.,  305. 

Lawrence,  Col.  T.  E.,  410. 

Layard,  D.,  209. 

Leakey,  L.  S.  B.,  22,  37,  40,  44,  45,  57,  92. 

Leblanc,  E.,  472. 

Lebzelter,   V.,   105,   106,   185,   189,   214, 

230,  231,  232,  504,  552,  562,  589,  591, 

597,  609,  610,  614,  622. 
Lehmann,  O.,  534. 
Lehmann-Nitsche,  R.  211. 
Lempertowna,  G.,  643. 
Lencewicz,  Stanislaw,  109. 
Lenz,  E.,  5,  276. 
Leo  Africanus,  463. 
le  Pontois,  Bernard,  166. 
Lester,  P.,  448. 
Levit'kyj,  I  ,  103. 
Leys,  N.  M.,  408,  414,  448. 
Lindcrs,  F.,  287,  326,  329,  330,  331. 
Lipiec,  M.,  643. 
Livi,  R.,  500,  555. 
Lorimer,  D.  L.,  175. 
Love,  A.  G.,  385,  556,  565,  642. 
Low,  A.,  Ill,  160,  161. 
Lowrnan,  G.  S.,  179. 
Lundborg,  H.,  287,  326,  329,  330,  331. 
Luschan,  E.  von,  141,  385,  388. 
Luschan,  F.  von,  189,  285,  289,  380,  385, 

388,  608,  619,  621. 
Luther,  M.,  302,  357,  358. 

MacAuliffe,  L.,  491,  504,  513,  517,  519, 

528. 

MacCurdy,  G.  G.,  125. 
MacDonnell,  W.  R.,  375,  390. 
Maciesza,  A.,  565. 
Mackeiiprang,  E.,  332. 
Maclcay,  K.  S.,  387. 
Mahoudeau,  P.  G.,  499. 
Mainov,  V.  N.,  345. 
Majer,  J.,  571,  643. 
Majewski,  E.,  200,  218. 
Makarenko,  Nicholas,  103. 
MaleS,  B.,  589,  591. 
Maliev,  N.,  346,  347,  348,  349,  350,  351, 

578. 

Malinin,  K.,  632. 
Maly,J.,  212,  560. 
Manouvrier,  L.,  214,  513. 
Mantegazza,  P.,  153. 
Marett,  J.  R.  de  La  H.,  6,  50,  305. 
Marett,  R.  R.,  110. 
Margolis,  M.,  435. 
Marie,  A.,  504,  517,  519,  528. 
Marmol  Caravaial,  Luis  del,  463,  465. 


Marshall,  J.,  390. 

Martin,  C.  P.,  112,  161,  191,  211,  377. 

Martin,  R.,  12,  15,  241,  243,  244,  649. 

Maspero,  G.,  464. 

Matiegka,  J.,  164,  183,  219,  560,  562,  646. 

Mattei,  A.,  499. 

Mayet,  L.,  516. 

McGown,  T.  D.,  26,  53,  61,  62. 

McGovern,  W.  M.,  196,  227. 

McGregor,  J.  H.,  53. 

Meillet,  A.,  445. 

Mendes-Gorrea,  A.  A.,  100,  495. 

Menghin,  O.,  40,  93,  115,  286. 

Merkenschlager,  F.,  562. 

Merlin,  H.,  213. 

Meyer,  A.  B.,  165. 

Meyer,  H.,  285. 

Michelsson,  G.,  353. 

Mies,  J.,  264. 

Minns,  E.  H.,  196. 

Mochi,  A.,  147,408,409. 

Modrezewski,  L.  T.,  567. 

Mollison,  T.,  44,  45,  66,  102. 

Montandon,  G.,  34,  286,  287,  502,  503, 

548. 

Moore,  A.  W.,  386. 
Morant,  G.  M.,  15,  20,  28,  30,  32,  33,  91, 

94,  95,  96,  100,  113,  158,  160,  191,  192, 

207,  209,  248,  372,  376,  503,  610,  616, 

622,  646. 

Mortimer,  J.  R.,  191,209. 
Moschen,  L.,  194. 
Movius,  H.  L.,  Jr.,  112,  161,  171. 
Muffang,  M.  H.,  386. 
Muhlmann,  W.  E.,  538,  539. 
Muller,  E.,  605. 
Muller,  F.,  280. 
Muller,  G.,  213. 
Muller,  W.,  219. 
Mulligan,  J.  H.,  387,  390. 
Murray,  G.  W.,  457. 
Musil,  A.,  410. 

Mydlarski,  J.,  306,  564,  565,  567. 
Myers,  C.  S.,  459. 
Myres,  J.  L.,  141,  143,  145. 

Nalimov,  349. 
Nassonoff,  N.  W.,  421. 
Nazarov,  P.  S.,  578. 
Nefedov,  J.  W.,  582. 
Nehring,  A.,  178,  180,  222,  238. 
Neophytos,  A.  G.,  605. 
Nestor,  I.,  106. 
Neuville,  R.,  138. 
Newbold,  E.  M.,  390. 
Niceforo,  A.,  500, 


706 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


Nickul,  K.,  357. 

Nicolaeff,  Lon,  574. 

Nicolucci,  G.,  555. 

Niederle,  Lubor,  212,  216,  218,  560. 

Nielsen,  H.  A.,  167,  203. 

Nikolski,  D.  P.,  578. 

Nikolsky,  B.,  346. 

Nordenstreng,  R.,  287,  327,  328. 

Nosov,  A.  Z.,  569,  583,  610. 

Nurk,  L.,  349. 

Nyessen,  D.  J.  H.,  531. 

Obermaier,  H.,  40,  47,  63. 
Oesterley,  W.  O.  E.,  432,  435. 
Olechnowicz,  W.,  365,  565. 
Oloriz  y  Aquilera,  F.,  491,  498,  502. 
Ornstcin,  605. 
Ortmann,  R.,  188. 
Oshanin,  L.  V.,  579. 
Ouvarov,  A.  S.,  126. 

Palliardi,  J.,  156. 

Pantuchov,  J.,  632,  643. 

Papilian,  V.,  614. 

Papillault,  G.  F.,  476,  477,  513,  517. 

Parr,  L.  W.,  623. 

Parsons,  F.  G.,  373,  374,  385,  386,  387, 

392,  393,  539. 
Paudler,  F.,  285. 
Pavlov,  A.,  47,  126. 
Peake,  H.,  210. 
Pearson,  K.,  158,248,386. 
Peate,  I.  C.,  390,  396. 
Penniman,  T.  K.,  88. 
Pequart,  Marthe,  65. 
P6quart,  Saint-Juste,  65. 
Perez  de  Barrados,  J.,  206. 
Petersen,  E.,  619. 
Pexiederova,  M.  R.,  560. 
Pfeiffer,  R.  E.,  432. 
Piette,  E.,  66. 
Piroutet,  M.,  165,  171. 
Pittard,  E.,  86,  114,  165,  504,  538,  589, 

591,  597,  605,  609,  610,  612,  614,  622, 

643. 

Pitt-Rivers,  A.  H.  L.,  386,  388,  390. 
Ploy,  H.,  552. 
Poch,  H.,  189,  569. 
Pollera,  A.,  457. 
Pommerol,  F.,  513. 
Poschen,  P.,  583. 
Prelov,  E.  L,  345. 
Priebsch,  R.,  524. 
Priman,  J.,  354. 
Prince,  J.  D.,  175. 
Priscus,  229,  233. 


Probstl,  L.,  194,  195. 
Procopius,  463. 
Pruner-Bey,  F.,  289. 
Puccioni,  N.,  448,  468. 

Quatrefages,  de,  280. 

Radlauer,  C.,  448. 

Rainer,  F.  L,  614. 

Ramstedt,  G.  J.,  223,  306. 

Randall-Maclver,  D.,  476,  477,  478. 

Ranke,J.,  538. 

Raswan,  C.,  410. 

Rau,  P.,  169. 

Raymond,  P.,  190. 

Reche,  O.,  73,  74,  105,   107,  207,  529, 

531,  532. 
Reck,  H.,  44. 
Rehak,  J.,  562. 
Reicher,  M.,  538. 
Reid,  R.  W.,  387,  390. 
Reisner,  G.  A.,  98. 
Rctzius,  G.,  54,  123,  166,  204,  327,  355, 

358. 

Reuss,  K.,  219. 
Reverdin,  L.,  538. 
Ribbing,  L.,  325,  332,  335. 
Rice,  D.  T.,  88. 
Richter,  B.,  542. 
Ried,  H.  A.,  211,  538,  543. 
Ripley,  W.  Z.,  10,  284-85,  518. 
Ritchie,  J.,  160. 
Roberts,  C.,  391. 
Robinson,  T.  H.,  432,  435. 
Rocca,  P.,  499. 
Rochet,  C.,  194. 
Rodjestvensky,  A.  N.,  568. 
Roguinski,  A.,  231,  579. 
Rosensprung,  L.  M.,  182. 
Rosinski,  B.,  7,  109,  141,  565,  608. 
Roth,  C.,  435. 
Routil,  R.,  513,  521. 
Rudenko,  S.  I.  (Roudenko),  307,  350. 
Ruhlman,  A.,  150. 
Ruhnau,  K.,  533. 
Ruppin,  A.,  435. 
Rutimeyer,  L.,  211,  538. 
Rutkowski,  L.,  218,  565,  643. 
Ryland,  209. 

Sailer,  K.5  103,  126,  156,  211,  244,  265, 

533,  540,  542,  643. 
Sallust,  463,  464. 
Salmon,  P.,  116,  117. 
Samson,  O.,  646. 
Sanchez  Fernandez,  L.,  492. 


INDEX  OF  AUTHORS 


707 


Sant'Anna  Marques,  S.  de,  495. 

Santelli,  457. 

Sapir,  E.,  180. 

Sasse,  A,,  531. 

Sasse,  J.,  532,  533. 

Sawtellc,  R.  (Mrs.  Wallis),  66,  116. 

Schachermeyer,  F.,  155. 

Scheiber,  S.  H.,  585. 

Scheldt,  W.,  11,  66,  99,  330,  395,  540,  543. 

Schenk,  A.,  114,  115,  165. 

Schicker,J.,  211. 

Schiff,  F.,  605,  608. 

Schlaginhaufen,  O.,  114,  115,  165,   184, 

189,  450,  548,  549,  550. 
Schliemann,  H.,  137. 
Schliz,  A.,  156,  182,  183,  188,  189,  206. 
Schmidt,  E.,  555. 
Schneider,  L  ,  562. 
Schreincr,  A.,  8,  309,  315,  316,  317,  321, 

325. 
Schreiner,  K.  E.,  33,  205,  300,  301,  302, 

304,  305,  307,  309,  313,  321. 
Schiick,  A.,  616. 
Schugaiew,  W.  S.,  219. 
Schumacher,  O.,  145. 
Schumann,  H.,  219. 
Schiirer  von  WaJdheim,  Hella,  106,  164, 

182. 

Schuster,  E.,  390. 
Schwerz,  F.,  212,  550,555. 
Schwidersky,  N.,  632. 
Schwidetsky,  I.,  249,  564. 
Sedlaczek-Komorowski,  L.,  156,  168. 
Seeland,  N.,  574. 
Scligman,  C.  G.,  408,  457. 
Seltzer,  C.  C.,  10,  326,  623,  625. 
Seraczin,  A.,  213. 
Sergeev,  V.  I.,  346. 
Sergent,  E.,  614. 
Sergi,  G.,   101,  102,   104,  141,  147,  155, 

194,  283-84. 
Sergi,  S.,  448. 
Serra  i  Vilaro,  152. 
Sevastianov,  349. 
§evket   Aziz   Kansu    (Shevket,    Chevket, 

see  Kansu). 
Sewell,  R.,  87. 
Shanklin,  W.  M.,  410,  623. 
Shapiro,  H.  L.,  5,  8,  38,  48,  538. 
Shea,  S.,  112,  161. 
Shetclig,  H.  F.  &  G.,  166,  202. 
Shipton,  G.  M.,  138. 
Shrubsall,  F.  C.,  386. 
Shugaiev,  U.  S.,  573. 
Sidonus,  229. 
Sirelius,  U.  T.,  337. 


Skerlj,  B.,  587. 

Smirnov,  M.,  169. 

Smith,  J.,  387. 

Smith,  W.,  386. 

Snigirev,  V.  S.,  573. 

Sobolski,  K.,  568. 

Sommier,  S.,  236,  307,  350,  578,  632. 

Sonnabend,  H.,  216. 

Speiser,  E.,  90,  175. 

Ssilinitsch,  J.  P.,  234. 

Steensby,  H.  P.,  332. 

Stefko,  V.  H.,  219,  573. 

Steggerda,  M.,  532. 

Stein,  Sir  A.,  420,  431. 

Stephanos,  C.,  605. 

Stocky,  A.,  107,  164. 

Stoessiger,  B.  N.,  374. 

Stojanowski,  K.,  168. 

Stotyhwo,  K.,  201. 

Storrs,  Sir  R.,  625. 

Strauch,  K.,  109. 

Stshukin,  J.,  632. 

Sturlason,  S.,  321,  322. 

Suk,  V.,  562,  571. 

Szinnyei,  223. 

Sziraky,  S.,  220. 

Szombathy,  J.,  163,  219,  560. 

Szpidbaum,  H.,  443. 

Tagliaferro,  N.,  147. 

Talko-Hryncewicz,  J.,  47,  200,  365,  367, 

564,  565,  566,  568,  569,  571,  582,  583, 

585,  642,  643. 
Tallgren,  A.  M.,  169,224. 
Tamagnini,  E.,  485,  492,  495,  496. 
Tappeiner,  F.,  538,  552. 
Taylor,  J.  J.,  386. 
Tebebinskaia-Schenger,  N.,  583. 
Teit,  J.  A.,  387,  393. 
Teploukhov,  S.  A.,  347. 
Thalmann,  G.,  214. 
Themido,  A.  A.,  495,  496. 
Thomas,  B.,  403,  427-28. 
Thompson,  C.  M.,  390. 
Thooris,  A.,  517. 
Thurman,J.,  Ill,  158,  194. 
Tildesley,  M.  L.,  241,  597. 
Tippett,  L.  H.  C.,  386. 
Titiev,  M.,  605. 
Tkafc,  M.,  569. 

Tocher,  J.  F.,  387,  391,  392,  395. 
Toldt,C.,  219,  538,  552,  553. 
Topinard,  P.,  280,  332,  475,  513,  519,  520. 
Tormo,  I.  Ballester,  148. 
Tratman,  E.  K.,  112. 
Trauwitz-Hellwig,  J.  von,  156. 


•  708 


INDEX   OF  AUTHORS 


Tur,  Jail,  168. 
Turner,  Sir  W.,  75,  376. 
Twarjanowitsch,  J.  K.,  625. 

Uhlenbeck,  C.  C.,  178. 
Ujfalvy,  K.  E.  von,  420,  634. 
UP,  E.  F.,  345,  349. 
Uriay  Riu,J.,  491. 

Vallois,  Henri  V.,  40,  43,  44,  45,  54,  55, 

60,  61,  64,  65,  67,  87,  99,  149,  191. 
ValSik,  J.,  591. 
Van  den  Berg,  L.  W.  C.,  402. 
Van  den  Broek,  A.  J.  P.,  530,  532. 
Vanderkindere,  L.,  528. 
Van  Overloop,  M.,  530. 
Vaufrey,  R.,  40,  47,  59- 
Vavilov,  N.,  444. 
Venn,J.,  390. 
Verneau,  R.,  33,  40,  54,  99,  285,  448,  450, 

472,  485. 

Vervaeck,  L.,  526,  527. 
Vildes,J.,  352,  353. 
Virchow,  R.,  106,  109,  124,  126,  155,  167, 

169,189,212,219,354. 
Vire,  A.,  476. 
Vishnevsky,  B.  N.,   102,   235,   349,   577, 

635,  636,  639. 
Vishogrod,J.,  632. 
Vitols,  T.  M.,  362. 
Volkov,  Th.,  571. 
Vorobiev,  V.,  583,  632. 
Vram,  Ugo,  213,  591. 

Wacker,  R.,  538,  554. 
Waeber,  O.,  362. 
Wagenseil,  F.,  443,  619. 
Wain wright,  G.,  181. 
Waldhauer,  F.,  352,  353. 
Walk,  C.  S.,  386. 
Wallis,  Mrs.  R.  S.,  190,  211,  214. 
Wankel,  H.,  219. 
Warner,  Langdon,  102. 
Wastl,J.,  551. 
Wateff,  S.,  610. 
Waterston,  D.,  161. 
Weidenreich,  F.,  554. 
Weisbach,  A.,  182,  184,  264,  551,  552, 
562,  571,  587,  588,  590,  591,  605,  609. 


Weissenberg,  S.,  439,  442,  443,  578,  625, 

639,641,642,643. 
Weissgerber,  H.,  477, 
Weninger,  J.,  597. 
Weslawawa,  Eleanora,  109. 
Westergaard,  H.,  332. 
Westerlund,  F.  W.,  355,  357,  358. 
Wettstein,  E.,  538. 
Whatmough,  J.,     180,     182,     193,     194. 

195. 

White,  MissJ.  M.,  112. 
Wiazemsky,  Prince,  589. 
Wichman,  Y.,  337. 
Wiklund,  K.  B.,  299,  300. 
Wilkin,  A.,  476,  477,  478. 
Wilier,  O.,  582. 
Williams,  G,  D.,  492, 
Willoughby,  R.  R.,  556,  562. 
Wilmer,  W.  H.,  276. 
Wilskman,  L,  357. 
Windle,  B.  C.  A.,  386. 
Wischnitzer,  M.,  435. 
Witt,  H.,  354. 
Wolfel,  J.,  487. 
Wolfson,  H.,  432,  435,  638. 
Wood  bury,  George,  11. 
Worobjew,  B.  W.,  574. 
Wriede,  H.,  540. 
Wright,  W.,  191. 

Wrzosek,  A.  (Worozek),  565,  589. 
Wrzoskowa,  M.,  565. 

Young,  M.,  209,  210,  375. 
Young,  W.  J.,  273. 

Zaborowski,  S.,  103,  145,  147,  231,  234. 

Zakrzewski,  A.,  564. 

Zampa,  R.,  193,  591. 

Zbinden,  F.,  550. 

Zdroevski,  A.,  568. 

Zejmo-Zejmis,  S.,  565. 

Zeland,  N.  L.,  573,  574. 

Zeltner,  F.,  472. 

Zimmerman,  G.,  106. 

Zograf,  N.  J.,  307,  574,  578. 

Zolotarev,  D.  A.,  301,  302,  337,  343,  344, 

345. 

Zuckerkandi,  E.,  182,538. 
Zupanic,  N.,  155,  619. 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


Abydos,  cranial  material,  91,  100. 

Abyssinia,  Neolithic,  78.  See  also  Ethiopia. 

Abyssinians:  see  Ethiopians. 

Acheulean  culture,  skull  ill.,  52,  Jig.  4. 

Adlersburg  crania,  compared  with  Food 
Vessel,  161. 

Aegean  Islands,  as  source  of  Neolithic, 
101;  Bronze  Age,  132-33,  chart. 

Aenolithic:  see  Copper  Age. 

Afalou  crania,  described,  40-44;  #28, 
described,  40,  cojnpared  with  Gamble's 
Cave,  44,  45,  compared  with  Asselar 
man,  60,  relation  to  Mediterranean 
race,  83;  #12  ill.,  54,  fig.  10;  compared 
with  Asselar  man,  60,  with  Erg  el  Ah- 
mar,  62,  with  Ofnet,  68,  with  Scandi- 
navian Neolithic  brachycephals,  124; 
relation  to  Tasian,  93,  to  Algerians,  99; 
as  origin  of  Alpine  brachycephals,  119; 
as  large  brachycephals,  265;  survival  in 
Europe,  291,  in  N.  Africa,  467,  among 
Arabo-Bcrbers,  470,  among  Riffians, 
483,  in  Canary  Islands,  488. 

Afar:  see  Danakil. 

Afghanian,  Neolithic,  defined,  85;  Luris- 
tan  skulls,  87;  areas  occupied  by,  in 
Dark  Ages,  176-77,  chart.  See  also 
I  rano- Afghans. 

Afghanistan,  climate  in  Neolithic,  78; 
Aryans  in,  180;  invasion  by  Huns,  228; 
Iranians  in,  238;  dolichocephaly  in, 
256;  racial  study  of,  417-18. 

Afghans,  in  Iran,  417;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 419-20;  ill.,  Plate  IB, fig.  5. 

Africa,  Aurignacian  man  in  East,  44-46; 
Upper  Palaeolithic  hunters  of  N.,  39- 
44;  Mesolithic  man  in,  57—61;  Neo- 
lithic N.,  98-99;  as  origin  of  French 
Neolithic,  115;  Bell  Beaker  and  N,,  157; 
E.,  stature  in,  255;  N.,  weight,  255; 
dolichocephaly  in,  256-57;  N.,  head 
size  in,  265;  N.,  pigmentation,  272; 
Deniker's  classification  in,  281;  Jews  in, 
437,  438;  Mediterranean  races,  444-58, 
462-89,  ill.,  Plate  21,  figs.  1-6;  N., 
Gypsies  in,  504. 

African  Bushmen:  see  Bushmen. 

Afridis,  identified,  417;  face  measurement, 
41 9;  i//.,  Plate  18,^.7. 


Agau,  identified,  438;  classified,  446;  racial 
characteristics,  449;  ill.,  Plate  20,  fig.  2. 

Aginocastrians,  racial  characteristics,  602 
03. 

Ahrensburg  culture,  origin,  70;  placed, 
71 ;  and  Maglemose,  72. 

Am  Jebrul  crania,  placed,  1 38. 

Ainu,  hair,  278;  in  Deniker's  system,  282. 

Aissores:  see  Assyrians. 

Akeydat,  identified,  623. 

Alans,  placed,  196;  and  Goths,  197;  cra- 
nial type,  200;  under  Turks  and  Mon- 
gols, 229. 

Alawiya,  racial  characteristics,  261,  623. 

Albania,  Illyrians  in,  185;  Slavic  inva- 
sion, 217;  language  distribution,  561, 
map;  Serbs  in,  589;  tribal  divisions  in 
N.,  596,  map;  Vlachs  in,  614;  Osmanli 
Turks  in,  617. 

Albanians,  teeth  modifications  among,  29; 
speech  origin,  179;  nasal  characteris- 
tics, 279;  in  Crimea,  582;  in  Yugo- 
slavia, 587;  racial  study  of,  595-604; 
in  Greece,  604;  compared  with  Ar- 
menians, 627;  ill.,  Plate  8,  figs.  4-6; 
Plate  14,  figs.  3,  4;  Plate  39,  figs.  2-5; 
Plate  30,  fig.  3. 

Alemanni,  origin,  206;  described,  212; 
Keltic  mixture  with,  215;  distribution, 
537;  relation  to  Genkingen  Germans, 
544. 

Alexandropol  crania,  described,  200. 

Algeria,  skeletons  described,  99;  races 
described,  474-79. 

Alishar,  in  Palestine,  138;  compared  with 
Minoans,  141,  with  Etruscans,  154. 

Alishar  Hiiyuk  crania,  described,  136. 

Almeria,  Los  Millares  culture,  148. 

Alouites:  see.  Alawiya. 

Alpine  race,  discussed,  113-20,  129;  com- 
pared with  Borreby,  124,  with  Bronze 
Age  Cypriotes,  139-40,  with  Kumans, 
234;  areas  occupied  by,  in  Iron  Age, 
176-77,  chart;  head  size,  266;  hairiness, 
278;  in  Deniker's  system,  283;  in  Rip- 
ley's  classification,  284,  285;  in  von 
Eickstedt's  system,  287;  in  Czekanow- 
ski's  system,  288,  289;  classified,  289, 
290;  survivors  in  Europe,  291;  and 


709 


710 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Lapps,  300;  and  W.  Norwegians,  319; 
and  Mediterraneans,  400;  and  Canary 
Islands,  486,  487;  in  central  Europe, 
introduction,  510-11;  in  France,  511- 
22;  in  Belgium,  529;  in  Germany,  535, 
538-39,  543,  544,  545,  546,  547;  in 
Switzerland,  549,  550,  553;  in  Austria, 
551;  in  Italy,  554-59;  and  Czechs, 
560-62;  in  Poland,  563,  566,  567;  and 
Ruthenians,  572;  and  Magyars,  585, 
586;  and  Montenegrins,  594;  and  Al- 
banians, 601;  and  Dinarics,  601,  602; 
and  Toscs,  603;  and  Greeks,  606-07; 
and  Vlachs,  615,  616;  and  Osmanli 
Turks,  619,  621,  622;  and  Armenoids, 
629;  and  Ossetes,  632;  and  Caucasic- 
speakers,  633,  634;  and  Tajiks,  637, 
638;  and  Turkestan  Jews,  641;  and 
Caucasus  Jews,  641 ;  and  Ashkenazim 
Jews,  645;  geographical  extent  of, 
646—47;  result  of  blend  with  Mediterra- 
neans, 647;  in  Germany,  ill.,  Plate  11, 
figs.  1-4;  W.  and  central  Europe,  *//., 
Plate  12,  Jigs.  1-4;  aberrant  forms,  W. 
and  central  Europe,  *//.,  Plate  13,  Jigs. 
1-4;  central,  E.,  S.  E.  Europe,  til., 
Plate  14,  figs.  1-5;  Asiatic,  ill.,  Plate  15, 
Jigs.  1-6;  Nordic  blends,  ill.,  Plate  34, 
figs.  1~4. 

Alps,  glaciation  and,  1 9. 

Altaic  speech,  languages  based  on,  236; 
conclusions  discussed,  236-40;  Euro- 
pean distribution,  338,  map;  Scyths 
and,  196;  surplanting  Iranian,  197-98; 
speakers,  223;  in  Caucasus,  distribu- 
tion, 631,  map. 

Altenburg  crania,  described,  109. 

al  'Ubaid  crania,  described,  86,  87,  88; 
compared  with  Long  Barrow,  112,  with 
Corded,  104. 

Amber,  as  medium  of  exchange,  134,  166; 
Bell  Beaker  search  for,  155. 

America,  Gypsies  in,  506,  507;  Italians  in, 
556-57;  Toscs  in,  603;  Greeks  in,  606- 
07;  Armenians  in,  625;  Jews  in,  643- 
44;  New  Englander,  ill.,  Plate  25,  fig.  2; 
Plate  27,  fig.  4;  Jews,  ill.,  Plate  45, 
figs.  3,  4,  Plate  46,  figs.  1-5. 

American  Indian,  derivation  of,  2;  re- 
semblance to  Upper  Palaeolithic  man, 
32;  linked  with  Eskimo,  48;  language 
compared  with  Japhetic,  175;  pig- 
mentation, 277;  in  Deniker's  system, 
281;  hybrid  origin,  602. 

Amharas,  distribution,  447;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 449-57. 


Ammonites,  identified,  434. 

Amorites,  described,  432-34;  ill.,  433, 
fig-  36. 

Anan'ino  culture,  described,  224-25. 

Anatolia,  Neolithic  movement  from,  82; 
Neolithic  sites,  86;  as  source  of  Neo- 
lithic, 101,  102;  Bronze  Age  in,  136-37; 
as  iron  center,  181;  Turks  in,  racial 
characteristics,  618-20. 

Anatolians,  movements  traced,  80-81, 
map  2. 

Anau  crania,  described,  102-103;  com- 
pared with  Maruipol  remains,  103; 
painted  pottery,  105;  compared  with 
Alishar,  136. 

Andalusians,  described,  491 ;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 493-94. 

Andronovo:  see  Minussinsk. 

Anghelu  Ruju  crania,  described,  147. 

Angles,  origin,  333;  in  British  Isles,  372. 

Anglo-Saxons,  origin,  206;  skulls  com- 
pared with  Hannover,  207;  described, 
208-11;  skulls  compared  with  Thu- 
ringians,  212;  relation  to  Prankish 
skulls,  214;  compared  to  Polish  Slavs, 
218;  classified,  293. 

Animal  husbandry:  see  Domestic  animals. 

Anjera,  distribution,  480. 

Arabia,  dolichocephaly  in,  256-57;  racial 
study  of  Mediterranean  race  in,  401™ 
11. 

Arabic,  as  source  of  information  on  race, 
174,  218;  distribution  in  E.  Africa,  446, 
map;  in  N.  Africa,  467. 

Arabs,  racial  characteristics,  266,  278; 
racial  classification  by,  279 ;  in  Deniker's 
system,  281,  282;  as  rulers  of  ancient 
Jews,  435;  in  Egypt,  458;  in  N.  Africa, 
465;  Arabo-Berbers,  racial  character- 
istics, 468-71;  Tuareg,  471-74; 
tribesmen  of  Algeria  and  Tunisia,  476; 
in  Morocco,  484;  in  Portugal,  495; 
Syrian  Bedawin,  623;  in  Turkestan, 
634,  ill.,  Plate  3,  fig.  6;  Mediterra- 
neans, ill.,  Plate  16,  figs.  1-6;  ill., 
Plate  2\,fig.  2;  Dinaric,  #/.,  Plate  43, 
figs.  1,  3. 

Aran  Isles,  racial  study  of,  379,  381;  ill., 
Plate  29,  figs.  5,  6. 

Arcadia  crania,  placed,  101. 

Ardennes,  Neolithic  sites,  117. 

Argolis  crania,  described,  144-45. 

Ariege  crania,  placed,  149. 

Arii,  origin,  602. 

Arm  length;  see  Body  form. 

Armenia,   Neolithic    sites,    86;   Neolithic 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


711 


remains,  102;  Iron  Age  crania,  201; 
Gypsies  in,  504;  Seljuks  in,  618;  racial 
study  of,  622,  625-29. 

Armenians,  and  Bronze  Age  Cypriotes, 
139,  140;  areas  occupied  by,  in  Iron 
Age,  176-77,  chart;  speech  classified, 
179;  Iron  Age  crania  and  Avars,  232; 
racial  characteristics,  261,  266,  268, 
625-29;  in  Iran,  416;  in  France,  512; 
in  Rumania,  612;  in  Turkey,  618;  dis- 
tribution, 631,  map;  ill.,  Plate  15,  fig.  3; 
Plate  17,  fig.  3;  Plate  42,  figs.  1-4. 

Armenoids,  and  Ofnet  K  1809,  67;  in 
Mesopotamia,  88;  among  Magyars, 
233;  mandible,  268;  in  Deniker's 
system,  281,  282;  in  Czekanowski's 
system,  288,  289;  classified,  293;  geo- 
graphic distribution,  294-95,  map;  ele- 
ment in  Italy,  558,  in  Poland,  567,  in 
Ukrainians,  571,  in  Kirghiz,  581,  in 
Tajiks,  637;  discussed,  628-29;  com- 
pared with  Jews,  645;  blend  resulting 
in,  647;  ill.,  Plate  42,  figs.  1-4. 

Art,  Sumerian,  ill.  89,  *  figs.  17-20,  90, 
fig.  21 ,  Egyptians,  ill.  97,  figr.  22-25; 
Hittite,  ill.  137,  fig.  26;  Egyptian  pic- 
tures of  Asiatics,  138;  Minoan,  141; 
Greek,  evidence  on  pigmentation,  145, 
146;  Greek  and  Roman  sculpture  of 
Kelts,  190;  Scythian,  198-99;  Ger- 
manic, 202-203;  Egyptian  drawings  of 
Jews,  i//.,  433,,/far.  33-36;  Italian  and 
Bologncse,  559. 

Artificial  deformation:  see  Deformation, 
artificial. 

Ashkenazim  Jews,  described,  437,  438; 
racial  study  of,  642-46;  ill.,  Plate  45, 

jfe-  2. 

Asia,  Bronze  Age  in,  135-40;  origin  of 
Indo-Europeans,  179;  Iron  Age  in, 
226-27;  stature,  255;  head  sizes,  266; 
hairiness,  278;  nasal  changes,  279; 
Denikcr's  classification  in,  281. 

Asia  Minor,  invasion  of  Nasili  speakers, 
135;  origin  of  Dinarics,  140;  Greek 
colonies  in  Bronze  Age,  145;  modern 
brachycephals  compared  with  el  Argar, 
151;  Keltic  invasion,  187;  brachy- 
cephaly  in,  261 ;  nasal  index,  268. 

Asine  crania,  described,  144. 

Asselar  skeleton,  described,  60—61. 

Assyrians,  language,  175;  identified,  623; 
racial  characteristics,  630;  Dinaric, 
ill.,  Plate  40,  fig.  4. 

Assyrioid,  in  Deniker's  system,  281,  282. 

Aterian  culture,  described,  39-41. 


Athenians,  modern  resemblance  to,  146. 

Atlanto-Mediterraneans,  in  Deniker's  sys- 
tem, 281;  classified,  289,  290,  292;  geo- 
graphic distribution,  294-95;  among 
Yemenis,  408;  element  in  Mesopota- 
mia, 413,  in  Portugal,  498,  in  Basques, 
504,  in  France,  522,  in  Germany,  535, 
545,  in  Austria,  552,  in  Italy,  554,  555, 
556,  559,  in  Dalmatia,  591,  in  Albania, 
601,  in  Dinarics,  602,  in  Greeks,  606, 
607,  in  Cretans,  608,  609,  in  Bulgars, 
611,  612,  in  Vlachs,  617;  S.  W.  Europe, 
ill.,  Plate  23,  figs.  1-4;  blue-eyed,  ill., 
Plate  24,  figs.  1-4. 

Augst  crania,  described,  212. 

Aunjetitz  culture,  described,  162-65; 
forerunner  of  Hallstatt,  182;  and  Illyri- 
ans,  186;  compared  with  "Danes* 
Grave,"  191,  192,  with  Scyths,  199, 
with  Germanics,  207;  survivals,  260; 
in  Germany,  536. 

Aurignacian  culture,  crania  of,  30;  chron- 
ological and  geographical  differentia- 
tion in  Europe,  33-39;  described,  in 
E.  Africa,  44-46;  compared  with  Mag- 
dalenian,  47;  cranium,  ill.,  52,  figs.  5, 
9;  survival  into  Mesolithic,  57;  com- 
pared with  Elmenteitans,  59,  with 
Asselar  man,  60,  with  Teviec,  65,  with 
Iron  Age  Norwegians,  204;  in  Pales- 
tine, 61;  Tanged-point  derived  from, 
70;  Creswellian  and,  75;  as  origin  of 
Alpine  brachycephals,  119;  in  Spain, 
489. 

Australians,  survival  of,  17;  and  Indo- 
European  speech,  180;  hair,  278;  in 
Deniker's  system,  281,  282;  relation  to 
Veddoids,  430. 

Australoid,  as  race,  5, 

Austria,  Bell  Beaker  in,  156,  157;  Bronze 
Age  in,  162,  Hallstatt  culture  in,  182- 
83;  Keltic  in,  189-90;  Alemanni  in, 
206;  W.  Germanics  in,  211;  Lombards 
in,  213;  Slavic  invasion,  217;  brachy- 
ccphaly  in,  260;  racial  study  of,  547, 
550-54;  language  distribution,  561, 
map;  Jews  in,  642;  Neo-Danubian,  ill., 
Plate  31,^.  4. 

Avars,  influence  on  Hungarian  Slavs,  220 ; 
racial  characteristics,  228-30;  relation 
to  Huns,  231 ;  European  influence, 
296;  migrations,  577;  in  Hungary,  584; 
element  in  Magyars,  584. 

Aveline's  Hole  skull  C,  as  Cr6-Magnon, 
49. 

Aveyron  crania,  placed,  149. 


712 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


Awjila  people,  racial  characteristics,  468- 
69. 

Azerbaijani,  origin,  239,  240;  speech,  416; 
racial  characteristics,  264,  268,  424-25; 
identified,  630;  distribution,  631,  map. 

Azilian  culture,  in  France,  65-66;  rela- 
tion to  Ofnet  crania,  67;  influence  on 
Greswellian,  75. 

Babylonians,  politics  and  language,  174, 
175;  capture  of  Jews,  432,  435-36. 

Badarian  culture,  described,  94-95;  com- 
pared with  Naqada,  95,  with  N.  Afri- 
cans, 99. 

Baden,  Danubian  settlers,  105;  crania, 
109,  539. 

Ba'ij  Bedawin,  identified,  413. 

Baikal,  Lake,  crania  placed,  126. 

Bairaks,  defined  and  described,  595—97. 

Bajuvars,  described,  211-12,  537;  and 
Miesbachers,  545.  See  also  Bavarians. 

Bakhtiari,  described,  418. 

Balearic  Islands,  in  Copper  Age,  148-49; 
racial  characteristics,  257,  498. 

Balkans,  as  route  of  Neolithic,  101;  in- 
vasion by  Turks,  229;  pigmentation  in, 
269;  hairiness  in,  278;  migration  of 
Jews  to,  436;  Gypsies  in,  507;  language 
distribution,  561,  map;  racial  history 
discussed,  589.  See  also  individual  coun- 
tries and  races. 

Baltic  Finns,  classified,  223;  language 
stock,  339,  chart;  migrations,  217,  339- 
40;  racial  study  of,  351-59.  See  also 
Finns. 

Baltic  States,  glaciation  and,  19;  Meso- 
lithic  chronology  in,  chart,  70,  fig.  16; 
speech,  179;  stature,  254. 

Baltics,  E.,  classified,  292;  geographic  dis- 
tribution, 294-95,  map;  ill.,  Plate  7, 
figs.  1-5. 

Baits,  distribution  in  Iron  Age,  176-77, 
chart,  216;  relation  to  White  Russians, 
568. 

Baluchi,  language  distribution,  416;  in 
Iran,  417;  racial  characteristics,  430— 
31. 

Baluchistan,  Copper  Age  cranium,  87; 
head  size  in,  266. 

Banded  pottery,  described,  105. 

Barbary,  E.,  races  described,  474-79. 

Baria,  identified,  447-48;  described,  457. 

Barrows,  described,  110. 

Bashkirs,  language  distribution  in  Europe, 
339,  map;  classified,  577;  racial  charac- 
teristics, 578-79;  ill.,  Plate  3,Jfe.  3. 


Basques,  Bronze  Age,  152;  language,  178, 
512;  head  size,  265;  racial  study  of, 
501-504;  i//.,  Plate  12,  fig.  1;  Plate  23, 

fig-  4. 

Basses  Pyrenees  crania,  placed,  149. 

Batavii,  distribution,  529. 

Bath,  Roman  burials,  195. 

Battle- Axe  people:  see  Corded  people. 

Bavaria,  Ofnet  skulls  in,  66-68;  Danu- 
bian settlers  in,  105;  Bavarians  enter, 
206;  W.  Germanics  in,  211;  brachy- 
cephaly  in,  260. 

Bavarians,  origin,  206;  pigmentation,  272; 
Miesbachers,  racial  characteristics,  545; 
compared  with  Czechs,  562.  See  also 
Bajuvars. 

Bazaiha  cranium,  described,  126. 

Beaker:  see  Bell  Beaker,  Zoned  Beaker. 

Beaune  crania,  placed,  191. 

Bedawin,  described,  402;  Syrian,  racial 
characteristics,  623;  Ruwalla,  ///  , 
Plate  16,  fig.  4;  Plate  19,  fig.  6. 

Bedawin,  Veddoid:   tee  Hadhramis. 

Beja,  distribution,  457;  ill  ,  Plate  20,  fig.  5. 

Bcktashi,  identified,  621. 

Belgae,  in  British  Isles,  371;  in  Belgium, 
523;  in  Netherlands,  529. 

Belgium,  glaciation  and,  19;  Neolithic  in, 
117-18,  124;  Kelts  in,  187;  Franks  in, 
206,  214-15;  stature,  254;  cranial 
measurements  in,  257,  260,  264,  265; 
racial  study  of,  522-29. 

Bell  Beaker  culture,  in  Spain,  148-50; 
in  lands  north  of  Mediterranean,  155- 
57;  in  British  Isles,  157-62;  influence 
on  Aunjetitz,  162,  163;  influence  on 
Rhine,  164;  in  France,  165-66,  in 
Poland,  168;  relation  to  Hallstatt,  184, 
to  Glasinac,  185,  to  German  Kelts,  189; 
movements  in  Bronze  Age,  132-33, 
chart;  stature  survival,  254;  in  Nether- 
lands, 530;  in  Germany,  535,  536;  in 
Poland,  563. 

Beni  Amart,  identified,  480. 

Beni  Amer,  described,  457. 

Beni  Bu  Yahi,  identified,  480. 

Beni  Hillal,  invasions,  467. 

Beni  Khattab,  identified,  480. 

Beni  Said,  cranial  measurement,  481. 

Beni  Soleim,  invasions,  467. 

Beni  Urriaghel,  identified,  480;  racial 
characteristics,  483. 

Berbers,  teeth  modifications  among,  29; 
stature,  255;  dolichocephaly  in,  257;  in 
Deniker's  system,  281,  282;  Judaism 
and,  438;  language  distribution  in 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


713 


N.  Africa,  462,  described,  463,  467; 
Arabo-Berbers,  racial  characteristics, 
468-71;  Barbary,  Algeria,  Tunisia, 
racial  characteristics,  474—79;  moun- 
tain, racial  characteristics,  474,  476— 
79;  in  Morocco,  480-84;  in  Portugal, 
495;  relation  to  Corsicans,  499. 

Berkshire  crania,  described,  192. 

Berr  ibn  Botr,  identified,  463. 

Berr  ibn  Branes,  identified,  463. 

Bessarabia,  Neolithic  remains,  1 02 ;  Scyth- 
ian crania,  199. 

Bibliography,  692-700. 

Bilikani  Kurds,  racial  characteristics,  422. 

Biniatap  crania,  placed,  149. 

Bisharin,   described,   457,   ill.,    Plate   20, 

fig-  5. 

Black  Hats:  see  Kara  Kalpaks. 

Blondisrn:  see  Pigmentation. 

Bodrogkcresztur  crania,  described,  155. 

Body  form,  discussed,  251-56;  Danes, 
334;  Carelians,  343;  Syryenians  and 
Permiaks,  349;  Ostiaks  and  Voguls, 
350;  Livs,  352;  Esths,  354;  Finns,  357; 
Letts,  362;  Lithuanians,  366;  Irish, 
377,  379;  Aran  Islanders,  379;  Great 
Britain,  391-92;  Yemenis,  403-04; 
Hejaz,  409,  Mesopotamians,  412;  Ku- 
waitis, 413;  Persians,  418;  Afghans  and 
Pathans,  419;  Turkomans,  423;  Had- 
hramis,  427;  E.  African  Hamitics, 
449-50,  456;  modern  Egyptians,  459; 
Awjila,  468;  Tuarcgs,  472;  Mzabites, 
475;  Kharejites,  475;  Kabyles,  478; 
Riffians,  480-81;  Basques,  502;  French, 
515;  Flemings  and  Walloons,  527; 
Frisians,  533;  Fehmarn  Germans,  540- 
41;  Genkingen  Germans,  544;  Italians, 
556;  Poles,  564-65;  Volhyn  Ukrain- 
ians, 570;  Bashkir,  578;  Meshcheryaks,  , 
578;  Kirghiz,  579;  Serbs,  589;  Monte- 
negrins, 592;  Albanian  Ghegs,  597; 
Toscs,  602;  Lebanese,  623;  Armenians, 
626;  Tajiks,  636.  See  also  Skeletal 
measurements. 

Bohemia,  Neolithic  invasion  of,  82;  Danu- 
bian  settlers  in,  104;  Corded  skulls  in, 
107;  amber  trading  route,  134;  Bell 
Beaker  in,  156,  157;  Bronze  Age  in, 
162;  Hallstatt  culture  in,  184;  bound- 
ary of  Kelts,  186;  La  T£ne  culture  in, 
189;  Kelts  in,  191;  Thuringians  in, 
206;  Slavs  in,  219,  560;  brachycephaly 
in,  260;  migration  of  Jews  to,  437,  642. 

Boii,  and  Thuringians,  213. 

Bokharans,  Jews,  z//.,  Plate  46,  figs.  6,  7. 


Bolgars,  classified,  223;  entry  into  Bul- 
garia, 224;  joined  by  Huns,  228,  341. 
See  also  Bulgars. 

Bolognese,  racial  characteristics,  558—59. 

Bornholm,  racial  study  of,  335-36. 

Borreby  culture,  placed,  124;  described, 
129;  in  Bronze  Age  Britain,  158,  159; 
extent  of,  in  Iron  Age,  176-77,  chart; 
relation  to  Hallstatt,  184,  to  German 
Kelts,  189,  to  Iron  Age  Norway,  205; 
survival  in  Germany,  265,  535,  539, 
540,  543-44;  head  size  survival,  266; 
classified,  289,  290;  survivors  in  Europe, 
291;  geographic  distribution,  294-95, 
map;  survival  in  Norway,  319,  in 
Sweden,  332,  in  Denmark,  333,  334, 
335,  in  Great  Britain,  371,  396,  in  Bel- 
gium, 526,  529,  in  Netherlands,  530- 
31,  534,  535,  in  Albanians,  598,  600; 
and  Alpine  in  central  Europe,  511;  and 
French  Alpines,  518;  survivors  in 
North,  ill.,  Plate  5,  figs.  1-5;  survivors 
in  Germany,  White  Russia  and  Italy, 
ill.,  Plate  6,  figs.  1-5;  survivors  in  Car- 
pathians and  Balkans,  ill.,  Plate  8,  figs. 
1-6;  Nordic  blend,  ill.,  Plate  34,  Jigs. 
1-4. 

Bosnia,  Hallstatt  culture  in,  182,  184. 

Bosnians,  language  distribution,  561, 
map;  classified,  587;  racial  study  of, 
590-91. 

Boulogne  crania,  described,  214. 

Brabers,  speech,  462,  467;  origin,  463; 
distribution,  480;  racial  characteristics, 
484. 

Brachycephaly,  as  environmental  re- 
sponse, 10-11;  Alpine,  hypotheses  con- 
cerning, 119;  in  modern  Europe,  257, 
260-61 ;  associated  with  large  head  size, 
265,  266.  See  also  Cephalic  index, 
Cranial  measurements. 

Brahui,  racial  characteristics,  266,  431. 

Bretons,  language,  512;  racial  charac- 
teristics, 514,  520. 

Bristol  crania,  described,  374-75. 

British  Isles,  glaciation  and,  19;  Meso- 
lithic  in,  75-76;  Megalithic  invasion, 
82;  Englishmen  compared  with  Sume- 
rians  and  Egyptians,  83;  Neolithic  in, 
109-113;  Bell  Beaker  culture  in,  148; 
Bronze  Age  in,  131,  157-62;  Urnfields 
invasion,  171;  Kelts  in,  discussed,  187, 
191-93;  Romans  in,  194-95;  invasion 
by  Anglo-Saxons,  208,  by  Danes,  211, 
by  Normans,  211;  Iron  Age  language, 
214;  Bronze  Age  crania  compared  with 


714 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Turks,  235;  stature,  254;  dolichoceph- 
aly  in,  257;  brachycephaly  in,  261; 
pigmentation,  276;  Norwegian  migra- 
tion, 308;  Norse  invasions,  323;  settlers 
in  Iceland,  324;  thralls  in  Sweden,  327; 
Danish  settlements,  333;  racial  study  of, 
370-99;  Mediterranean  types,  *//., 
Plate  25,  figs.  1-4;  Danubian  type,  til., 
Plate  28,  fig.  2;  Hallstatt  and  Keltic 
types,  ill.,  Plate  29,  figs.  2-6;  Dinaric, 
ill.,  Plate  36,  fig.  1.  See  also  Great 
Britain,  Ireland,  Scotland. 
Brittany,  Bronze  Age  in,  165.  See  also 

Bretons. 

Bronze  Age,  discussed,  131-73;  in  W. 
Asia,  135-40;  Minoans  in,  140-42;  in 
Western  Mediterranean,  146-52, 
Basques,  Phoenicians,  Etruscans,  152- 
54;  in  central  Europe,  162-66;  in 
Scandinavia,  1 66—68 ;  in  Eastern  Plains, 
168-70;  cremation  and  final  stage, 
170-71;  survival  in  British  Iron  Age, 
192;  in  British  Isles,  371;  survival  in 
Scotland,  376;  in  France,  512;  in 
Italy,  554. 

Briinn  crania,  described,  36;  survival  of 
head  size,  265;  classified,  289,  290;  sur- 
vivors   in    Europe,    291 ;    strain,    geo- 
graphic    distribution,     294-95,     map; 
types,  in  Sweden,  332;  as  Irish  ances- 
tor, 378;  element  in  Netherlands,  531, 
534;    survivors    in     Scandinavia,     ill., 
Plate  4,  figs.  1-4. 
Brythonic:  see  P-Keltic. 
Bulgaria,    Copper    Age    crania   in,    155; 

movement  of  Bulgars  to,  224. 
Bulgars,  racial  characteristics,  272,  609- 
12;  language,  341 ;  language  distribu- 
tion,   561,    map;    in    Crimea,    582;    in 
Yugoslavia,  587;  invasion  of  Bulgaria, 
610;  in  Dacia,  613;  i//.,  Plate  26,  fig.  1. 
See  also  Bolgars. 
Burgundians,   speech,    205;   origin,    327; 

migration,   536. 

Burgwall  villages,  and  Slavic  origins,  216. 
Burials,  and  racial  study,  14;  Swiss  cist, 
114-15;  French  Neolithic,  117;  Bronze 
Age     W.     Mediterranean,     148;     Bell 
Beaker,  150;  Food  Vessel,  160;  Scyth- 
ian, 197,  200;  Germanic  Iron  Age,  202; 
ship,  202. 
Burushaski,  language,  placed,   175,  417; 

racial  characteristics,  421. 
Buryats,  compared  with  Huns  and  Avars, 
231;  racial  type,  235;  European  influ- 
ence, 296. 


Bushmen,  as  race,  5;  survival  of,  17;  com- 
pared with  Wiltonians,  59;  relation  to 
Asselar  man,  61;  in  Deniker's  system, 
281;  ancestry,  445. 

Byzantines,  placed,  146;  mention  of  Slavs 
in  writings  of,  218. 

Canaanitcs,  described,  432. 

Canary  Islanders,  speech,  462;  racial 
characteristics,  485-88. 

Cappadocians,  described,  85;  Luristan 
crania,  87;  in  Bronze  Age,  137-39; 
distribution,  in  Iron  Age,  176-77, 
chart;  classified,  289,  290;  element  in 
ancient  Jews,  434,  in  Spain,  491,  in 
Italy,  559,  in  Dinarics,  60 J,  in  Osmanli 
Turks,  621,  622,  in  Caucasic-spcakers, 
634. 

Capsian  culture,  described,  39—41;  in 
Spain,  47;  in  N.  Africa,  59. 

Carelia,  Baltic  Finns  in,  340. 

Carelians,  language  distribution  in  Eu- 
rope, 339,  map;  language  stock,  339, 
chart;  described,  340-41 ;  racial  study  of, 
342-45;  compared  with  Permians,  349, 
with  Livs,  352. 

Caries,  early  examples,  43. 

Carniola  crania,  described,  184,  185. 

Carthagians:  see  Phoenicians. 

Carthage  crania,  described,  153. 

Catalan,  in  France,  512. 

Catalonia,  Hallstatt  culture,  182. 

Caucasic  languages,  origin,  175;  speakers 
of,  631 ;  distribution,  631,  map. 

Caucasus,  glaciation  and,  19;*Bronzc  Age 
in,  169;  Iron  Age  language,  175;  as  iron 
center,  181;  racial  study  of,  622,  630- 
34;  distribution  of  races  in,  631,  map; 
Jews  in,  641—42. 

Celts:  see  Kelts. 

Centum,  described,  179. 

Cephalic  index,  in  modern  Europe, 
256-61,  258-59,  map.  See  also  Cranial 
measurements. 

Cerdic,  conquests,  208. 

Cerro  de  Tomillo  crania,  described,  150. 

Chalcolithic:  see  Copper  Age. 

Chamblandes  skeletons,  described,  115. 

Chancelade  crania,  described,  47,  48; 
compared  with  Afalou,  41,  with  Teviec, 
66;  in  racial  classification,  290,  chart; 
compared  with  Lapps,  298. 

Chatelperronian  skeletons,  described,  33. 

Chatti,  origin,  206;  in  Germany,  537. 

Chaudir,  stature,  422;  racial  character- 
istics, 424. 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


715 


Chechens,  distribution,  631,  map;  racial 
characteristics,  633. 

Cheremisses,  distribution  in  Europe,  338, 
map;  language  stock,  339,  chart;  placed, 
340;  Bolgars  and,  341 ;  racial  character- 
istics, 342,  345-47;  compared  with 
Great  Russians,  575-76. 

Cherkesses,  in  Bulgaria,  610;  distribution, 
631,  map;  racial  characteristics,  633— 
34;  ill.,  Plate  17,  fig.  4. 

Chersonese  crania,  described,  206. 

China,  Upper  Palaeolithic  man  in,  49-50; 
historians,  174;  Iranians  in,  227;  Jews 
in,  438;  Assyrians  in,  630. 

Chinese,  in  Turkestan,  634. 

Chiusella  crania,  described,  147. 

Chou  Kou  Tien  crania,  described,  49-50. 

Chude,  described,  300. 

Chuvash,  language  distribution  in  Eu- 
rope, 338,  map;  origin,  341 ;  and  Votiak 
speech,  347;  racial  characteristics, 
577-78;  ill.,  Plate  5,  figs.  1,  2;  Nordic, 
ill.,  Plate  30,  fig.  2. 

Gift,  identified,  614. 

Ciempozuelos  crania,  described,  150. 

Cimbri,  origin,  333;  in  Netherlands,  530. 

Cimmerians,  ousted  by  Scyths,  196;  com- 
pared with  Scyths,  201 ;  contact  with 
Finno-Ugrians,  224;  element  in  Ukrain- 
ians, 569;  in  Crimea,  582. 

Cipley  crania,  described,  214. 

Circassians:  see  Cherkesses. 

Classification,  of  races,  279-96;  Blumen- 
bach's,  280;  Topinard's,  280;  Deniker's, 
280-83;  ,  Sergi's,  283-84;  Ripley's, 
284-85;  von  Eickstedt's,  286-88;  Cz'ek- 
anowski's  system,  288-89;  author's, 
289-96;  schematic  representation,  290, 
chart;  geographic,  294-95,  map. 

Climate,  shifts  and  glacial  retreat,  56;  and 
Palaeolithic  culture,  69;  Neolithic,  78,  ' 
79;  post-glacial  in  Egypt,  92;  Bronze 
Age,  134-35,  168,  170;  effect  on  Neo- 
lithic Age,  220-21;  relation  to  body 
weight,  256;  and  head  size,  267;  and 
pigmentation,  276-77;  effect  on  Nor- 
wegians, 308-309;  in  ancient  Spain, 
489. 

Clothing,  effects  of,  16;  appearance  of, 
20;  trousers,  Iron  Age,  188;  Scythian, 
199;  Lapps,  298. 

Cockney,  origins,  375. 

Collognes,  crania  described,  214. 

Combe  Capelle  cranium,  described,  34; 
compared  with  Briinn  #1,  36,  with 
Gamble's  Cave,  44,  45,  with  Chance- 


lade,  48,  with  Elrnenteitan,  57,  with  al 
fUbaid,  87,  with  Afalou  #28,  40;  cranial 
measurements,  37;  ill.,  52  fig.  5;  rela- 
tion to  Mediterraneans,  83;  in  racial 
classification,  290,  chart. 

Combed  Pottery  culture,  described,  125. 

Coopers,  identified,  506. 

Copper  Age,  Baluchistan  and  Sumeria 
crania,  87;  crania  in  Italy,  101 ;  relation 
to  Bronze  Age,  131  -32;  north  of  Medi- 
terranean lands,  154—57.  See  also  Bronze 
Age. 

Coptic,  classified,  445. 

Copts,  described,  96;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 459-61. 

Corded  people,  example  of  selection,  7; 
origin,  82;  characteristics,  85;  de- 
scribed, 107-109;  compared  with  Long 
Barrow,  111,  with  French  Neolithic, 
116;  invasion  of  Switzerland,  113;  in- 
fluence on  Danish  Neolithic,  122-23; 
route  traced,  128;  in  Asia  Minor,  136; 
in  Bronze  Age  Greece,  144,  145;  in 
Copper  Age  Hungary  and  Switzerland, 
155;  amalgamation  with  Bell  Beaker, 
156,  157;  element  in  Bronze  Age 
Britain,  158,  159;  influence  on  Aunje- 
titz,  162;  clement  in  Saxo-Thuringia, 
164;  and  Esthonian  Bronze  Age,  167— 
68;  in  Bronze  Age  Scandinavia,  168; 
language,  178,  237,  238;  and  diffusion 
of  Indo-European,  180;  and  Hallstatt, 
183,  184;  and  Iron  Age  Norwegian, 
204;  movements  in  Bronze  Age,  132—33, 
chart;  influence  on  Anan'ino,  225;  racial 
influence,  239;  European  survivals, 
254,  265,  286,  319;  classified,  289,  290, 
in  Sweden,  327,  330,  332;  in  Denmark; 
333;  in  British  Isles,  371;  in  Turko- 
mans, 424;  in  Frisians,  534;  in  Neo- 
lithic Germany,  535,  536;  in  Poland, 
563-64,  567;  in  Great  Russians,  575; 
survivals,  ill.,  Plate  27,  figs.  1-4. 

Corneto  Tarquinia  cemetery,  contents 
described,  194;  compared  with  Rhein- 
zabern,  195. 

Cornwall,  speech,  373;  pigmentation,  389; 
stature,  390;  racial  characteristics,  389, 
390,  396;  Cornishmen  in  France,  512, 
514. 

Corsica,  Copper  Age  in,  147;  dolicho- 
cephaly  in,  257, 

Corsicans,  racial  characteristics,  498-500. 

Crania,  number  studied  in  prehistoric 
periods,  14;  criteria  in  measurement  of, 
15.  See  also  individual  crania. 


716 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


Cranial  measurements,  criteria  for,  15; 
techniques  discussed,  241-42;  difficul- 
ties of  varying  techniques,  243-44; 
measuring  anthropometric  differences, 
247-48;  distributions  in  modern  Eu- 
rope, 256-68;  cephalic  index  in  modern 
Europe,  258-59,  map;  head  size  in 
modern  Europe,  261—67;  head  size, 
262—63,  map;  and  pigmentation,  277; 
means  of  principal  cranial  series,  655- 
65;  negro-whites  and  Ethiopians,  4-5. 
Pleistocene:  Galley  Hill  man,  21-22; 
Kanjera  skulls,  23;  Skhul,  27-28;  Upper 
Palaeolithic,  32,  37,  84;  Combe  Capelle, 
34;  Cr6-Magnon,  35;  Solutre  #2,  36; 
Neanderthal,  37,  38-39;  Predrnost  #5, 
37;  Afalou,  41;  Gamble's  Cave  and 
Oldoway,  45;  Elmenteitan,  58;  Asselar 
man,  60;  Erg  el  Ahmar,  61;  Natufians, 
62;  Muge  midden  dwellers,  63-64; 
Tevicc,  65;  Ofnet,  67;  Stangenas,  73; 
Pritzerber,  73;  Mac  Arthur  Cave  B., 
75.  Neolithic:  Mediterraneans,  84; 
Danubian,  85;  Megalithic,  85;  al 
'Ubaid,  87;  Eurafrican,  88;  Kish,  88; 
Tasian,  93;  Badarian,  94;  Copts,  96; 
ancient  Egyptians,  96;  Megalithic 
N.  Africans,  99;  Anau  I,  102;  Banded 
and  Painted,  106;  Corded,  109;  Long 
Barrow,  111;  Lake  Dwellers,  114; 
French  Neolithic,  116,  117;  L'Homme 
Mort,  Lozere,  116;  Belgian  Neolithic, 
118;  Danish  and  Swedish  Neolithic, 
122;  Scandinavian  Neolithic  brachy- 
cephals,  123;  Salis  Roje,  126.  Bronze 
Age:  Alishar,  136;  Megiddo,  138;  early 
Cypriote,  138;  Minoan,  141;  Hagias 
Kosmas,  144;  Asine,  144;  Copper  Age 
Sicilians,  147;  Minorca,  149;  el  Argar, 
151;  Carthage,  153;  Etruscan,  154; 
Bodrogkeresztur,  155;  Bell  Beaker,  156, 
158,  159;  Irish  Food  Vessel,  161; 
Gemeinlebarn,  163;  Aunjetitz,  164; 
Franche  Comt6,  165;  Esthonian  Bronze 
Age,  167;  Bronze  Age  Ukraine,  168; 
Minussinsk,  169,  170.  Iron  Age:  Hall- 
statt,  183;  Glasinac,  184;  German 
Kelts,  188-89;  La  Tene,  189;  Gauls, 
190-91;  Goidelic,  191;  Berkshire  skulls, 
192;  early  Roman,  194;  Novilara 
Illyrians,  195;  Scyths,  199,  200;  Sarma- 
tian,  200;  Sevan  skulls,  201;  Iron  Age 
invaders  of  Scandinavia,  203;  Norwe- 
gian Iron  Age,  204;  Anglo-Saxon,  209, 
210;  Bajuvars,  211;  Alcmanni,  212; 
Nikitsch  and  Vinzen,  213;  Franks,  215; 


Iron  Age  slavs,  Polish,  218;  Wends, 
219;  Ukrainian  Slavs,  219;  Russian 
Slavs,  219;  Anan'ino,  225;  Mordvins, 
225;  Huns,  230;  Avars,  230;  non- 
Mongoloid  Avars,  232;  Petcheneg  and 
Kuman,  234.  North:  Lapps,  303; 
Norwegians,  309,  310,  312,  313,  315, 
316,  317,  318,  319,  320;  Icelanders, 
325;  Swedish,  329,  331;  Danish,  334; 
Faroe  Islanders,  336;  Carelians,  343; 
Ijores  and  Vodes,  345;  Vepses,  345; 
Mordvins  and  Cheremisses,  346,  347; 
Votiaks,  347;  Livs,  352;  Esths,  354; 
Runo  Swedes,  355;  Finns,  357;  Letts, 
362;  Lithuanians,  366;  Lithuanian 
Tatar,  368.  British  Isles:  Scotsmen,  376, 
392-93;  Irish,  377-78,  379;  and  re- 
ligion, in  Ireland,  378;  Aran  Islanders, 
379;  Great  Britain,  392;  Welsh,  392,  398; 
British,  correlation  with  stature  and 
pigmentation,  395-98.  Mediterranean: 
Yemenis,  404,  407;  Hcjaz,  409;  Ru- 
walla,  410;  Mesopotamians,  412;  Ku- 
waitis, 413;  Omanis,  414;  Lenja,  414; 
Persian,  418;  Afghans  and  Pathans, 
419;  Dardic  speakers,  420;  Burushaski, 
421;  Kurds,  421;  Bilikani  Kurds,  422; 
Turkomans,  422;  Azerbaijanis,  425; 
Hadhramis,  427,  428;  Baluchis  and 
Brahui,  431;  Samaritans,  439;  Palestine 
Jews,  439;  Yemenite  Jews,  440;  Meso- 
potamian  Jews,  442,  443;  N.  African 
Jews,  443;  E.  African  Hamites,  450-51; 
modern  Egyptian,  459;  Khargan,  461; 
Siwans  and  Awjila  people,  468;  Magia- 
bras,  469;  Marabutic  tribes,  470; 
Arabo-Berbers,  470;  Tuareg,  472; 
Mzabites,  475;  Kharejites,  475-76; 
Kabyles,  478;  Riffians,  481;  Ghomara, 
483;  Shluh,  484;  Guanche,  486;  Gana- 
rians,  487;  Spaniards,  491,  492-93; 
Spanish  Moors,  495;  Portuguese,  496- 
97;  Corsicans,  499;  Sardinians,  500; 
Basques,  502,  503;  Gypsies,  506-07. 
Central  ^one:  French,  515-17,  518; 
Saaftigen,  526;  Belgians,  527-28;  Friter- 
pian  and  Groterpian,  531 ;  West  Fri- 
sian, 531 ;  Groningen  people,  531 ;  Ztiid 
Beveland,  531-32;  Netherlands,  532; 
Frisian,  533-34;  old  South  German, 
538-39;  German,  539;  Fehmarn  Ger- 
mans, 265,  540;  Vogclberg  Germans, 
542;  Keuperfranken  Germans,  543; 
Lake  Constance  Germans,  543;  Ale- 
manni,  545;  Miesbacher  Germans,  545; 
Questenberger  Germans,  545;  Sudeten 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


717 


Germans,  546;  Swiss,  549;  Lower  and 
Upper  Austria,  551;  Tyrol,  552-53; 
Pompeiian,  555;  Italians,  555,  556, 
558;  Bohemian  Czechs,  560;  Czechs, 
562;  Wends,  562;  Poles,  565-66;  White 
Russians,  568;  Kiev  Ukrainians,  571; 
Ruthenians,  571;  Huziil  Ruthcnians, 
572;  Great  Russians,  573-74;  Chuvash, 
577;  Bashkirs,  578;  Mcshcheryaks,  578; 
Kirghiz,  579-80;  Crimean  Tatars,  583; 
Kalmucks,  583;  Magyars,  585;  Slo- 
venes, 588;  Croats,  588;  Serbs,  589- 
90;  Bosnians,  590;  Dalmatians,  591; 
Montenegrins,  593;  Albanian  Ghegs, 
597-98;  Toscs,  602-03;  Greeks,  604- 
05,  606;  Cretans,  608;  Bulgars,  610- 
11;  Vlachs,  614-15,  616-17;  Osmanli 
Turks,  619,  621,  622;  Syrian  Bedawin, 
623;  Syrians,  623;  Cypriots,  625-;  Ar- 
menians, 626;  Assyrians,  630;  Tats,  632; 
Ossetes,  632;  Caucasic-speakers,  633; 
Tajiks,  636;  Turkestan  Jews,  639-40; 
Caucasus  Jews,  641;  Karaite  Jews,  642; 
Ashkenazim  Jews,  644. 

Cremation,  and  racial  study,  14;  growth 
of,  166;  at  end  of  Bronze  Age,  170-71; 
effect  on  Lausitz  culture,  188;  Slavic, 
217-18;  Bronze  Age,  in  British  Isles, 
371. 

Crcswellian  culture,  appearance  of,  75. 

Cretans,  later,  compared  with  Minoans, 
142;  language  group,  175;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 272,  608-09;  ill.,  Plate  22, 
fig.  1.  Cretans,  Bronze  Age:  see  Mi- 
noans. 

Crete,  Neolithic  in,  82,  101,  Bronze  Age 
in,  135,  140-42. 

Crimea,  racial  study  of,  582-83;  Jews  in, 
641-42. 

Crimean  Tatars,  racial  characteristics, 
577,  582-83. 

Croatia  crania,  described,  184. 

Croats,  language  distribution,  561,  map; 
racial  characteristics,  587,  588;  Dinaric, 
ill.,  Plate  38,/£.  3. 

Cr6-Magnons,  described,  35-36;  /'//.,  35; 
compared  with  Afalou,  41—44;  facial 
characteristics,  42;  relation  to  Lake 
Ladogia,  125—26;  European  survivals, 
285-86,  291 ;  as  Irish  ancestor,  378. 

Cruithrii,  language,  187;  in  Ireland, 
372. 

Cumans:  see  Kumans. 

Cunama,  identified,  447-48;  described, 
457. 

Cushites,  Highland,  distribution,  446. 


Cushitic,  language  classified,  445;  dis- 
tribution in  E.  Africa,  446,  map. 

Cycladic,  influence  on  Minoan,  142;  in 
Bronze  Age  Greece,  144. 

Cypriots,  racial  types  in  Bronze  Age,  ills., 
139,  figs.  27,  28;  in  Bronze  Age  Greece, 
1 45 ;  compared  with  Minoans,  1 42,  with 
Narbonne,  149,  with  Etruscans,  154, 
with  British  Bell  Beakers,  159,  with 
Short  Cist,  160,  with  Glasinac,  185; 
racial  characteristics,  625. 

Cyprus,  Bronze  Age  in,  135,  138-40;  ra- 
cial study  of,  624-25. 

Cyrenaicans,  language,  467. 

Czechoslovakia,  Bell  Beaker  in,  156;  lan- 
guage distribution,  561,  map. 

Czechs,  racial  study  of,  559-62;  ill., 
Plate  12,  fig.  4;  Plate  26,  fig.  4. 

Dacians,  described,  613. 

Daggatuns,  identified,  438. 

Dalrnatia,  Vlachs  in,  614. 

Dalmatians,  classified,  587;  racial  charac- 
teristics, 591. 

Dalo-Nordic,  in  von  Eickstedt's  system, 
288. 

Danakil,  distribution,  447;  described,  457. 

Danes,  in  British  Isles,  211,  373,  389;  ra- 
cial characteristics,  254,  273,  332-37; 
Neolithic  culture  in  Netherlands,  530; 
Borreby  type,  ill.,  Plate  5,  fig.  1 ;  Corded 
type,  ill.,  Plate  27,  fig.  3;  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic Nordic,  z//.,  Plate  33,  fig.  2.  See 
alw  Denmark. 

"Danes'  Grave,"  contents  discussed,  191  — 
92. 

Danubians,  movement  traced,  81-82, 
map  2;  characteristics,  85;  in  S.  Russia, 
104;  as  culture  bearers,  105-07;  com- 
pared with  French  Neolithic,  116;  route 
traced,  127;  in  Bronze  Age  Greece,  144; 
origin  of,  172;  speech  unknown,  178;  as 
original  Indo-Europeans,  180;  relation 
to  Hallstatt,  184;  movements  in  Bronze 
Age,  132-33,  chart;  crania  compared  to 
Finns,  225;  migration  and  language, 
237;  survivals,  254,  260,  265;  classified, 
289,  290;  geographic  distribution,  294- 
95,  map;  element  in  Germany,  535,  in 
Ukrainians,  570,  in  Great  Russians, 
574,  in  Caucasic-speakers,  633—34;  i//., 
Plate  2^  figs.  1-4. 

Dardic  language,  distribution,  416;  Ka- 
firs, 417;  speakers  described,  420—21. 

Deformation,  artificial,  in  Cyprus  and 
Egypt,  139;  in  Caucasus,  169;  Thurin- 


718 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


gian,  212;  in  Albania,  600;  Armenians, 
628. 

Deir  Tasa,  site  of  Tasian  culture,  93. 

Denmark,  Erteb^lle  culture  in,  72;  Neo- 
lithic skulls,  122;  brachycephaly  in, 
123;  amber  trading  route,  134;  Bell 
Beakers  in,  157;  Bronze  Age  in,  166-67; 
Germanic  expansion,  181;  Germanic 
peoples  in,  202;  Iron  Age  crania,  203- 
04,  207.  See  also  Danes. 

Dibra,  classified,  595;  distribution,  596, 
map, 

Dinarics,  first  appearance  and  origin, 
140;  and  Bronze  Age  Cypriots,  140; 
type,  in  Bronze  Age  Greece,  145;  Cop- 
per Age  sailors,  1 46-47 ;  arrival  in  Cop- 
per Age  Italy,  148;  Bell  Beaker  people 
in  Spain  as,  150;  among  Basques,  152; 
in  Carthage,  153;  in  Rhincland,  156— 
57;  modern  derivation,  157;  element  in 
British  Bell  Beaker,  159;  influence  on 
Aunjetitz,  163,  appearance  of,  172-73; 
distribution  in  Iron  Age,  176—77,  chart; 
among  Magyars,  233;  racial  charac- 
teristics, 254,  266,  268,  278;  in  Deniker's 
system,  282,  283;  in  von  Eickstedt's 
system,  287;  in  Czekaiiowski's  system, 
288,  289;  classified,  293;  geographic 
distribution,  294-95,  map;  in  British 
Isles,  371;  in  Ireland,  377,  383;  element 
in  ancient  Jews,  434,  in  Spain,  490, 
491,  in  Portugal,  497,  in  Basques,  503, 
in  France,  521,  522,  in  Frisians,  534,  in 
Germany,  535,  536,  538-39,  541,  542, 
543,  544,  545,  546,  547,  in  Switzerland, 
550,  552,  553,  in  Austria,  551,  in  Italy, 
554,  555,  559,  in  Czechs,  562,  in 
Poland,  563,  566,  567,  in  Ukrainians, 
571 ,  in  Ruthenians,  572,  in  White  Rus- 
sians, 576,  in  Magyars,  586,  in  Yugo- 
slavia, 587,  in  Slovenes,  588,  in  Serbs, 
589,  in  Montenegrins,  592,  594,  595,  in 
Albanians,  597,  598,  599,  600,  601,  in 
Greeks,  606,  607,  in  Bulgars,  611,  612, 
in  Vlachs,  615,  616,  617,  in  Lebanese, 
624,  in  Cypriots,  625,  in  Ossetes,  632, 
in  Tajiks,  637,  638,  in  Turkestan  Jews, 
640,  in  Caucasus  Jews,  641 ;  theory  of 
hybridization  discussed,  601—02;  re- 
lation to  Armenoids,  626,  627,  629; 
blend  resulting  in,  647;  principle  of, 
ill.,  Plate  35,  figs.  1-4;  types,  ill.,  Plate 
36,figs.  1-4,  Plate  37, figs.  1-4,  Plate  38, 
figs.  1-4,  Plate  39,  figs.  1-6,  Plate  40, 
figs.  1-4,  Plate  41,  figs.  1-4,  Plate  43, 
figs,  1  6. 


Dobruja  district,  language  distribution, 
561,  map;  racial  complexity,  612-13. 

Dolichocephaly,  in  modern  Europe,  256, 
257-59.  See  also  Cephalic  index,  Cra- 
nial measurements. 

Domestic  animals,  in  Mesolithic  period, 
56;  of  Muge  midden  dwellers,  63;  Neo- 
lithic husbandry,  78;  date  of  beginning, 
79;  Fayum,  93;  Danubian,  105;  Corded, 
107,  108;  horse  as  traction  animal,  135; 
Indo-Europeans  and,  178;  influence  on 
Indo-European  vocabulary,  180;  Ira- 
nian, 227;  horse  culture,  235,  237,  238, 
239,  323;  reindeer  culture,  239,  299; 
cattle  complex  in  Africa,  444—45;  cam- 
els in  Africa,  445,  466. 

Domitz  crania,  described,  74. 

Dorians,  invasion  of  Crete,  142;  relation 
to  Sphakiots,  608. 

Drang  nach  Osten,  racial  origin,  537. 

Dravidians,  relation  to  Badarians,  95; 
in  Deniker's  system,  281,  282. 

Druzes,  identified,  623;  brachycephaly, 
261;  til.,  Plate  15,  fig.  2;  Dinaric,  til., 
Plate  41,  fig.  4. 

Dukagin,  classified,  595,  distribution, 
596,  map;  racial  characteristics,  597, 
598,  600,  601. 

Dunstable  crania,  described,  210. 

Dutch:  see  Netherlanders. 

East  ShefFord  crania,  described,  210. 

Edomites,  identified,  434. 

Egypt,  Neolithic,  78,  91-98;  use  of  metal, 
131-32;  invasion  of  Hyksos,  135;  in- 
fluence in  Bronze  Age  Spain,  148; 
Gypsies  in,  504;  Turks  in,  618. 

Egyptians,  compared  with  Englishmen 
and  Neolithic  Swiss,  83,  with  Long 
Barrow,  111,  with  Chamblandes,  115, 
with  Minoans,  141;  Neolithic,  91-98, 
128;  study  of,  through  politics  and  lan- 
guage, 174;  language,  175,  445;  burials 
compared  with  Scythians,  197;  dolicho- 
cephaly,  256;  racial  classification  by, 
279;  drawings  of  Jews,  til.,  433,  figs. 
33-36;  modern,  racial  characteristics, 
458-62;  on  ancient  Libyans,  464. 

Eire:  see  Ireland. 

el  Argar  crania,  described,  150-51;  com- 
pared with  Etruscan,  154. 

Elmenteitan  culture,  men  described,  57- 
59;  facial  characteristics,  85;  compared 
with  Corded,  108. 

England,  Magdalenian  crania  in,  47; 
Magdalenian  survival  in,  65;  Neolithic 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


719 


invasion,  82;  head  size,  265;  migration 
of  Jews  to,  437;  Gypsies  in,  505,  506, 
507.  See  also  British  Isles. 

Environmental  response,  discussed,  9-12. 

Epirotes,   racial   characteristics,  604—05. 

Erg  el  Ahrnar  cranium,  described,  61—62. 

Eritreans,  classified,  445. 

Erteb^lle  culture,  described,  72. 

Eskimos,  modification  in  masticatory 
muscles,  29;  Magdalenian  ancestry, 
47-48. 

Esthonia,  crania  described,  167—68;  Meso- 
lithic  survivals  in,  226;  language,  338; 
Baltic  Finns  in,  340,  351. 

Esths,  classified,  223;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 254,  257,  353-55;  language  dis- 
tribution in  Europe,  338,  map;  language 
stock,  339,  chart. 

Ethiopians,  relationship  with  Badarians, 
95;  in  Deniker's  system,  281,  282; 
classified,  445;  in  Egypt,  459;  ill., 
Plate  20,  fig.  3.  See  also  Amharas. 

Etruscans,  Bronze  Age,  152,  153-54;  lan- 
guage, 175;  distribution,  554. 

Eurafrican,  crania,  87,  88,  compared  with 
Neolithic  Spanish,  100,  with  Bronze 
Age  Trojans,  137;  in  Sergi's  classifica- 
tion, 284. 

Eurasiatics,  in  Sergi's  classification,  284. 

Eurybates,  pigmentation,   145. 

Euskarians,  compared  with  Bronze  Age 
Basques,  152;  as  linguistic  stock,  178. 

Evrcrneiset,  language  classified,  339. 

Eye  color:  see  Pigmentation. 

Eye  width:  see  Facial  characteristics. 

Facial  characteristics,  in  modern  Europe, 
267-68,  278;  and  pigmentation,  277; 
til.,  Plates  1-46.  Pleistocene:  Grimaldi, 
33;  Combe  Capclle,  34;  Lautsch,  36; 
Pfedmost  #3,  37;  Afalou,  41-42; 
Chancelade,  48;  Elmenteitan,  58;  As- 
selar  man,  60;  Erg  el  Ahmar,  61 ;  Natu- 
fians,  62;  Muge  midden  dwellers,  64; 
Teviec,  65;  Ofnet,  67;  Murzak  Koba, 
68;  Pritzerber,  73.  Neolithic:  Mediter- 
raneans, 84;  Danubians,  85;  Megalithic, 
85;  al  rUbaid,  87;  Kish  crania,  88; 
Sumerian,  ill.,  89,  figs.  17-20;  Assyrian, 
90-91;  Tasian,  93;  Badarian,  94-95; 
Egyptian,  *//.,  97,  figs.  22-25;  Naqada, 
95-96;  Lower  Egyptians,  96;  Anau  I, 
102,  103;  Banded  and  Painted,  106; 
Corded,  108;  Long  Barrow,  111;  Lake 
Dwellers,  114;  Alpine,  118;  Swedish 
and  Danish,  1 22 ;  Scandinavian  brachy- 


cephals,  123-24;  Lake  Ladoga,  125-26; 
Salis  Roje,  126.  Bronze  Age:  Alishar, 
136;  Megiddo,  138;  Umm  Qatafa,  138; 
Early  Cypriote,  138;  Minoan,  142; 
Hagias  Kosmas,  144;  Asine,  144;  Mi- 
norca, 149;  el  Argar,  151;  Carthage, 
153;  Etruscan,  154;  Bell  Beaker,  156, 
159;  Irish  Food  Vessel,  161;  Gcmeinle- 
barn,  163;  Esthonian,  167;  Caucasian, 
168;  Minussinsk,  169.  Iron  Age: 
Hallstatt,  183;  Glasinac,  185;  German 
Kelts,  189;  LaTenc,  189;  Goidelic,  191; 
early  Roman,  194;  Novilara  Illyrians, 
195;  Scythian,  199;  Sevan  crania,  201; 
W.  Germanics,  207;  Anglo-Saxon,  209, 
210;  Nikitsch,  Vinzen,  213;  Slavs, 
Polish,  218;  Wends,  219;  Anan'ino, 
225;  Hun,  230;  Avars,  230;  Petcheneg 
and  Kuman,  234.  North:  Lapps,  303- 
04;  Samoyed,  307;  Norwegians,  310, 
311-12,  314,  316,  317-18,  319;  Ice- 
landers, 325;  Swedish,  329-30;  Danes, 
334;  Faroe  Islanders,  336;  Carelians, 
343,  344;  Mordvins  and  Cheremisses, 
346,  347;  Votiak,  348;  Syryenians  and 
Permiaks,  349,  Ostiaks  and  Voguls, 
350-51;  Livs,  352-53;  Runo  Swedes, 
354;  Finns,  357-58,  359;  Letts,  363, 
364;  Lithuanians,  366,  367;  Lithuanian 
Tatars,  368.  British  Lies:  seventeenth 
century  Londoners,  375;  Scotsmen, 
376;  Irish,  378,  379,  381-82;  Aran 
Islanders,  379,  381 ;  Upper  Palaeolithic, 
383-84;  Great  Britain,  393  -97;  com- 
posite English,  394,  fig.  32;  Welsh,  398. 
Mediterranean:  Yemenis,  404,  406-07, 
408;  Hejaz,  409;  Ruwalla,  410;  Meso- 
potamians,  412-13;  Kuwaitis,  413,  414; 
Lcnja,  414,  415;  Persian,  418;  Afghans 
and  Pathans,  419;  Dardic  speakers, 
420-21;  Burushaski,  421;  Kurds,  421; 
Turkomans,  423,  424;  Veddoid  and 
Negroid,  426;  Hadhramis,  427-28, 
429;  Baluchis  and  Brahui,  431 ;  Samari- 
tans, 439;  Palestine  Jews,  439;  Yemen- 
ite Jews,  440;  Jewish,  discussed,  441-42; 
Mesopotarnian  Jews,  442,  443;  N. 
African  Jews,  443 ;  E.  African  Hamites, 
450,  451-52,  454-55;  modern*  Egyp- 
tians, 460;  Khargan,  461 ;  ancient 
Libyans,  464;  Siwans  and  Awjila  peo- 
ple, 468,  469;  Arabo-Berbers,  470; 
Tuareg,  472,  473;  Mzabites,  475,  476; 
Kharejites,  476;  Algerian  tribesmen, 
476;  Shawia,  477;  Kabyles,  478,  479; 
Riffians,  481,  482-83;  Shluh,  484; 


720 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


Guanche,  486;  Canarians,  487;  Span- 
iards, 492,  493;  Andalusians,  493,  494; 
Portuguese,  497;  Sardinians,  500-01; 
Basques,  502,  503;  Gypsies,  507. 
Central  Zone;  Frenchmen,  517-18,  521; 
Mendonck  Belgians,  528-29;  Frisian, 
534;  Fehmarn  Germans,  540,  541; 
Vogelberg  Germans,  542;  Lake  Con- 
stance Germans,  543;  Genkingen  Ger- 
mans, 544;  Questenberger  Germans, 
545-46;  Sudeten  Germans,  546;  Swiss, 
549-50;  Tyrolese,  553;  Pompeiian,  555; 
Italians,  556-57,  558;  Poles,  566-67; 
White  Russians,  568;  Volhyn  Ukrain- 
ians, 570-71;  Ruthenians,  572;  Great 
Russians,  574,  575;  Chuvash,  577;  Bash- 
kirs, 578-79;  Meshcheryaks,  578-79; 
Kirghiz,  580,  581;  Kalmucks,  583; 
Magyars,  585,  586;  Slovenes,  588; 
Croats,  588;  Serbs,  590;  Montenegrins, 
592,  593-94;  Albanian  Ghegs,  598,  599- 
600;  Toscs,  603;  Greeks,  606-07; 
Cretans,  608;  Bulgars,  611;  Vlachs, 
615-16,  617;  Osmanli  Turks,  619-20, 
621;  Lebanese,  624;  Armenians,  626- 
27,  628;  Assyrians,  630;  Ossetes,  632; 
Caucasic-speakers,  633;  Tajiks,  636, 
637-38;  Turkestan  Jews,  640;  Cau- 
casus Jews,  641—42;  Karaite  Jews,  642; 
Ashkenazim,  644. 

Faki,  identified,  447. 

Falasha,  identified,  438. 

Faliscans,  language  classified,  193;  origin, 
554. 

Falster,  brachycephaly  in,  123. 

Faroe  Islanders,  settlers  in  Iceland,  324; 
racial  characteristics,  336. 

Farringdon  Street  crania,  described, 
375. 

Fatjanovo  culture,  placed,  104;  compared 
with  Corded,  107. 

Fayum  people,  described,  93. 

Fehmarners,  racial  characteristics,  265, 
540-41;  ill.,  Plate  6,  fig.  1. 

Fellahin,  racial  characteristics,  459-61. 

Fenno-Nordic,  in  von  Eickstedt's  system, 
288. 

"Fertile  Crescent,"  placed,  175. 

Finger-chopping,  during  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic, 43. 

Finland,  glaciation  and,  19;  Lapps  in, 
299,  301,  302,  303;  Baltic  Finns  in, 
340;  county  divisions  of,  355,  map; 
Gypsies  in,  505. 

Fiimroark,  survival  of  Upper  Palaeolithic 
implements,  57;  Lapps  in,  299. 


Finno-Ugrian  peoples,  hypothesis  con- 
cerning, 125;  relation  with  Sumerian, 
175;  discussed,  223-26;  relation  to 
Samoyedic,  306;  racial  study  of,  337- 
68;  language  relationships  of  peoples 
speaking,  339,  chart. 

Finns,  racial  history  placed,  125;  distribu- 
tion in  Iron  Age,  176—77,  chart;  com- 
pared with  Scyths,  197;  Slavic  invasion, 
217;  language,  236;  racial  characteris- 
tics of  Finns  as  whole,  254,  257,  261, 
265,  268,  278,  337-59;  language  dis- 
tribution in  Europe,  338;  language 
stock,  339,  chart;  in  Deniker's  system, 
283;  mixture  with  Samoyeds,  307;  in- 
fluence on  E.  Norwegians,  313;  influ- 
ence in  Sweden,  328;  racial  study  of 
E.,  342-51;  racial  study  of  Baltic, 
351-59;  Livs  compared  with  true,  353; 
racial  study  of,  in  Finland,  355-59; 
compared  with  Great  Russians,  575-76; 
element  in  Mongoloid  Russia,  578; 
Borrcby  types,  ill.,  Plate  5,  fig.  5;  East 
Baltic  type,  til.,  Plate  7,  fig.  5;  Upper 
Palaeolithic  survival,  ill.,  Plate  9,  fig.  4; 
Corded,  ill.,  Plate  27,  fig.  1 ;  Dinaric, 
i//.,  Plate  35,  fig.  4.  See  also  Finno- 
Ugrians. 

Fis,  defined  and  described,  595-97. 

Fjelkinge  cranium,  ill.,  54,  fig.  12. 

Flanders:  see  Flemings. 

Flemings,  language  distribution,  512; 
racial  characteristics,  519,  523,  524-25, 
526-29;  Nordic  blend,  ill.,  Plate  34, 

fig-  2. 

Food  Vessel  peoples,  movements  in  Bronze 
Age,  132-33,  chart;  described,  160-61; 
in  Ireland,  161-62;  routes  of  invasion, 
162;  in  British  Isles,  371. 

France,  Magdalenian  skulls  in,  47;  Meso- 
lithic  man  in,  64-66;  Danubian  settlers 
in,  104;  Neolithic  in,  115-18;  Bronze 
Age  in,  165-66;  Kelts  in,  187;  invasion 
by  Goths,  Gepidae,  Vandals,  205; 
Franks  in,  206,  214-15;  invasion  by 
Huns,  228;  Norwegian  migration  to, 
308;  migration  of  Jews  to,  437;  Basques 
in,  501-04;  Gypsies  in,  505,  506-07. 
See  also  Frenchmen. 

Franche  Comt6  crania,  described,  165. 

Franks,  origin,  206;  in  Belgium,  524,  525; 
in  Netherlands,  529;  in  Germany,  537. 

French  language,  in  Switzerland,  548. 

Frenchmen,  racial  characteristics,  255, 
257,  260,  264,  265,  266,  511-22; 
thralls  in  Sweden,  327;  immigrants  to 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


721 


British  Isles,  374;  Alpine,  ill.,  Plate  12, 
fig.  2;  ill.,  Plate  15,  figs.  2,  3;  Atlanto- 
Mediterranean,  ill.,  Plate  23,  fig.  2; 
Nordic  blend,  ill.,  Plate  34,  /£.  4;  Di- 
naric,  ill.,  Plate  36,  fig.  3.  &£  G/JO 
France. 

Frisians,  origin,  206;  crania  compared 
with  Hannover,  207;  placed,  332;  in 
Sweden,  328;  in  Belgium  524;  racial 
characteristics,  529-35. 

Friterpia  crania,  described,  531. 

Fulah,  identified,  474. 

Fundul  Moldovii  Vlachs,  racial  charac- 
teristics, 616. 

Fiinen,  dolichoccphaly  in,  123. 

Gaelic,  distribution,  372,  373. 

Gaguz,  in  Rumania,  612. 

Galatian  colony,  Keltic,  187. 

Galicia,  outpost  of  Kelts,  186;  Jews  in, 
642. 

Gallas,  head  size,  266;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 445,  447,  448,  449-57;  ill.,  Plate 
20,  fig.  4. 

Galley  Hill  man,  described,  21-22;  com- 
pared with  Skhul,  27,  with  Upper 
Palaeolithic,  31,  with  Grimaldi,  33,  34, 
with  Combe  Cappele,  34,  with  Cr6- 
Magnon,  36,  with  Afalou  #28,  40,  with 
Gamble's  Cave,  44,  with  Elmenteitan, 
57,  with  al  rUbaid,  87,  with  Kilgreany, 
112;  height,  32;  ill.,  52,  fig.  4;  as  ances- 
tor of  Mediterranean  group,  83;  rela- 
tion to  S.  Russian  Neolithic,  104;  in 
racial  classification,  290,  chart;  placed, 
370. 

Gamble's  Cave  crania,  described,  44-46. 

Gauls,  described,  190-91;  crania  com- 
pared with  Roman,  194;  in  Belgium, 
523.  See  also  Kelts. 

Gemeinlebarn  crania,  described,^  163. 

Genkingen  Germans,  racial  characteris- 
tics, 544-45. 

Geography,  Mesolithic,  71,  and  71  map  1; 
Mesolithic,  72;  Egypt,  92;  Norway, 
308;  Sweden,  326,  329;  Denmark,  334; 
Arabia,  401;  Yemen,  402;  and  stature, 
in  France,  514-15;  Belgium,  523;  Neth- 
erlands, 530;  Switzerland,  547-48; 
Poland,  563. 

Georgians,  language,  origin,  175;  distribu- 
tion, 631,  map;  racial  characteristics, 
633-34. 

Gepidae,  speech,  205;  crania,  206;  con- 
version to  Christianity,  214;  migrations, 
536. 


Germanics,  distribution  in  Iron  Age,  176- 
77,  chart;  speech  classified,  179;  expan- 
sion in  Iron  Age,  181 ;  crania  compared 
to  Finns,  225;  in  Portugal,  495;  in 
France,  512;  language,  Flemish,  524; 
element  in  Netherlands,  529. 

Germans,  racial  characteristics,  254,  260, 
264,  265,  535-47;  in  Sweden,  328;  in- 
fluence in  Baltic,  361;  and  Lithuani- 
ans, 365;  language  in  France,  512; 
in  Switzerland,  548;  in  pre-Munich 
Czechoslovakia,  559;  in  Crimea,  582; 
in  Rumania,  612;  Neo-Danubian,  ill., 
Plate  31,  fig.  3;  Upper  Palaeolithic 
Nordic,  ill.,  Plate  33,  fig.  3;  Alpines, 
ill.,  Plate  11,  figs.  1-4;  Dinaric,  ill., 
Plate  35,  figs.  1,  2;  Borreby  type,  til., 
Plate  6,  figs.  1-3. 

Germany,  effect  of  early  migrations,  8; 
glaciation  and,  1 9 ;  Magdalenian  crania 
in,  47;  Mesolithic  period  in,  73-74;  as 
route  of  Neolithic,  101;  Corded  people 
in,  109;  brachycephaly  in  Neolithic, 
124;  Bell  Beaker  in,  156;  Food  Vessel 
prototypes,  162;  Hallstatt  culture  in, 
182, 183-84;  Kelts  in,  186,  188-89;  Ger- 
manic peoples  in,  202;  invasion  by 
Slavs,  217;  Slavs  in,  218-19;  invasion 
by  Huns,  228;  Jews  in,  437,  642;  Gyp- 
sies in,  505;  E.,  language  distribution, 
561,  map. 

Gerrhi,  Land  of  the,  described,  197. 

Ghegs,  identified,  595;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 595-602;  Nordic,  ill.,  Plate  30, 
fig.  3;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  39,  figs.  2,  4,  5. 

Ghomara,  invasion  and  origin,  463,  465; 
language,  467;  distribution,  480;  racial 
characteristics,  483. 

Ghuzz:  see  Seljuks. 

Gibraltar,  as  highway  of  Mesolithic  in- 
fluences, 69 ;  Neolithic  invasion  by  way 
of,  82. 

Glaciers,  effects  and  extent  of,  19-20,  56, 
69;  retreat  to  Scandinavia,  effects  of, 
78. 

Glasgow  crania,  described,  375-76. 

Glasinac  crania,  described,  184-85,  190, 

Glossary,  666-83, 

Gloucester,  Roman  burial,  195. 

Goidelic:  see  Q-Keltic. 

Goidels,  in  Ireland,  371,  372. 

Gold,  early  use  of,  134;  as  medium  of  ex- 
change, 166. 

Gorals,  identified,  571. 

Goths,  ousting  of  Sarmatians,  197;  speech, 
205;  invasions  by,  205;  crania,  206; 


722 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


origin,  327;  in  Spain,  490;  migrations, 
536;  in  Crimea,  582;  in  Dacia,  613. 

Gotland,  Corded  skull,  55,  fig.  15, 

Great  Russians,  racial  study  of,  572-76. 

Greece,  Neolithic,  82,  101;  influence  in 
Bronze  Age  Spain,  148;  cremation  in- 
troduced, 171;  Keltic  invasion,  187;  in- 
vasion by  Goths,  205 ;  language  distribu- 
tion, 561,  map;  Osrnanli  Turks  in,  617. 

Greeks,  study  through  politics  and  lan- 
guage, 174;  Iron  Age  language  group, 
175;  influence  on  Kelts,  187;  sculpture 
of  Kelts,  190;  influence  on  Scythian 
art,  198-99;  religion  compared  with 
Norse,  202;  racial  classification  by,  279; 
migration  of  Jews  among,  436;  in 
Egypt,  458;  in  Corsica,  499;  in  France, 
512;  in  Sicily,  554;  in  Crimea,  582; 
racial  characteristics,  604-09;  in  Bul- 
garia, 610;  Vlachs  in,  614;  in  Turkey, 
618;  in  Asia  Minor,  compared  with 
Turks,  619;  in  Cyprus,  624;  Dinaric, 
ill.,  Plate  39,  fig.  6;  ill ,  Plate  14,  fig.  5. 

Greenland  Eskimos,  crania,  30. 

Greenlanders,  decrease  in  stature,  10. 

Grimaldi  skeletons,  described,  33—34; 
compared  with  Afalou  //28,  40,  with 
Gamble's  Cave,  44,  with  Assclar  man, 
60;  in  racial  classification,  290,  chart. 

Groningen  people,  described,  531. 

Groterpia  crania,  described,  531. 

Guanche,  crania,  compared  with  Cro- 
Magnon,  285;  identified,  462;  racial 
characteristics,  484-86. 

Gudea,  King,  described,  90;  ill.,  89,  fig. 
18. 

Guipuzcoa  skeletons,  described,  152. 

Guraghes,  language,  447. 

Gypsies,  racial  characteristics,  504—07; 
in  Rumania,  612;  in  Turkestan,  635; 
ill.,  Plate  1 9,  figs.  1,  2. 

Gzennaya,  identified,  480. 

Haddcndoa,  described,  457. 

Hadhramauti,  head  size,  266;  described, 
402-03;  missionaries,  427;  racial 
characteristics,  427-30;  and  Judaism, 
438;  in  Ethiopia,  447;  compared  with 
Hamites,  452;  ill.,  Plate  19,  fig.  5; 
Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  43,  fig.  3. 

Hagias  Kosmas  crania,  described,  144. 

Hagios  Nikolas,  people  described,  142. 

Hainburg-Teichtal  site,  placed,  163. 

Hair  color:  see  Pigmentation. 

Hair  form,  Assyrian,  90—91;  classified, 
277-78;  in  Deniker's  system,  280-83; 


Lapps,  302-03;  Norway,  311,  317; 
Icelandics,  324;  Mordvin  Cheremisses, 
347;  Votiaks,  348;  Livs,  353;  Letts, 
363-64,  365,  367;  Livs  and  Kurs,  364; 
Lithuanian,  366-67;  Irish,  380;  Great 
Britain,  393;  Yemenis,  404-05;  Hejaz, 
409;  Mesopotamians,  412;  Kuwaitis, 
414;  Afghans  and  Pathans,  420;  Dardic 
speakers,  421;  Turkomans,  423;  Ved- 
doid  and  Negroid,  426;  Hadhramauti, 
428,  429;  Baluchis  and  Brahui,  431; 
E.  African  Hamites,  453-54,  456-57; 
modern  Egyptians,  460;  Siwans  and 
Awjila  people,  469;  Arabo-Berbers, 
470;  Mzabites,  475;  Kabyles,  478; 
Rirfians,  482;  Spaniards,  492;  Andalu- 
sians,  493;  Gypsies,  506 ;  Mediterraneans 
as  whole,  508;  French,  521;  Italians, 
557,  558;  Poles,  566-67;  White  Rus- 
sians, 568;  Great  Russians,  574,  575, 
576;  Kirghiz,  580-81;  Kalmucks,  583; 
Montenegrins,  593;  Albanian  Ghegs, 
599;  Osmanli  Turks,  620;  Armenians, 
628;  Turkestan  Jews,  640;  Ashkenazim 
Jews,  645-46. 

Hallstatt  culture,  language,  181;  de- 
scribed, 182-85;  compared  with 
"Danes'  Grave,"  192,  with  Scyths,  199, 
with  Visigoths,  206,  with  Thuringians, 
212-13;  in  Norway,  309-10;  predomi- 
nance, in  Sweden,  329;  in  Germany, 
536;  in  Tyrol,  552;  in  Italy,  554. 

Hamalaiset,  identified,  356, 

Hamburg  culture,  and  Magdalcnian,  70. 

Hamites,  modern  African,  described,  45; 
intermingling  with  Bushmen,  59;  stat- 
ure, 255;  dolichocephaly  among,  257; 
head  size,  265-66;  compared  with 
Tuareg,  473. 

Hamitic,  linguistic  stock,  178,  445;  in 
Deniker's  system,  281;  in  N.  Africa, 
462. 

Hannover  crania,  described,  207;  com- 
pared with  Thuringians,  212,  with 
Iron  Age  Polish  Slavs,  218. 

Haratin,  identified,  466. 

Has,  classified,  595;  distribution,  596, 
map;  racial  characteristics,  598. 

Hasti£re  crania,  described,  118. 

Hausa,  identified,  474. 

Haute  Savoie  crania,  placed,  191. 

Hazara,  identified,  417. 

Head  measurements:  see  Cranial  measure- 
ments. 

Head  size,  in  modern  Europe,  discussed, 
261-67;  map,  262-63;  relation  to  face 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


723 


size,  267.  See  also  Cranial  measure- 
ments. 

Heidelbergensis,  as  non-sapiens,  23;  jaw,  25. 

Height:  see  Stature. 

Hejaz  people,  placed,  401-02;  racial 
characteristics,  409-10;  Jews  in,  438. 

Hellenes,  areas  occupied  by,  in  Iron  Age, 
176—77,  chart.  See  also  Greeks. 

Hellenic  speech,  classified,  179. 

Helvetii,  identified,  189,  536. 

Herzegovinians,  classified,  587. 

Hessians,  origin,  206,  212;  identified,  537. 

High  German,  classified,  524. 

Himalayas,  glaciation  and,  19;  language 
in  Iron  Age,  175. 

Hindus,  in  Turkestan,  635. 

Hissarlik  crania,  placed,  136. 

Hittites,  Bronze  Age  crania,  136;  ilL9  137, 
fig.  26;  language  blended  with  Na&li, 
180;  influence  on  Jewish  facial  charac- 
teristics, 439;  relation  to  Armenians, 
625. 

Hiung-Nu  people,  described,  227;  rela- 
tion to  Huns,  227,  232;  relation  to 
Turks,  228;  horse  culture,  238-39. 

Hojeri,  described,  426. 

Holland,  glaciation  and,  19;  origin  of 
Scots  Bell  Beaker,  160;  route  of  Food 
Vessel  invasion,  162;  Germanic  expan- 
sion in,  181;  dolichoccphaly  in,  257; 
migration  of  Jews  to,  437.  See  also 
Netherlanders . 

Homo  manderthalensis:  see  Neanderthal 
man. 

Homo  sapiens,  Pleistocene  origin,  1-3;  in- 
troduction to  study  of,  16-18;  in  fourth 
ice  age,  20;  in  Middle  Pleistocene,  20- 
23 ;  Negro  as,  34 ;  Neanderthaloid  stock 
and,  38;  compared  with  Afalou,  42;  in 
China  and  Mongolia,  49—50;  evolution 
of,  50-51;  early,  ill.,  52,  figs.  4,  5,  6; 
Mediterranean  as,  83;  Neolithic,  127; 
pigmentation,  273. 

Hottentots,  relation  to  Asselar  man,  61. 
See  also  Bushmen. 

Howeitat,  placed,  401. 

Hungarians:  see  Magyars. 

Hungary,  center  of  Metal  Age  diffusion, 
155;  Bell  Beaker  in,  156;  Gepidac  in- 
vasion, 205;  movement  of  Magyars  to, 
224;  Huns  in,  228;  Avars  in,  228,  232; 
head  size,  265,  266;  language,  338; 
Ugri  in,  341 ;  Gypsies  in,  506.  See  also 
Magyars. 

Huns,  Bronze  Age  migrations,  135;  com- 
pared with  Scyths,  196;  destruction  of 


Alans,  197;  absorption  of  Goths,  205; 
Mongoloid  element,  213;  appearance  in 
Russia,  227;  racial  characteristics,  228, 
229-33;  relation  to  Avars,  231;  in 
Volga  region,  341;  in  Spain,  490;  mi- 
grations, 577;  in  Crimea,  582. 

Hunza,  *//.,  Plate  15,  fig.  6. 

Huzuls,  racial  characteristics,  571,  572. 

Hvellinge  #1,  ill.,  54,  fig.  11. 

Hyksos,  migrations,  135. 

Hythe  crania,  described,  374,  375. 

Iberian  center,  Bronze  Age,  132—33, 
chart. 

Iberian  peninsular:  see  Portugal,  Spain. 

I bero- Insular,  in  Dcniker's  system,  281, 
282;  in  Czekanowski's  system,  288. 

Ibiza  cranium,  placed,  153. 

Iceland,  decrease  in  stature  in,  10;  modi- 
fication in  masticatory  muscles,  29;  ra- 
cial characteristics,  265,  273,  323-26; 
Norwegian  migration  to,  308;  Borreby 
type,  ill.,  Plate  5,  fig.  4. 

Igdir,  racial  characteristics,  424. 

Ijores,  language  classified,  338;  placed, 
340;  racial  characteristics,  345. 

Ilium,  placed,  137. 

Illyrians,  distribution,  in  Iron  Age,  176— 
77,  chart;  speech,  179,  181 ;  speakers  dis- 
cussed, 182-86;  relation  to  Kelts,  187, 
188;  in  Italy,  195,  554;  and  Slovenes, 
587;  in  Yugoslavia,  588. 

India,  movement  of  Aryan  ancestors  into, 
86;  religion  compared  with  Iron  Age 
Norse,  202;  invasion  by  Huns,  228; 
Iranians  in,  238;  Jews  in,  438;  Gypsy 
origin  and,  504;  Assyrians  in,  630. 

Indie,  speech  classified,  179. 

Indo- Afghan,  in  Deniker's  system,  281, 
282. 

Indo-European  speech,  stock,  178;  dis- 
cussed, 178—82;  in  Caucasus,  distribu- 
tion, 631,  map. 

Indo-Iranian,  relation  to  Keltic,  188; 
Slavic  language  and,  216. 

Ingrians,  language  distribution,  338; 
language  stock,  339,  chart;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 345. 

Iranian  speech,  classified,  179;  Scyths  as 
users,  196;  distribution,  416,  map. 

Iranians,  invasion  into  Iran,  86-87;  and 
Persian  Empire,  180;  migrations,  227, 
238;  racial  characteristics,  415,  416, 
418-19;  in  Turkestan,  634;  Dinaric, 
ill.,  Plate  43,  fig.  5;  Turkestan,  ill., 
Plate  15  9  fig.  4. 


724 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Irano-Afghans,  classified,  289,  290,  292; 
geographic  distribution,  294-95,  map; 
element  in  Mesopotamians,  412-13; 
racial  characteristics,  415-22;  Turko- 
mans as,  423-24;  Azerbaijanis  as,  425; 
element  in  Armenoids,  629;  ill.,  Plate 
IB,  figs.  1-8. 

Iraq,  stature  in,  255;  racial  study  of 
peoples  in,  411-15;  migration  of  Jews 
to,  435;  ill.,  Plate  16,  j^.  6. 

Ireland,  effect  of  emigration  on,  8;  Upper 
Palaeolithic  implements,  57;  Bronze 
Age  in,  161-62;  Q-Keltic  in,  187; 
Kelts  in,  191;  Danes  in,  211.  See  also 
British  Isles. 

Irish,  racial  characteristics,  261,  264-65, 

268,  273,  276,  277,  326,  371,  372,  376- 
84;  inDeniker's  system,  283;  in  Iceland, 
323,  324;  Upper  Palaeolithic  survivals, 
ill.,  Plate  9,  figs.  1-7;  ill.,  Plate  24,  fig.  3. 

Iron  Age,  discussed,  174-240;  races  and 
language,  174-82;  Kelts,  186-93;  Illyr- 
ians,  182-86;  Romans,  193-95;  Scyth- 
ians, 195-201;  Germanic  peoples,  201- 
16;  Slavs,  216-20;  Turks  and  Mongols 
in,  227-36;  in  Norway,  308;  in  British 
Isles,  371-72;  in  France,  512;  in  Nether- 
lands, 530;  in  Germany,  536. 

Isle  of  Man,  Q-Keltic,  187. 

Isnello  crania,  described,  147. 

Istria  crania,  described,  148. 

Istrian  Vlachs,  racial  characteristics,  61 6- 
17. 

Italians,  racial  characteristics,  257,  260, 

269,  272,  554-59;  in  France,  512;  lan- 
guage in  Switzerland,  548;  element  in 
Dalmatians,  591 ;  N.  Borreby  type,  ill., 
Plate  6,  fig.  5;  Neapolitan,  ill.,  Plate  22, 

fig.  2;  Piedmontese,  ill.,  Plate  23,  fig. 
1;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  31,  figs.  2,  3. 

Italic  speech,  classified,  179;  in  Italy,  181; 
relation  to  Keltic,  186;  in  British  Isles, 
372. 

Italic!,  distribution  in  Iron  Age,  176-77, 
chart;  described,  193—95;  arrival  in 
Italy,  554. 

Italy,  as  avenue  of  entry  for  Mesolithic, 
69;  as  route  of  Neolithic,  101;  Bronze 
Age  in,  146,  147-48;  appearance  of 
Etruscans,  153-54;  Urnfields  invasion, 
171;  Ligurian  in,  180;  Villanova  people 
in,  181 ;  Hallstatt  culture  in,  182;  Keltic 
expansion  into,  187;  Italic!  in,  193-95; 
Illyrians  in,  195;  invasion  by  Cimbri 
and  Teutons,  202;  invasion  by  Goths, 
205;  migration  of  Jews  to,  437. 


Jaeren  crania,  placed,  204—05. 

Japanese,  selection  among  emigrants,  8. 

"Japhetic,"  defined,  175. 

"Java  man,  separation  from  homo  sapiens,  1. 

Jeballis,  distribution,  480;  racial  charac- 
teristics, 483-84. 

Jebel  Druz,  pigmentation,  272. 

Jemdet  Nasr  culture,  placed,  87. 

Jerbans:  see  Kharejites. 

Jews,  history  and  racial  study  of  E.,  432— 
44;  ill.,  433,  figs.  33-36;  ill.,  434,  fig.  37; 
oriental,  described,  438—44;  Yemenite, 
439-41;  Mesopotamian,  442-43;  Se- 
phardic,  443;  in  Egypt,  458;  in  Spain, 
490-91;  in  France,  512;  in  Czechoslo- 
vakia, 559;  in  Poland,  563;  in  Crimea, 
582;  in  Rumania,  612-13;  in  Turkey, 
618;  in  Caucasus,  631;  in  Turkestan, 
635;  racial  study  in  Asia  and  central 
Europe,  638-46;  ill.,  Plate  44,  figs.  1-4, 
Plate  45,  figs.  1-4,  Plate  46,  figs.  1-7; 
Berber-speaking,  ill.,  Plate  44,  fig.  4; 
Morocco,  ill.,  Plate  44,  figs.  2,  3; 
Yemenitic,  ill.,  Plate  44,  fig.  1. 

Jmouds,  identified,  365;  hair  form, 
367. 

Jutas  crania,  described,  232. 

Jutes,  described,  209-10;  origin,  333;  in 
British  Isles,  372. 

Jutland,  dolichocephaly  in,  123. 

Kabardine,  distribution,  631,  map;  racial 
characteristics,  633. 

Kabyles,  language,  467;  distribution,  476; 
racial  characteristics,  477-79;  com- 
pared with  Canarians,  488;  til.,  Plate 
21, fig.  4;  Nordic,  ill.,  Plate  30,fig.  6. 

Kafirs,  placed,  417;  racial  characteristics, 
420. 

Kainsulaiset:  see  Kvaens. 

Kalmucks,  appearance  in  Russia,  577; 
racial  characteristics,  583;  distribution, 
631,  map;  in  Turkestan,  635. 

Kammkeramik  culture,  people  described, 
351;  placed,  360;  in  Poland,  564. 

Kanam,  mandible  described,  22 ;  in  racial 
classification,  290,  chart. 

Kanjera  crania,  described,  22-23;  com- 
pared with  Gamble's  Cave,  44;  in 
racial  classification,  290,  chart. 

Kansu,  painted  pottery,  105. 

Kara  Kalpaks,  identified,  635. 

Karagas,  identified,  306. 

Karaite  Jews,  racial  characteristics,  641, 
642. 

Karduchoi,  identified,  421. 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


725 


Kashgaria,  survival  of  Iranian  language, 
198;  Iranians  in,  227. 

Kassimov  Tatars,  described,  582. 

Kaufertsberg  cranium,  described,  66,  67; 
tooth  knocking  in,  68. 

Kebara  skeletons,  described,  62. 

Keltic  speech,  classified,  1 79. 

Kelts,  distribution  in  Iron  Age,  176-77, 
chart;  expansion  in  Iron  Age,  181;  dis- 
cussed, 186-93;  compared  with  Scyths, 
199,  with  Iron  Age  Danes,  203,  with 
Anglo-Saxons,  209,  with  Bajuvars,  212, 
with  Alemanni,  212,  with  Franks,  214— 
15,  with  Wends,  219;  classified,  292-93; 
in  Iceland,  324;  invasion  of  British 
Isles,  371-72;  in  Ireland,  377,  383; 
probable  physical  appearance,  384;  im- 
portance in  Great  Britian,  384,  399; 
pigmentation,  389;  in  Spain,  490;  in 
Portugal,  495;  in  France,  512,  519;  in 
Belgium,  524;  in  Germany,  536;  in 
Italy,  554;  and  Slovenes,  587. 

Kenya,  stature,  255;  crania  described, 
445. 

Keuperfranken,  racial  characteristics, 
542-43. 

Kharejites,  compared  with  Ganarians, 
488. 

Khargans,  racial  characteristics,  46—62; 
ill.,  Plate  21,  fig.  1. 

Khazars,  relation  to  Jews,  436;  in  Crimea, 
582. 

Khoi-San:  see  Bushmen. 

Kiel  Harbor  crania,  described,  74;  placed, 
123. 

Kiev  Government,  crania,  136,  200; 
breaking  up  of  Kazars,  436;  Ukrainians 
in,  571. 

Kilgreany  cranium,  placed,  112. 

Kipchaks,  identified,  635. 

Kirghiz,  origin,  239;  relation  tp  Turko- 
mans, 424;  racial  characteristics,  579— 
82;  distribution,  631,  map. 

Kirkuk  crania,  placed,  88. 

Kish  crania,  described,  86,  88. 

Kizilbashes,  identified,  618. 

Knossus,  frescoes,  142. 

Kokui  cranium,  described,  126. 

Koreans,  classified,  237. 

Kremlin  crania,  described,  573. 

Krimchaks,  racial  characteristics,  641. 

Kumans,  placed,  229;  in  Hungary  and 
Russia,  234;  element  in  Magyars, 
584. 

Kupinovo  cranium,  placed,  190. 

Kurdistan,  Jews  in,  641. 


Kurds,  racial  characteristics,  255,  264, 
421-22;  in  Iran,  416;  in  Rumania, 
612;  distribution,  631,  map;  UL,  Plate 
18,  Jfe.  2. 

Kurgans,  Neolithic  remains  described, 
102-03;  compared  with  Danubian, 
106. 

Kurland,  Letts  in,  340;  Baltic  Finns  in, 
351. 

Kurs,  speech,  360;  pigmentation,  363; 
described,  365. 

Kuwaitis,  racial  characteristics,  413-14. 

Kvaens,  identified,  301;  element  in  Nor- 
way, 319-20,  in  Sweden,  328;  speech 
and  racial  characteristics,  356,  357.  ' 

Kymric,  in  Great  Britain,  371;  distribu- 
tion, 373;  crania  described,  376;  in 
Wales,  387. 

Laaland,  brachycephaly  in,  123. 

La  Chapelle  aux  Saints,  man  recon- 
structed, ill.,  35;  cranial  measurements, 
37;  cranium,  til.,  53, fig.  7. 

Ladin  dialect,  origin,  213;  distribution, 
548;  in  Tyrol,  552. 

Ladino,  origin,  437. 

Ladogan,  crania  described,  125—26,  360; 
Mesolithic  survivals,  226;  classified, 
289,  290;  survivors  in  Europe,  291-92; 
element  in  Poland,  564,  566,  567,  in 
White  Russians,  568,  in  Ukrainians, 
570;  type,  ill.,  Plate  2,  figs.  1-4. 

Lake  Dwelling  culture,  movements  traced, 
80-81,  map  2;  described,  113-15. 

Landnambok,  described,  323,  324. 

Langeland,  dolichocephaly  in,  123. 

Language,  as  foundation  of  study  of  race, 
174-82;  Indo-European,  178-82;  Kel- 
tic, 186;  Italic,  193;  Germanic,  203, 
205;  Frankish,  214;  of  Slavs,  216; 
Finno-Ugrian,  223,  337-39;  Turks, 
228-29;  Magyars,  233;  Uralic  and 
Altaic-speakers,  236—40;  European  dis- 
tribution of,  338,  map;  Lapps,  300; 
Samoyed,  306;  Finnish  in  Sweden,  328; 
Bulgarians,  341;  Votiak,  347;  Letts  and 
Lithuanians,  360-61;  Scotland,  372; 
Wales,  373,  387,  399;  Cornwall,  373; 
Aran  Isles,  379;  Gaelic,  387;  Mediter- 
raneans in  Arabia,  403;  Iranian  and 
sub-groups,  416;  Kafirs,  417;  Baluchis 
and  Brahui,  430-31;  Khazars,  436; 
Ladino  and  Yiddish,  437;  Agau,  438; 
Hamitic  and  Semitic  in  E.  Africa,  445; 
E.  African  Hamitic  area,  446,  map; 
Coptic,  458;  in  N.  Africa,  462-63,  467; 


726 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


Ghomara  and  Senhaja  Sghir,  483; 
Sassari,  500;  Sardinia,  500;  Basques, 
501-02;  Gypsy,  504-05;  in  France, 
512;  Cornish  in  Brittany,  514;  Flemish, 
524;  Netherlands,  529-30;  Frisian, 
529-30,  533;  spread  of  German,  537; 
Switzerland,  548;  Austria,  550;  dis- 
tribution in  E. -central  Europe  and 
Balkans,  561,  map;  Ruthenians,  571; 
Altaic  speakers  in  Russia,  577;  Bashkirs 
and  Meshcheryaks,  578;  Magyar,  584; 
Albanian,  597;  Serbs,  609;  in  Dacia, 
613;  Vlachs,  613;  Assyrians,  630;  Cau- 
casians, 631;  Karaite  Jews,  641. 

Langue  d'Oc,  in  France,  512. 

Lappanoid,  in  Czckanowski's  system,  288, 
289. 

Lappish,  classified,  292;  geographic  dis- 
tribution, 294-95,  map. 

Lapps,  classified,  223,  289,  290;  racial 
characteristics,  261,  266,  269,  298- 
306;  in  Deniker's  system,  281;  in  von 
Eickstedt's  system,  287,  289;  in  Czck- 
anowski's system,  289;  element  in  Nor- 
way, 319-20;  language  distribution  in 
Europe,  338,  map;  til. ,  Plate  \,figs.  1-6. 

La  Tene  culture,  in  central  Europe,  181; 
compared  with  Hallstatt,  187;  Bo- 
hemia, 189;  in  France,  190;  crania  com- 
pared with  Roman,  1 94. 

Latin  language,  classified,  193;  in  France, 
214,  512;  in  Walloon  country,  524. 

Latvia,  Mesolithic  survivals,  226;  Baltic 
Finns  in,  340,  351;  Livs  in,  352. 

Latvians:  see  Letts. 

Laugcrie  Basse  cranium,  as  Crd-Magnon, 
48-49. 

Lausitz  culture,  described,  188. 

Lautsch  cranium,  described,  36. 

Lebanese,  racial  characteristics,  261,  623  ~ 
24;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  41,  fig.  2. 

Leg  length:  see  Body  form. 

Le  Moustier  cranium,  measurements, 
37. 

Lenja  people,  racial  characteristics,  414- 
15. 

Le  Placard  cranium,  as  Cr6-Magnon,  49. 

Lesghians,  distribution,  631,  map. 

Letgali:  see  Letts. 

Letts,  racial  characteristics,  257,  360-66; 
influence  on  Lapps,  300;  migration, 
340.  See  also  Latvia. 

Levalloiso-Moustcrian,  crania,  ill.,  53, 
Jigs.  7,  8. 

L'Homme  Mort  crania,  described,  116. 

Libico  Berber  language,  classified,  445. 


Libyans,  ancient,  described,  464;  ill.,  464, 
fig.  38;  racial  characteristics,  468-71. 

Ligurians,  crania  described,  101;  distribu- 
tion in  Iron  Age,  176—77,  chart;  speech 
classified,  179;  as  Indo-European,  180; 
placed,  195. 

Lincoln,  Roman  burials  in,  195. 

Lithuania,  language  distribution,  561, 
map;  Jews  in,  642. 

Lithuanians,  influence  on  Lapps,  300; 
racial  characteristics,  360—61;  365—68; 
Tatars,  study  of,  367-68;  in  Poland, 
563;  compared  with  White  Russians, 
568;  i//.,  Plate  7,  fig.  3;  Plate  2%,  fig.  4. 

Litorina  Sea,  formation  of,  63;  Erteb^lle 
culture  on,  72. 

Littoral  European,  in  Deniker's  system, 
281,  282;  in  Czekanowski's  system, 
288. 

Livonia,  Letts  in,  340;  Baltic  Finns  in, 
351. 

Livs,  language  distribution  in  Europe, 
338,  map;  language  stock,  339,  chart; 
racial  characteristics,  352—53;  com- 
pared with  Esths,  354. 

Lombards,  described,  213. 

Long  Barrow  men,  cranium,  ill.,  55,  fig. 
14;  described,  110—13;  compared  with 
French  Neolithic,  116;  relation  to  Dan- 
ish Neolithic,  122;  compared  with 
Bronze  Age  Trojans,  137,  with  Bell 
Beaker,  158;  survival  in  Wales,  397; 
survival,  ill.,  Plate  23,  fig.  3. 

Long-heads:  see  Dolichocephaly. 

Lorraine  crania,  placed,  191. 

Los  Millares  culture,  in  Copper  Age 
Spain,  148. 

Low  German,  classified,  524. 

Lower  Austria,  racial  characteristics, 
551-52. 

Lozere  crania,  described,  116. 

Luma,  classified,  595;  distribution,  596, 
map;  racial  characteristics,  597. 

Lur,  ill.,  Plate  18,  fig.  1. 

Luristan  crania,  described,  86-87;  pig- 
mentation, 272. 

Luxemburg,  racial  study  of,  527. 

Lydia,  Etruscan  homeland,  154;  lan- 
guage, placed,  175. 

Lyds:  see  Ijores. 

"Lyngby"  antler  axe,  appearance  of,  71; 
culture,  Maglemose  derived  from,  72. 

MacArthur  cave  crania,  described,  75; 
compared  with  Iron  Age  Norwegians, 
204;  placed,  370. 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


727 


Macedonia,  route  of  Neolithic  into,  101; 
Serbs  in,  589;  Vlachs  in,  614;  Osmanli 
Turks  in,  622. 

Macedonian  Vlachs,  racial  characteris- 
tics, 616. 

Magdalenians  culture,  described,  46-48; 
crania  described,  47-49;  survival  into 
Mesolithic,  57,  65;  compared  with 
Teviec,  65,  with  Lapps,  298. 

Magiabra  people,  racial  characteristics, 
469-70. 

Maglemose  culture,  derivations,  71-72; 
and  Erteb011e,  72;  skeletal  finds,  72-74; 
in  Scotland,  75;  compared  with  Neo- 
lithic forest  dwellers,  125. 

Magyars,  origin,  223,  341;  entry  into 
Hungary,  224;  early,  described,  233- 
34;  language  distribution  in  Europe, 
338,  map;  Bolgars  and,  341 ;  relationship 
to  Ostiaks  and  Voguls,  350;  number 
in  Czechoslovakia,  559;  racial  charac- 
teristics, 584-86;  in  Yugoslavia,  587; 
in  Rumania,  612;  ill.,  Plate  2,  fig.  1; 
ill.,  Plate  14,  fig.  1;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate 
37,^.4. 

Mahra,  language,  403;  Veddoids  among, 
425-26;  racial  characteristics,  427. 

Maklacheievka  crania,  placed,  224. 

Malay,  influence  among  Yemenis,  408; 
in  Hadhramaut,  427. 

Mallorca,  Bronze  Age  in,  152. 

Malsia  e  Madhe,  identified,  595;  dis- 
tribution, 596,  map;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 597,  598,  599,  600;  ill.,  Plate  39, 
fig.  3,  Plate  8,  figs.  4,  6. 

Malsia  Jakoves,  classified,  595;  distribu- 
tion, 596,  map;  racial  characteristics, 
597,  599,  600,  601. 

Malta,  Bronze  Age  in,  147. 

Marabutic  tribes,  racial  characteristics, 
470. 

Mariupol,  Neolithic  remains,,  103;  com- 
pared with  Alishar,  136. 

Mas  d'Azil  remains,  described,  66. 

Masai,  compared  with  Oldoway,  45. 

Mashausha,  described,  464. 

Masmuda:  see  Ghomara. 

Massagetae,  placed,  196. 

Mati,  classified,  595;  distribution,  596, 
map;  racial  characteristics,  597. 

Maualy,  identified,  623. 

Maxyces:  see  Mashausha. 

Measurements,  cranial:  see  Cranial  meas- 
urements. 

Measurements,  nasal:  see  Facial  character- 
istics. 


Mechta  el  'Arbi  crania,  described,  59-60. 

Mediterranean  race,  basic  stock  described, 
2-3;  origins,  46;  in  post-glacial  period, 
57;  mixture  with  African  Mesolithic 
man,  60;  Natufians  basic  type  of,  62; 
and  Neolithic,  82-86,  98,  100,  104, 
114,  116,  118,  127;  defined,  83;  char- 
acteristics outlined,  84;  relation  to 
Fayum,  94;  in  N.  forests,  126;  in  Cop- 
per and  Bronze  Age,  139,  141,  142,  144, 
146-52;  languages  in  Iron  Age,  175; 
distribution  in  Iron  Age,  176-77, 
chart;  compared  with  early  Finns,  225; 
Finno-Ugrians  as,  226 ;  racial  character- 
istics, 254,  255,  257,  268,  278;  in  Deni- 
ker's  classification,  281,  283;  in  Ripley's 
classification,  284;  in  von  Eickstedt's 
system,  287;  classified,  289,  290,  292, 
293;  geographic  distribution,  294-95, 
map;  survival  in  Great  Britain,  384, 
398,  399;  element  in  Scotland,  388; 
racial  study  as  whole,  40O-509;  sig- 
nificance, 511;  element  in  France,  521, 
522;  in  Germany,  535,  in  Switzerland, 
549,  in  Italy,  554-59,  in  Poland,  567, 
in  White  Russians,  568,  in  Great  Rus- 
sians, 576,  in  Binaries,  601,  in  Bul- 
garians, 611,  in  Osmanli  Turks,  619, 
621,  in  Syrian  Bedawin,  623,  in  Leba- 
nese, 624,  in  Armenoids,  629,  in  Assyri- 
ans, 630,  in  Ossetes,  632,  in  Tajiks, 
638,  in  Turkestan  Jews,  640,  in  Ash- 
kenazim,  645;  results  of  Alpine  blend 
with,  647;  expansion  and  survival,  650- 
52;  in  Arabia,  ill.,  Plate  16,  figs.  1-6; 
long-faced  Western  Asiatic  Highlands, 
ill,  Plate  17,  figs.  1-5;  Irano- Afghans, 
ill,  Plate  18,  figs.  1-8;  dark-skinned, 
ill.,  Plate  19,  figs.  2,  3;  N.  Africa,  ill., 
Plate  21,  figs.  1-6;  S.  Europe,  ill., 
Plate  22,  figs.  1-4;  in  Great  Britain,  ill., 
Plate  25,  figs.  1-4;  Pontic,  ill.,  Plate  26, 
figs.  1-4. 

Megalithic  culture,  movements  traced, 
80-81,  map  2,  128;  characteristics,  85; 
in  N.  Africa,  99;  as  bringers  of  Neolithic 
to  British  Isles,  110;  in  Scandinavia, 
122-23;  in  Copper  Age  Sicily,  147;  re- 
lation to  Copper  Age  Spanish  crania, 
149;  among  Basques,  152;  in  Scots 
Bronze  Age,  160;  distribution  in  Iron 
Age,  176-77,  chart;  stature  survival, 
254;  invasions  of  Sweden,  327;  concen- 
tration in  Denmark,  335;  in  British 
Isles,  371,  377,  383,  397;  pigmentation, 
384;  in  Spain,  490;  in  France,  511. 


728 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


Megiddo  crania,  described,  137-38. 

Melilla  cranium,  placed,  153. 

Mendelism,  as  applied  to  man,  4-6. 

Mendonck,  racial  study  of  people  of,  528. 

Menes,  and  dynastic  tradition,  95;  placed, 
141. 

Menghin,  movements  traced,  80-81, 
map  2. 

Merians,  language  stock,  339,  chart; 
placed,  340. 

Merimdians,  culture  placed,  93;  com- 
pared with  Badarians,  94;  with  N. 
Africans,  99,  with  Danubians,  105,  with 
Windmill  Hill,  110. 

Merovingian  Franks,  described,  215. 

Meshcheryaks,  classified,  577;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 578. 

Mesocephaly:  see  Cephalic  index,  Cranial 
measurements. 

Mesolithic  period,  crania  in,  14,  til., 
52,  Jig.  6,  54,  fig.  11,  55,  fig.  13;  discussed, 
56-77;  geography  of  N.  W.  Europe, 
71,  map  6;  compared  with  Neolithic, 
127;  survival  in  far  north,  226;  sur- 
vivors in  Europe,  291 ;  in  British  Isles, 
379-80;  remains  in  Africa,  445,  467; 
survival  in  France,  518. 

Mesopotamia,  Neolithic  remains  in,  87- 
91;  facial  types,  ill.,  89,  figs.  17-20;  use 
of  metal,  131—32;  invasion  by  Huns, 
228;  racial  study  of  Arabic-speaking 
peoples,  411-13;  Jews  in,  438,  442-43. 
See  also  Sumeria. 

Metalsa,  identified,  480. 

Michelsberg  culture,  identified,  535. 

Microlithic  tools,  introduction  of,  56. 

Miesbachers,  racial  characteristics,  545. 

Migrations,  as  selective  factor,  7—9; 
Bronze  Age,  135,  152,  154,  170-71, 
221;  Iron  Age,  181;  Keltic,  187,  371- 
72;  Germanic,  202,  327,  536-37; 
Frankish,  214;  Slavic,  217;  Finnish,  217, 
224,  328 ;  Danubian,  221 ;  Iranians,  227, 
238;  Turks  and  Mongols,  228-29; 
Magyar  to  Hungary,  233;  Finno- 
Ugrian,  236;  Viking,  323;  Danish,  333; 
Baltic,  360;  Jewish,  435-47;  Berber, 
463;  Arab,  in  N.  Africa,  466-67;  Gyp- 
sies, 504;  in  Balkans,  589;  Vlach,  614; 
Turkish  nomads,  618. 

Milesians,  identified,  372. 

Minoans,  crania  described,  141;  in 
Bronze  Age  Greece,  144;  art  compared 
with  Greek,  146. 

Minorca  crania,  described,  149;  Bronze 
Age  in,  152, 


Minussinsk  crania,  described,  169-70; 
compared  with  Scyths,  199,  with  Fin- 
nish, 225,  with  non-Mongoloid  Avars, 
232;  relation  to  Finno-Ugrians,  236. 

Mirdita,  classified,  595;  distribution,  596, 
map. 

Mitwali,  racial  characteristics,  623. 

Moabites,  identified,  434. 

Mohmands,  identified,  417;  ill.,  Plate  18, 
fig.  4. 

Moldavians,  racial  characteristics,  261, 
612-13. 

Mongoloid,  derivation  of,  2;  as  race,  5; 
Neolithic,  in  N.  forests,  126;  Scythians 
as,  196;  and  Germanic  type,  213; 
features,  278;  in  Deniker's  system,  281; 
classified,  290-91;  geographic  distribu- 
tion, 294-95,  map;  element  in  Lapps, 
298,  300,  305,  in  Samoyeds,  306-07,  in 
Carelians,  344,  in  Mordvins  and  Chere- 
misses,  347,  in  Ostiaks  and  Voguls,  350, 
in  Lithuania,  361-62,  in  Turkomans, 
424,  in  Hadhramaut,  427,  in  France, 
522,  in  Russians,  572,  573,  575,  in 
Magyars,  586,  in  Turks,  620—21,  in 
Tajiks,  638;  tlL,  Plate  3,  figs.  1-6. 

Mongols,  Bronze  Age  migrations,  135; 
living  habits  compared  with  Scyths, 
196-97;  in  Iron  Age,  227;  discussed, 
227-36;  language,  236;  classified,  237; 
language  distribution  in  Europe,  338, 
map;  in  Babylon,  435;  in  Russia,  572; 
of  European  Russia,  racial  study  of, 
576-84;  in  Turkestan,  634. 

Montardit  skeletons,  described,  66. 

Montenegrins,  classified,  587;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 266,  279,  591-95;  ill., 
Plate  8,  figs.  2,  3;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  38, 
fig-  4. 

Montenegro,  Illyrians  in,  185;  Slavic  in- 
vasion, 217;  Ghegs  in,  598. 

Moorfields  crania,  described,  375. 

Moors,  in  Spain,  490—91 ;  racial  charac- 
teristics, 494-95. 

Moravia,  Neolithic  invasions,  82,  101; 
Danubian  settlers  in,  104;  Bronze  Age 
in,  162. 

Mordvins,  crania  classified,  225;  language 
distribution  in  Europe,  338,  map;  lan- 
guage stock,  339,  chart;  placed,  340; 
Bolgars  and,  341 ;  racial  characteristics, 
342,  345-47;  compared  with  Great 
Russians,  575,  with  Chuvash,  577. 

Morocco,  racial  study  of,  480-84. 

Mount  of  Olives  crania,  placed, 
138. 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


729 


Mousterians,  described,  26-28;  culture, 
39. 

Muge  skeletons,  described,  63-64;  cra- 
nium, ill.,  55,  fig.  13;  compared  with 
Radeyef  and  Tibessa,  98,  with  Al- 
gerians, 99,  with  Chamblandes,  115; 
element  in  Portugal,  498;  survival  in 
Italy,  558. 

Mullerp  finds,  described,  73. 

Mummification,  as  basis  of  study  of  soft 
parts,  85. 

Muroma,  language  stock,  339,  chart; 
placed,  340. 

Murzak  Koba  skeletons,  described,  68- 
69;  compared  with  Zizernakaberd,  102. 

Mycenae  crania,  described,  1 44. 

Mythology,  Norse,  as  aid  to  racial  study, 
321-22. 

Mzabites,  language,  467;  racial  character- 
istics, 475. 

Naqada  people,  described,  95-96;  com- 
pared with  Ticuso,  100,  with  Minoan, 
141. 

Narbonne  cranium,  described,  149. 

Nasal  index:  see  Facial  characteristics. 

Nasal  measurements:  see  Facial  measure- 
ments. 

NaSili -speakers,  in  Asia  Minor,  135;  un- 
known origin,  180. 

Nasion,     difficulties     in    locating,     243, 

'  244. 

Natufians,  described,  61-62;  compared 
with  Muge  midden  dwellers,  64;  rela- 
tionship with  Ofnets,  68. 

Neanderthal  man,  burials,  14;  disappear- 
ance of,  17;  in  fourth  glaciation,  20; 
as  non-sapiens,  23—25;  in  modern  dress, 
ill.,  24;  hybrids,  25-28;  ill.,  35;  com- 
pared with  Afalou,  42;  mixture  with 
sapiens,  51;  and  derivatives,  ill.,  53,  54, 
figs.  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12;  in  racial  classi- 
fication, 290,  chart. 

Negritos,  relation  to  Veddoids,  430. 

Negro,  as  race,  5;  as  homo  sapiens,  34; 
European  influence,  296;  in  Hadhra- 
maut,  426;  in  Hamitic  territory,  447- 
48;  in  Egypt,  459. 

Negroid  characteristics,  in  Mediterra- 
nean, 85;  Badarian,  95;  in  Cham- 
blandes, 115;  element  in  Mesolithic 
E.  Africa,  445;  characteristics  among 
E.  African  Hamites,  451,  452-53,  454- 
55,  456-58;  element  in  Egypt,  461,  in 
N.  Africa,  466,  among  Tuareg,  471-72, 
in  Senhaja  Sghir,  483,  in  Portugal,  498, 


in  Mediterranean  races,  508-509,  ilL, 
Plate  20,  figs.  1-5. 

Nejdis,  placed,  401;  lack  of  information 
of,  410;  slaves,  426. 

Neo-Danubians,  classified,  292;  .geo- 
graphic distribution,  294-95,  map; 
E.  Finns  as,  345;  ancestors  of  Baltic 
Finns,  351;  element  in  Poland,  567, 
in  White  Russians,  568,  in  Ukrainians, 
570,  in  Magyars,  585,  586,  in  Slovenes, 
588,  in  Bulgars,  611,  612,  in  Vlachs, 
617;  ill.,  Plate  31,  figs.  1-4. 

Neolithic  period,  crania,  14;  cranium  ill., 
54,  figs.  12-15;  defined,  78;  discussed, 
78—130;  movements  and  chronology, 
80—81,  map  2;  in  Swedish  Bronze  Age, 
166;  language  unknown,  178;  survival 
in  British  Iron  Age,  192;  stature  sur- 
vival, 255;  in  British  Isles,  370-71,  395; 
economy  origin,  444;  survival  in 
Africa,  445,  467;  in  Canary  Islands, 
485;  in  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  501;  in 
France,  511,  515;  in  Belgium,  525;  sur- 
vival among  Walloons,  527;  in  Nether- 
lands, 530;  in  Germany,  535. 

Netherlanders,  in  London,  375;  racial 
characteristics,  529-35;  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic Nordic,  ill.,  Plate  33,  fig.  1; 
Nordic  blend,  ill.,  Plate  34,  fig.  1;  Di- 
naric,  ill.,  Plate  36,  fig.  2.  See  also 
Holland. 

Neufchatel,  Lake,  Lake  Dwelling  culture, 
113. 

Nicopol,  Scythian  burials,  197. 

Nikitsch  crania,  described,  213. 

Nogai  Tatars,  distribution,  583,  631,  map. 

Nordics,  movements  traced,  80-81,  map  2; 
relation  to  Mediterraneans,  83;  popular 
definition,  83;  type  in  Bronze  Age  Bo- 
hemia, 164;  distribution  in  Iron  Age, 
176-77,  chart;  Hallstatt  people  as,  183; 
Reihengraber  people  as,  183;  deriva- 
tions, 183;  relation  to  German  Kelts, 
189;  Scythians  as,  199;  blend  with 
Armenian,  201 ;  Goths  as,  206;  Visigoths 
as,  206;  Germanic  peoples  as  207,  208, 
213,  215-16;  defined,  208;  Slavs  as,  218, 
220;  and  Indo-Europeans,  222;  origins, 
238;  racial  characteristics,  254,  257, 
265,  276,  278,  331,  409;  name  coined, 
280;  in  Deniker's  system,  282,  283;  in 
Sergi's  classification,  284;  in  von  Eick- 
stedt's  system,  287,  288;  in  Czekanow- 
ski's  system,  288;  classified,  292-93;  geo- 
graphic distribution,  294-95,  map;  in 
Norway,  307-23;  element  in  Lapps, 


730 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


301;  Asiatic,  and  Samoyed,  307;  in 
Sweden,  329;  Danes  as,  335;  types 
among  Letts,  365 ;  Irish  as,  378 ;  element 
in  Great  Britain,  384,  394,  in  Canary 
Islands,  386,  in  Yemenis,  409,  in  Kafirs, 
420,  in  Riffians,  483,  in  Spain,  491,  in 
France,  520,  521,  522,  in  Belgium,  525, 
in  Flemings,  529,  in  Netherlands,  532, 
534,  535,  in  Germany,  536,  537,  538, 
539,  541,  542,  544-45,  546,  547,  in 
Switzerland,  548,  549,  550,  551,  in 
Austria,  551,  in  Italy,  554,  556,  558, 
559,  in  Slavs,  559,  in  Wends,  562,  in 
Poland,  564,  566,  567,  in  White  Rus- 
sians, 568,  in  Ukrainians,  570;  in 
Great  Russians,  576,  in  Kirghiz,  580, 
in  Magyars,  586,  in  Albanians,  601,  in 
Bulgars,  611,  612,  in  Vlachs,  614,  in 
Armenians,  629,  in  Ossetes,  632;  com- 
pared with  Shawia,  477;  discussion  of 
N,  African,  488-89;  Corded  type,  ill., 
Plate  27,  figs.  1-4;  Danubians,  ill., 
Plate  28,  Jigs.  1-4;  Hallstatts  and  Kelts, 
ill.,  Plate  29,  figs.  1-6;  exotic,  ill., 
Plate  30,  figs.  1-6;  Upper  Palaeolithic 
type,  ill.,  Plate  32,  figs.  1-4;  Plate  33, 
figs.  1-4;  Borreby  and  Alpine  blends, 
ill.,  Plate  34,  figs.  1-4. 

Noric,  classified,  293;  geographic  distribu- 
tion, 294-95,  map;  element  in  Germany, 
543,  544,  546,  547,  in  Austria,  551-52, 
in  Czechs,  562,  in  Ukrainians,  571,  in 
Great  Russians,  576,  in  Magyars,  586, 
in  Albania,  601, 

Normandy,  racial  characteristics  in, 
516. 

Normans,  in  British  Isles,  373;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 519. 

.  North  America,  glaciation  and,  19.    See 
also  America. 

North,  races  of  the,  fully  described,  297- 
369. 

Northern  Forest  people,  distribution  in 
Iron  Age,  176-77,  chart. 

Northwestern  race,  in  Czekanowski's  sys- 
tem, 288. 

Norway,  Germanic  expansion  in,  181, 
202;  Christianity  adopted,  202;  Iron 
Age  in,  204-05;  Lapps  in,  299,  300- 
01,  302,  303,  304. 

Norwegians,  Iron  Age  crania  compared 
with  W.  Germanics,  207;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 261,  265,  268,  273,  276, 
307-23;  settlers  in  Iceland,  324;  com- 
pared with  Icelandics,  325;  in  British 
Isles,  373;  in  France,  512,  516;  Brunn 


type,  ill.,  Plate  4,  fig.  3;  Danubian,  ill., 
Plate  28,  fig.  1;  Hallstatt  type,  ill., 
Plate  29,  fig.  1;  Upper  Palaeolithic 
Nordic,  ill.,  Plate  32,  figs.  1-3. 

Nosairi:  see  Alawaya. 

Novilara  cemetery,  contents  described, 
195. 

Oases,  races  and,  460-62,  468-71;  Ber- 
bers, 474,  475;  Kharejites,  475-76. 

Oban  man,  described,  75-76. 

Obercassel  cranium,  compared  with 
Afalou,  41;  described,  47;  compared 
with  Chou  Kou  Tien,  50,  with  Pritzer- 
ber,  74,  with  Lapps,  298. 

Oberrotweil  crania,  described,  212. 

Ob-Ugrians,  language  stock,   339,  chart. 

Ofnet  crania,  described,  66—68;  entrance 
to  N.  Europe,  72;  compared  with  Plan, 
Domitz,  Spandau,  74,  with  Neolithic 
Alpine,  118,  with  Scandinavian  Neo- 
lithic brachycephals,  124;  as  origin  of 
Alpine  brachycephals,  119;  as  large 
brachycephals,  265;  survivors  in  Eu- 
rope, 291. 

Oldoway  cranium  described,  44-46. 

Omanis,  described,  414. 

Onas,  resemblance  to  Upper  Palaeolithic 
man,  32;  crania,  32—33. 

Oranian  culture,  described,  39—41;  in 
Spain,  47;  cranium,  ill.,  54,  fig.  10. 

Oriental  Jews,  racial  study,  639-42. 

Orkneys,  pigmentation,  388,  389. 

Oromo,  identified,  447. 

Oscan  language,  classified,  193;  origin, 
554. 

Osmanli  Turks,  conquests,  229;  origin, 
239,  240;  racial  characteristics,  617-20; 
distribution,  631,  map. 

Ossetes,  origin  and  language,  196;  Alans 
survived  as,  197;  cranial  type,  200;  dis- 
tribution, 631,  map;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 632;  language  identified,  416, 
map. 

Osteology,  materials  and  techniques, 
12-15. 

Osterdal  type,  classified,  293. 

Osteuropoids,  in  von  Eickstedt's  system, 
288. 

Ostiaks,  compared  with  Finns,  125;  classi- 
fied, 223;  migration,  224;  origin,  234; 
racial  characteristics,  272,  350-51; 
language  stock,  339,  chart;  relation  to 
Magyars,  341;  ill.,  Plate  2,  figs.  2,  3. 

Ostrobothnia  crania,  described,  355. 

Ostrogoths,  defeated  by  Huns,  228. 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


731 


Painted  people,  movements  traced,  80- 
81,  map  2;  described,  105. 

Palaeasiatics,  relation  to  Huns,  231. 

Palaeolithic  period,  crania  in,  14;  man 
discussed,  28-50;  survivals  in  N.  W., 
69-76;  characteristics  outlined,  84; 
British,  relation  to  Long  Barrow,  112; 
compared  with  Neolithic,  127;  survival 
in  Esthonia,  168;  long-heads,  distribu- 
tion in  Iron  Age,  176-77,  chart;  speech 
unknown,  178;  compared  with  Iron 
Age  Norwegians,  204;  survival  in  racial 
characteristics,  254,  261,  265,  267,  276; 
survivals  in  Europe,  291;  in  Norway, 
319,  in  Ireland,  377,  383,  in  Mediter- 
ranean races,  509,  in  Netherlands,  532, 
534,  in  Montenegrins,  592,  594,  595,  in 
Osmanli  Turks,  621;  as  basis  of  Nordic, 
Indo-Europeans,  286;  in  Lapp  ances- 
try, 305 ;  probable  physical  appearance, 
383—84;  origin  of  Alpines,  647;  sur- 
vivals in  Ireland,  ill.,  Plate  9,  figs.  1-7, 
in  Morocco,  ill.,  Plate  10,  Jigs.  1—7; 
Nordic  blend,  ill.,  Plate  32,  figs.  1-4. 
See  also  Aurignacians,  Magdalenians. 

Palestine,  Natufians  of,  61-62;  Bronze 
Age,  137—38,  141;  history  and  races, 
432-34;  Jews  in  modern,  439. 

Pamirs,  glaciation  and,  19. 

Papuans,  hybrid  origin,  602. 

Parisii,  placed,  192. 

Patema  site,  people  described,  142. 

Pathans,  identified,  417;  study  of  racial 
characteristics,  419-20. 

Peia,  classified,  595;  distribution,  596, 
map. 

Peking  man,  separation  from  homo  sapiens, 
1. 

Permiaks,  language  distribution  in  Eu- 
rope, 338,  map;  language  stock,  399, 
chart;  racial  characteristics,  348-49. 

Permian  Finns,  placed,  225;  language 
stock,  339,  chart;  racial  characteristics, 
342,  347-50. 

Persepolis,  Neolithic  finds,  86. 

Persian  Empire,  founding,  180-81. 

Persians,  mention  of  Slavs  in  writings  of, 
218;  racial  characteristics,  418;  Jews 
and,  435,  438;  relation  to  Libyans, 
465;  in  Spain,  490;  in  Turkestan,  635; 
ill.,  Plate  IS,  figs.  3,  8.  See  also  Iranians. 

Petchenegs,  placed,  229;  influence  on 
Magyars,  233;  in  Hungary  and  Russia, 
234. 

Philistines,  Indo-European  and,  180; 
described,  432-34;  ill,,  433, /fc.  33. 


Phoenicians,  Bronze  Age,  152,  153;  in 
Cornwall,  396;  and  Jews,  438;  in 
Spain,  490. 

Phoenix  Park  crania,  placed,  112. 

Piceni,  placed,  195. 

Picts,  language,  187;  in  Scotland,  372. 

Pigmentation,  difficulties  in  technical 
estimate,  244-45;  correlations,  250; 
geographic  distribution,  269-73,  270- 
71,  map;  biology  of,  273-77;  blondism, 
cause  of,  273-74;  hair  color,  causes  of 
274-75;  rufosity,  causes  of,  274-75;  of 
iris,  causes  of,  275.  Neolithic:  in  Egypt, 
98.  Bronze  Age:  Minoan,  141;  Greeks, 
145-46;  Carthaginian,  153;  Danish, 
167;  Minussinsk,  170.  Iron  Age:  Illyri- 
ans,  185-86;  Keltic,  192;  early  Roman, 
194;  Scyths,  Sarmatians,  Alans,  198; 
Norwegian,  205;  W.  Germanics,  207- 
08;  Slavs,  218;  Huns,  231;  Avars,  231, 
232;  Huing-Nu,  232.  North:  Lapps, 
301-02;  Samoyed,  307;  Norway,  310- 
11,  314,  316,  317,  318,  319;  Iceland, 
324,  325-26;  Sweden,  330-31;  Den- 
mark, 334-35;  Carelians,  342-43; 
Vepses,  345;  Mordvins  and  Cheremis- 
ses,  346;  Votiak,  347-48;  Syryenians 
and  Permiaks,  349;  Ostiaks  and  Voguls, 
350;  Livs,  353;  Esths,  354;  Runo 
Swedes,  354;  Finns,  358-59;  Letts,  363; 
Lithuanians,  366;  Lithuanian  Tatar, 
367-68.  British  Isles:  Irish,  380-81, 
384;  Aran  Isles,  381;  Kelts,  384;  Great 
Britain,  385-90;  Orkneys  and  Shet- 
lands,  388,  389;  Welsh,  385,  387,  389, 
390-91;  Scots,  385,  387-88,  389; 
British,  correlation  with  stature  and 
cranial  measurements,  395-98.  Medi- 
terranean: Yemenis,  404,  405;  Hejaz, 
409;  Mesopotamians,  412;  Kuwaitis, 
413,  414;  Lenja,  414-15;  Persian,  418; 
Afghans  and  Pathans,  420;  Kafirs,  420; 
Pushtus,  420;  Dardic-speakers,  421; 
Kurds,  421;  Turkomans,  423;  Azer- 
baijanis,  425;  Hadhramis,  428,  429; 
Baluchis  and  Brahui,  431;  Samaritans, 
439;  Yemenite  Jews,  440;  Mesopota- 
mian  Jews,  442, 443 ;  E.  African  Hamites, 
452-53,  454,  457-58;  Khargan,  461; 
modern  Egyptians,  460;  Siwans  arid 
Awjila  people,  469;  Arabo-Berbers,  470; 
Tuareg,  472-73;  Mzabites,  475; 
Shawia,  477;  Kabyles,  478;  Riffians, 
481-82;  Shluh,  484;  Guanche,  485; 
Canarians,  487;  Spaniards,  491,,  492, 
493-94;  Andalusian,  493;  Spanish 


732 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Moors,  495;  Portugal,  496,  497;  Corsi- 
cans,  499;  Sardinians,  500;  Basques, 
502;  Gypsies,  506;  Mediterranean  races 
as  whole,  507,  508.  Central  ^one: 
French,  518-20,  521;  Belgians,  528; 
Netherlands,  532;  Frisian,  534;  Ger- 
mans, 540;  Fehmarn  Germans,  541; 
Vogelberg  Germans,  542;  Keuper- 
franken  Germans,  543;  Miesbacher 
Germans,  545;  Sudeten  Germans,  546; 
Swiss,  550;  Lower  and  Upper  Austria, 
551;  Tyrol,  553;  Italians,  555,  557,  558; 
Czechs,  562;  Poles,  566,  567;  White 
Russians,  568;  Volhyn  Ukrainians,  570; 
Ruthenians,  572;  Great  Russians,  574, 
575;  Chuvash,  577;  Bashkirs,  579; 
Meshcheryaks,  579;  Kirghiz,  580;  Rus- 
sian Tatars,  582;  Crimean  Tatars,  583; 
Kalmucks,  583;  Slovenes,  588;  Croats, 
588;  Serbs,  590;  Bosnians,  591;  Dal- 
matians, 591;  Montenegrins,  592—93; 
Albanian  Ghegs,  598-99;  Greeks,  605- 
06;  Cretans,  608;  Bulgars,  611;  Vlachs, 
615,  616,  617;  Osmanli  Turks,  620,  621, 
622;  Lebanese,  624;  Cypriots,  625; 
Armenians,  627-28;  Ossetes,  632;  Cau- 
casic-speakers,  633;  Tajiks,  637;  Tur- 
kestan Jews,  640;  Caucasus  Jews,  641; 
Karaite  Jews,  642;  Ashkenazim  Jews, 
644. 

Pile  Dwelling  race,  in  Czekanowski's 
system,  288,  289. 

Pilous  system:  see  Hair  form 

Piltdown,  in  racial  classification,  290, 
chart;  placed,  370. 

P-Italic,  described,  193. 

Pithecanthropus,  discussed,  23. 

P-Keltic,  described,  186-87. 

Plau  crania,  described,  74;  placed,  123. 

Pleistocene  period  defined,  1;  levels  of, 
18;  climate  of,  19-20;  in  British  Isles, 
370. 

Podrima,  classified,  595;  distribution  596, 
map. 

Poland,  as  route  of  Neolithic,  101;  Neo- 
lithic remains,  102,  103;  brachycephaly 
in  Neolithic,  124;  Bell  Beaker  in,  156; 
Bronze  Age,  168;  Slavs  in,  216,  218; 
Jews  in,  437,  642. 

Poles,  selection  among  emigrants,  7-8; 
racial  characteristics,  261,  265,  276, 
563-68;  language  distribution,  561, 
map;  ill.,  Plate  7,  Jig.  3;  Plate  26,  fig.  3; 
Upper  Palaeolithic  Nordic,  ill.,  Plate 
33,/£.  4;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  35,  fig.  3. 

Polianki  crania,  placed,  224. 


Pollen  analysis,  use  of,  74. 

Polon  crania,  placed,  225. 

Pompeiian  crania,  described,  555. 

Pontic,  defined,  617. 

Population,  increase,  17-18,  79;  defined, 
31;  Lapps,  299;  Samoyed,  306;  16th 
century  Finnmark,  320;  Norway,  320; 
Iceland,  323—24;  Sweden,  326;  Finnish 
in  Sweden,  328;  Denmark,  332;  Ijores 
and  Vodes,  339;  Carelians,  342;  Mord- 
vin,  345;  Cheremisses,  346;  Votaiks, 
347;  Syryenians  and  Permiaks,  348; 
Ostiaks  and  Voguls,  350;  Livs,  352; 
Tatars  in  Russia,  362;  Lithuanians, 
365;  Arabia,  401;  Jews  in  Iraq,  435- 
36;  Moroccan  Berbers,  480;  Basques, 
501;  Gypsies,  505;  French,  different 
speeches,  512-13;  Belgium,  522-23; 
13th  century  Flemish,  524;  Switzer- 
land, 548;  pre-Munich  Czechoslovakia, 
559-60;  Chuvash,  577;  Magyars,  584; 
Albania,  595;  Assyrians,  630;  Tajiks, 
634-35. 

Portugal,  midden  dwellers  of  Tagus,  63— 
64;  Neolithic  in,  99-100. 

Portuguese,  racial  characteristics,  257, 
495-98;  ill.,  Plate  22,  fig.  4;  Plate  23, 
fig.  3;  Nordic,  ill.,  Plate  30,  fig.  4. 

Pottery,  Corded,  82,  107;  Fayum,  93; 
Solana,  100;  Neolithic  Danubian  de- 
scribed, 105;  painted,  Anau,  Kansu, 
105;  combed,  125;  Near  Eastern  in 
Almeria,  148;  Guanche,  485. 

Povoa  de  Varzin,  people  described,  497- 
98. 

Prakrit,  and  Gypsy  language,  505. 

P?edmost  crania,  described,  36-37;  com- 
pared with  Chancelade,  48;  ill.,  53, 
fig.  9;  as  Irish  ancestor,  378. 

Pritzerber  crania,  described,  73-74. 

Prizren,  Slavic  nucleus  in,  217. 

Prussians,  racial  characteristics,  546;  ill., 
Plate  7,  figs.  1,2. 

Puka  cranium,  placed,  185;  classified, 
595;  distribution,  596;  map. 

Pushtu  language,  distribution,  416. 

Pygmy,  as  race,  5. 

Pyrenees,  glaciation  and,  19. 

Qara,  Veddoids  among,   425-26;  racial 

characteristics,  427. 
Q-Keltic,  described,  186-87. 
Queensland,  increase  of  stature  in,  9-10; 

changes  in  English  stock,  45. 
Questenbergers,     racial     characteristics, 

545-46. 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


733 


Race,  theory  and  principles  of  concept  of, 
3-12;  defined,  3,  11;  and  culture,  174. 

Redeyef  crania,  placed,  98. 

Reihengraber  people,  placed,  183. 

Reindeer  Lapps,  identified,  299. 

Religion,  of  Indo-European  speakers,  179; 
Norse  Iron  Age,  202;  conversion  of 
Franks,  214;  conversion  of  Gepidae  and 
Vandals,  214;  Magyar  conversion,  233; 
Ostiaks  and  Voguls,  341;  Syryenians, 
Permiaks,  Votiaks,  349;  Letts  and 
Lithuanians,  361;  racial  differences 
and,  in  Ireland,  378—79;  and  facial 
characteristics,  in  Ireland,  382—83; 
effect  on  Flemish  Belgium,  525;  racial 
differences  and,  in  Germany,  543; 
division  in  Switzerland,  548;  as  source 
of  division  in  Yugoslavia,  587;  influence 
on  Bosnian  racial  characteristics,  590; 
Albanians,  595;  Bulgars,  610;  Syria, 
623;  in  Caucasus,  631-32. 

Remedello  crania,  described,  193-94. 

Reproduction,  rate  as  selective  factor,  6-7; 
effects  of  discovery  of,  16. 

Rhaetians,  survival,  213,  547;  in  Tyrol, 
552. 

Rheinzabern  crania,  placed,  195. 

Rhodesiensis,  as  non-sapiens,  23. 

Riffians,  language,  463,  467;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 480-83;  ill.,  Plate  10,  Jigs. 
1-7;  Plate  21,  fig.  6;  Nordic,  ill.,  Plate 
30,Jfe.  5. 

Rigsthula,  as  aid  to  racial  study,  321-22. 

Ringabclla  crania,  placed,  112. 

River-bed  crania,  described,  110. 

Romanies:  see  Gypsies. 

Romans,  Iron  Age,  discussed,  193—95; 
in  British  Isles,  372,  374;  migration  of 
Jews  among,  436-37;  in  France,  512; 
in  Belgium,  523-24;  in  Dacia,  613. 

Romansch  dialect,  distribution,  548. 

Rome,  and  Kelts,  187,  190;  religion  com- 
pared with  Norse,  202;  settlements 
pillaged  by  Germanics,  208;  invasion 
by  Huns,  228. 

Rothwell  crania,  described,  373—74,  375. 

Round-head :  see  Brachycephaly. 

Royal  Scyths,  described,  198. 

Rufosity:  see  Pigmentation. 

Rumania,  Jews  in,  642;  language  dis- 
tribution, 561,  map;  Osmanli  Turks, 
617. 

Rumanians,  racial  characteristics,  265, 
612-17;  in  Bulgaria,  610;  ill.,  Plate  26, 
fig.  2;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  38,  fig.  2.  See 
also  Vlachs. 


Runo  Island,  racial  study  of,  354. 

Russe  crania,  described,  155. 

Russia,  Neolithic  movement  from,  82;  as 
route  of  Neolithic,  101 ;  Bronze  Age  in, 
168-69;  origin  of  Indo-European,  179; 
Scyths  in,  196;  Slavs  in,  219-20;  Finns 
and  Ugri  in,  223-24;  Lapps  in,  299; 
Finnic  groups  in,  345-51;  influence  on 
Lithuanian  history,  361;  migration  of 
Jews  to,  436,  437;  Turks,  Tatars,  and 
Mongols  in,  576—84. 

Russians,  influence  in  Copper  Age  Hun- 
gary, 155;  Great,  racial  study  of,  254- 
55,  269,  276,  572-76;  White,  language 
distribution,  561,  map;  White,  racial 
characteristics,  368-69;  in  Caucasus, 
distribution,  631,  map;  Nordic,  ill., 
Plate  30,  fig.  1;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  38, 

.&•!• 

Ruthenians,  in  Czechoslovakia,  559;  lan- 
guage distribution,  561,  map;  racial 
characteristics,  571-72;  ///.,  Plate  8, 

Jfe.  1. 

Ruwalla,  placed,  401;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 410-11;  identified,  623;  ill.,  Plate 
16,  fig-  4;  Bedawin,  ill.,  Plate  1 9,  fig.  6. 

Saaftigen  crania,  described,  526. 
Sacrifice,  horse,  179;  human,  197,  198. 
Sahara,  Mesolithic  inhabitants  of,  60. 
Saint-Urnel  en  Plomeur  crania,  described, 

165-66. 
Saka,  placed,  196;  as  drawn  by  Persians, 

199. 

Salis  Roje  crania,  described,  126,  351,  360. 
Salzburg,  racial  characteristics,  552. 
Samaritans,  racial  characteristics,  439. 
Samen,  identified,  299. 
Samogitians:  see  Jmouds. 
Samoyeds,  described,  236;  language,  236; 

derivation,   296;   influence   on   Lapps, 

305;    racial    characteristics,    306-07; 

and  Ostiaks,  341,  351 ;  and  Voguls,  341 ; 

mixture    with    Syryenians,     349;    ill., 

Plate  I,  fig.  7. 
Sandarna  finds,  73. 
Sanskrit,  and  Gypsy  language,  505. 
Sao  Pedro  Magodouro,  people  described, 

497. 

Saracens,  in  Sardinia,  500. 
Sardinia,  Bronze  Age  in,  146—47. 
Sardinians,  relationship  with  Egyptians, 

95;  racial  characteristics,  257,  500-01. 
Sarmatians,  origin,  196;  and  Scyths,  197; 

crania    described,     200;    element    in 

Ukrainians,  569. 


734 


SUBJECT   INDEX 


Sorts,  origin,  239;  racial  characteristics, 
635,  636. 

Satem,  described,  179,  216;  Lithuanians 
and  Letts,  as  speakers  of,  360. 

Savakot,  language  classified,  339. 

Savoie,  Bronze  Age  in,  165. 

Savolaiset,  identified,  356. 

Savoyards,  racial  characteristics,  521. 

Saxo-Thuringia,  in  Bronze  Age,  162.  See 
also  Saxony,  Thuringia. 

Saxons,  in  Sweden,  328;  origin,  333;  in 
British  Isles,  372,  389;  in  France,  512, 
519;  in  Netherlands,  529;  distribution 
in  Germany,  537.  See  also  Anglo- 
Saxons. 

Saxony,  Corded  people  in,  109;  amber 
trading  route,  134;  Bronze  Age  in,  164; 
racial  characteristics,  545-46. 

Sayyids,  described,  426,  427. 

Scandinavia,  glaciation  and,  19;  and  Old 
Stone  Age  men,  69;  tanged-point  and 
"Lyngsby"  axe  in,  70-71;  Megalithic 
invasion,  82;  Iron  Age  invasion,  203- 
04;  stature,  254;  dolichocephaly  in, 
257.  See  also  Individual  countries. 

Schleswig-Holstein  crania,  described,  74. 

Sclaigneux  crania,  placed,  1 24. 

Scotland,  Creswellian  and  Maglemose  in, 
75;  Bronze  Age  in,  160-61;  Q-Keltic 
in,  187;  Danes  in,  211.  See  also  British 
Isles. 

Scotsmen,  in  Iceland,  324;  in  Sweden, 
328;  in  Faroes,  336;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 261,  265,  371,  372,  375-76,  385- 
93,  395,  399;  ill.,  Plate  12,  fig.  1;  Plate 
24,  fig.  4;  Plate  25,  fig.  4;  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic Nordic,  ill.,  Plate  52,  fig.  4. 

Scyths,  Bronze  Age  migrations,  135; 
clothing,  188;  racial  characteristics, 
195-201;  ill.,  198,  fig.  29;  compared 
with  Iron  Age  Danes,  203,  with  Wends, 
219,  with  Finns,  225,  with  Hiung-Nu, 
227;  as  block  to  Finnish  expansion,  224; 
relation  to  non-Mongoloid  Avars,  232, 
to  Finno-Ugrians,  236;  survivals,  260; 
element  in  Ukrainians,  569;  in  Crimea, 
582. 

Sebilian  culture,  placed,  92. 

Sedentary  Lapps,  identified,  299. 

Seli,  placed,  360. 

Seljuks,  conquered  by  Osmanlis,  229; 
origin,  239;  in  Asia  Minor,  618. 

Semites,  influence  in  Mesopotamia,  90. 

Semitic,  as  linguistic  stock,  178;  in  Arabia, 
403;  in  Africa,  445;  distribution  in 
E.  Africa,  446,  map. 


Senhaja  Sghir,  origin,  463,  465-66;  and 
origin  of  Riffians,  480;  distribution, 
480;  racial  characteristics,  483. 

Sephardim  Jews,  described,  437,  438, 
443 ;i//.,  Plate  45,  fig.  1. 

Serbia,  Slavic  nucleus  in,  217;  Gypsies  in, 
506. 

Serbs,  language,  216;  language  distribu- 
tion, 561,  map;  racial  characteristics, 
587,  588-95;  in  Rumania,  612;  Di- 
naric,  ill.,  Plate  39,  fig.  1. 

Serials,  list  of,  and  abbreviations,  684-91. 

Sevan  crania,  described,  201 . 

Sex  differentiation,  among  Skhuls,  27;  in 
Upper  Palaeolithic  group,  31;  Afalou, 
41,  42;  in  Elmenteitan,  58;  in  Muge 
midden  dwellers,  64;  Ofnet  crania,  67; 
in  Mediterraneans,  85;  in  Badarians, 
94;  in  Chamblandes,  115;  in  modern 
Europe,  256;  hairiness  and,  278;  in 
Norway,  315,  319. 

Shahara,  language,  403;  Veddoids  among, 
425;  racial  characteristics,  427. 

Shammar,  placed,  401. 

Shankalla,  identified,  448. 

Shawia,  language,  467;  racial  character- 
istics, 476-77. 

Sheshawen  Moors,  described,  495. 

Shetland  Isles,  brachycephaly  in,  261; 
pigmentation,  388,  389. 

Shluh,  identified,  467;  distribution,  480; 
racial  characteristics,  484;  ///.,  Plate  21, 
>fe.  5. 

"Shoe-last  celt,"  described,  105. 

Short  Cist  people,  described,  160. 

Shoulder  width:  see  Body  form. 

Shuqkah  skeletons,  described,  62. 

Siberia,  glaciation  and,  19;  Slavic  inva- 
sion, 217. 

Sicilians,  stature,  255;  ill.,  Plate  24,  fig.  1. 

Sicily,  Bronze  Age  in,  146,  147. 

Sidamos,  distribution,  446;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 449-57. 

Silesia,  Danubian  settlers,  104;  Corded 
crania,  107;  Bronze  Age  in,  162; 
Hallstatt  culture  in,  184;  brachycephaly 
in,  260. 

Silures,  identified,  393. 

Sinanthropus,  discussed,  23. 

Siwans,  origin,  463;  language,  467;  racial 
characteristics,  468-69. 

Skane,  brachycephaly  in,  123. 

Skeletal  measurements,  criteria  for,  15; 
Galley  Hill  man,  21,  Skhul,  26;  Upper 
Palaeolithic  man,  32;  Grimaldi,  33-34; 
Afalou,  41;  Asselar  man,  60;  Muge 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


735 


midden  dwellers,  64;  TeViec,  66; 
Bronze  Age  Cypriots,  140;  Gemeinle- 
barn,  163;  Lapps,  303;  Norway,  310. 
See  also  Body  form. 

Skhul  men,  described,  26-28;  compared 
with  Upper  Palaeolithic  group,  31,  37, 
with  Grimaldi,  34,  with  P?edmost  #3, 
36,  with  Afalou,  42;  ill.,  53,  fig.  8;  in 
racial  classification,  290,  chart. 

Skien  crania,  placed,  205. 

Skin  color:  see  Pigmentation. 

Skoplje,  Slavic  nucleus  in,  217. 

Slash-and-burn  system,  effects  of,  79. 

Slavic  speech,  classified,  179. 

Slavs,  distribution  in  Iron  Age,  176-77, 
chart;  expansion  in  Iron  Age,  181;  in 
Iron  Age,  216-20;  eyes,  268,  278;  in 
Deniker's  system,  283;  mixture  with 
Samoyeds,  307;  in  Spain,  490;  in  Ger- 
many, 537;  Czechs  and  Wends,  559- 
63;  in  Poland,  563-68;  in  Russia,  563, 
568-76;  in  Hungary,  584;  Serbs, 
Croats,  and  Slovenes,  587-95;  in 
Greece,  604;  in  Bulgaria,  609-10;  in 
Dacia,  613. 

Sleyb:  see  Solubbies. 

Slovaks,  number  in  Czechoslovakia,  559; 
racial  characteristics,  562;  Dinaric,  ill., 
Plate  36,  fig.  4;  Plate  37,  fig.  1. 

Slovenes,  language  distribution,  561,  map; 
racial  characteristics,  587-88. 

Socotrans,  language,  403. 

Sogn  crania,  described,  205. 

Solana  crania,  described,  100. 

Soloensis,  as  non-sapiens,  23-24. 

Solubbies,  described,  411;  ill.,  Plate  16, 
Jfe.5. 

Solutre  #2,  cranial  measurement,  35,  36; 
brachycephaly,  39;  relation  to  Ofnet, 
68. 

Solutrean  culture,  compared  with  Mag- 
dalenian,  46;  cranium,  ill.,  53,  fig.  9;  as 
origin  of  Alpine  brachycephals,  119. 

Somalis,  compared  with  Oldoway,  45, 
with  Badarians,  95,  with  Tuareg,  473; 
identified,  426;  racial  characteristics, 
445,  447,  449-57;  ill.,  Plate  20,  fig.  1. 

Soyots,  identified,  306. 

Spain,  Magdalenian  crania,  47;  Capsian 
and  Oranian  culture  in,  47;  Magdale- 
nian survival  in,  65;  Neolithic  in,  82, 
99-100;  Copper  and  Bronze  Age  in, 
146,  148-50;  Bell  Beakers,  157;  and 
Food  Vessel  peoples  in,  162;  Kelts  in, 
187;  invasion  by  Visigoths,  Gepidae, 
Vandals,  205;  migration  of  Jews  to, 


437;  Zenata  in,  463;  and  Canary 
Islands,  486-87;  rule  over  Sardinia, 
500;  Basques  in,  501-04;  Gypsies  in, 
505. 

Spandau  crania,  described,  74;  placed, 
123. 

Spaniards,  racial  characteristics,  257,  269, 
489-95;  ill.,  Plate  22,  fig.  3;  Plate  24, 
fig.  2. 

Spaniols:  see  Sephardim. 

Spartans,  modern  resemblance  to,  146. 

Sphakiots,  racial  characteristics,  608— 
09. 

Spitalsfield  crania,  described,  374. 

Split  crania,  placed,  185. 

Spreewald  crania,  described,  184. 

Stangenas  skeleton,  described,  73;  com- 
pared with  Pritzerber,  74,  with  Mac- 
Arthur  Cave  B.,  75,  with  Iron  Age 
Norwegians,  204. 

Stanleys,  identified,  506. 

Statistics,  use  in  physical  anthropology, 
245-51. 

Stature,  increase,  as  environmental  re- 
sponse, 9-10;  as  measure  of  genetic 
affinity,  28;  difficulties  in  technique  of 
measuring,  242;  in  modern  Europe, 
251-55,  252-53,  map;  relation  to 
weight,  255-56,  to  head  size,  264, 
to  pigmentation,  277.  Pleistocene: 
Combe  Capellc,  34;  Cr6-Magnon, 
35;  Upper  Palaeolithic,  37,  84;  Afalou, 
40-41;  Gamble's  Cave  and  Oldoway, 
44;  Chancelade,  48;  Elmenteitan,  59; 
Asselar,  60;  Natufians,  62;  Teviec,  66; 
Murzak  Koba,  68;  Stangenas,  73. 
Neolithic:  Mediterranean,  84;  Mega- 
lithic,  85;  Corded,  85,  104,  108,  109; 
Naqada,  95;  Algerians,  99;  Portuguese 
100;  Zizernaberd,  102;  Kurgan,  103; 
Mariupol,  103;  Poland,  103;  S.  Russia, 
103,  104;  Banded,  106;  Long  Barrow, 
111;  French,  116;  Alpine,  118-19; 
Scandinavian,  122,  123;  Alpine  and 
Borreby,  124.  Bronze  Age:  Alishar,  136; 
Anatolian,  137;  Cypriots,  140;  Mi- 
noan,  141;  Mid-Helladic,  144;  Sicilians, 
147;  Corsican,  147;  Italians,  147;  Span- 
iards, 149;  Bell  Beaker,  156,  158;  Short 
Cist,  160;  Scots  Food  Vessel,  160;  Ge- 
meinlebarn,  163;  Aunjetitz,  164;  Dan- 
ish, 167;  Esthonian,  167;  S.  Russian, 
169.  Iron  Age:  Hallstatt,  183;  Gauls, 
191;  British  Kelt,  192;  early  Roman, 
194;  Novilara  Illyrians,  195;  Scyths, 
200;  Danes,  203;  Norwegians,  204;  W. 


736 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Germanics,  207;  Anglo-Saxons,  209; 
Bajuvars,  211;  Franks,  215;  Slavs,  218; 
Huns,  230;  Avars,  230;  early  Magyars, 
233.  North:  Lapps,  303;  Samoyeds, 
307;  Norwegians,  309,  310,  314,  315, 
317,  318,  319,  320;  Icelandics,  324, 
325;  Swedes,  329,  331;  Danes,  333,  336; 
Faroe  Islanders,  336;  Carelians,  343; 
Ijores,  345;  Evremeiset  and  Savakot, 
345;  Vepses,  345;  Mordvins  and 
Cheremisses,  346,  347;  Votiak,  347;  Syr- 
yenians  and  Permiaks,  349;  Ostiaks 
and  Voguls,  350;  Livs,  352;  Esths,  353; 
Runo  Swedes,  354;  Finns,  356-57; 
Letts,  362;  Lithuanians,  365-66.  British 
Isles:  fifteenth  century  British,  373-74; 
Irish,  377,  378,  379;  Aran  Islanders, 
379;  English,  390-91;  Scotsmen,  390- 
91;  Welsh,  390,  391;  Cornish,  390; 
British,  correlation  with  pigmentation 
and  cranial  measurements,  395-98. 
Mediterraneans:  Yemenis,  403;  Hejaz, 
409;  Ruwalla,  410;  Shammar,  410; 
Bedawin,  410;  Mesopotamians,  411—12; 
Kuwaitis,  413;  Omanis,  414;  Lenja, 
414;  Persian,  418;  Afghans  and  Pa- 
thans,  419;  Kafirs,  420;  Dardic-speak- 
ers,  420;  Burushaski,  421;  Kurds,  421, 
422;  Turkomans,  422,  424;  Hadhramis, 
427;  Baluchis,  and  Brahui,  431;  Samar- 
itans, 439;  Palestine  Jews,  439;  Meso- 
potamian  Jews,  442,  443;  N.  African 
Jews,  443;  E.  African  Karaites,  449-50, 
457;  modern  Egyptians,  459;  Khargans, 
461;  Awjila  people,  468;  Magiabra 
people,  469;  Marabutic  tribes,  470; 
Arabo-Berbers,  470;  Tuareg,  472; 
Mzabites,  475;  Kharejites,  475;  Al- 
gerian tribesmen,  476;  Kabyles,  478; 
Riffians,  480;  Ghomara,  483;  Shluh, 
484;  Guanche,  486;  Canarians,  487; 
Spaniards,  491;  Andalusians,  493;  Por- 
tuguese, 496,  497;  Corsicans,  499; 
Sardinians,  500;  Basques,  502;  Gyp- 
sies, 506.  Central  gone:  French,  513-15, 
521;  Bretons,  514;  Belgians,  526-27; 
Flemings  and  Walloons,  526;  Men- 
donck  Belgians,  528,  529;  Netherland- 
ers,  532;  Frisian,  533;  Germans,  539- 
40;  Fehmarn  Germans,  540;  Vogelberg 
Germans,  542;  Keuperfranken  Ger- 
mans, 542;  Lake  Constance  Germans, 
543;  Genkingen  Germans,  544;  Mies- 
bacher  Germans,  545;  Sudeten  Ger- 
mans, 546;  Swiss,  549;  Austria,  551, 
552;  Tyrol,  552;  Italians,  555,  556,  558; 


Czechs,  562;  Wends,  562;  Poles,  564, 
565;  White  Russians,  568;  Volhyn 
Ukrainians,  569,  570;  Ruthenians,  571, 
572;  Great  Russians,  573;  Chuvash, 
577;  Bashkirs,  578;  Meshcheryaks,  578; 
Khirgiz,  579;  Crimean  Tatars,  583; 
Kalmucks,  583;  Magyars,  585;  Slo- 
venes, 588;  Croats,  588;  Serbs,  589; 
Bosnians,  590;  Dalmatians,  591;  Mon- 
tenegrins, 591,  592;  Albanian  Ghegs, 
597;  Toscs,  602;  Greeks,  605,  606,  607; 
Cretans,  608;  Bulgars,  610;  Vlachs, 
614,  615,  616;  Osmanli  Turks,  619; 
Lebanese,  623;  Cypriots,  625;  Ar- 
menians, 626;  Assyrians,  630;  Tats, 
632;  Ossetes,  632;  Tajiks,  636;  Turke- 
stan Jews,  639;  Caucasus  Jews,  641; 
Karaite  Jews,  642;  Ashkenazim  Jews, 
643. 

Statzendorf  crania,  described,  183. 

Steinkjar,  Lapp  burials,  301. 

Stellmoor,  excavations,  71. 

Steppe  Tatars,  racial  characteristics,  583. 

Stillfried,  crania  described,  164. 

Stoneyisland  crania,  placed,  112. 

Strandloopers,  compared  with  Wiiton- 
ians,  59. 

Styria,  Slavs  in,  219. 

Subnordic,  in  Czekanowski's  system,  288. 

Sudanese,  distribution  in  E.  Africa,  446, 
map. 

Sudeten  Germans,  racial  characteristics, 
546. 

Sumerians,  compared  with  Englishmen, 
83;  study  through  politics  and  language, 
174;  language,  175;  relation  to  Finno- 
Ugrian,  175;  burials  compared  with 
Scythians,  197;  racial  influence,  239. 

Suomalaiset,  identified,  356. 

Susa,  Neolithic  finds,  86. 

Suyun-Djadji,  racial  characteristics,  424. 

Svaerdborg  finds,  described,  73. 

Swanscombe  man,  described,  20;  in  ra- 
cial classification,  290,  chart;  placed, 
370. 

Sweden,  effect  of  emigration  on,  8; 
Ertebjrflle  culture  in,  72;  Neolithic 
crania,  122;  brachycephaly  in,  123; 
Bronze  Age  in,  166-67;  Germanic  ex- 
pansion in,  181,  202;  Iron  Age  in,  204; 
Goths,  Vandals,  Gepidae  from,  205; 
Lapps  in,  299,  301,  302,  303;  geog- 
raphy, 308,  334;  Finnish  invasion  of, 
340;  Gypsies  in,  505. 

Swedes,  in  Iceland,  324;  racial  character- 
istics, 265,  276,  326-32;  mixture,  with 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


737 


Esths,   354;   Runo,   354;   pigmentation 

compared    with    Finns,     358;     Briinn 

type,  ill.,  Plate  4,  Jigs.  1,  2,  4;  Borreby 

type,  ill.,  Plate  5,  fig.  2;  Corded  type, 

ill.,  Plate  21  Jig.  2. 
Swiss,  racial  characteristics,  260,  547-50; 

ill.,   Plate   12,  /£.   3;   German  Nordic 

blend,  ill.,  Plate  34,^.  3. 
Switzerland,  Neolithic  in,  1 1 3—1 5 ;  Bronze 

Age  in,  165;  Urnfields  culture  in,  171; 

Hallstatt  culture  in,  184;  Kelts  in,  191; 

Alemanni  in,  206,  212;  West  Germanics 

in,  211. 

Syria,  origin  of  Binaries,  140,  173;  Gyp- 
sies in,  504;  racial  study  of,  622—25. 
Syriac  language,  identified,  630. 
Syrians,  racial  characteristics,   151,  261, 

266,  623-25;  ill.,  Plate  IS,  Jigs.  1,  2; 

Plate  17,  Jig.  2;  Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  41, 

figs.  1,  3. 
Syryenians,     language     distribution     in 

Europe,  338;  Bolgars  and,  341;  racial 

characteristics,  348-49. 
Szekelers,  racial  characteristics,  260,  584, 

585. 

Tabun  female,  described,  26. 

T aches  notres,  described,  514-15. 

Tagus,  midden  dwellers  of,  63-64. 

Tajiks,  racial  characteristics,  239,  417-18, 
634-39 ;  compared  with  French  Alpines, 
518;  ill.,  Plate  3,  fig.  5;  Plate  15,  fig.  5; 
Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  43,  fig.  6. 

Takhtadshy,  identified,  621. 

Tanganyika  crania,  described,  445. 

Tanged -point  cultures,  extent,  70—71. 

Tardenoisian  culture,  origin,  39;  appear- 
ance of,  56;  in  France,  65;  relation  to 
Ofnet  skulls,  67. 

Tasian  culture,  described,  93. 

Tasmanians,  survival  of,  17. 

Tatars,  appearance  in  Europe,  229; 
origin,  239;  and  Votiak  speech,  347; 
influence  on  Volga  Finns,  349;  Lithu- 
anian, racial  characteristics,  362,  367- 
68;  language  distribution,  561,  map; 
influence  on  Ukrainians,  569;  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  racial  study  of,  572,  576- 
84;  in  Bulgaria,  610;  in  Rumania,  612, 
613;  in  Turkestan,  635. 

Tats,  identified,  630;  distribution,  631, 
map;  racial  characteristics,  632. 

Taurondontism,  described,  25. 

Tavastians:  see  Hamalaiset. 

Tebessa  crania,  placed,  98. 

Teeth,  of  Galley  Hill  man,  22;  of  Nean- 


derthal man,  25;  modifications  in,  29; 

Grimaldi,   33;  Afalou,  43;   Pritzerber, 

73. 

Tehennu,  described,  464. 
Tehuelche,  compared  with  Upper  Palaeo- 
lithic man,  32. 

Telengets,  crania  described,  234-35. 
Terremare  settlements,  placed,  193. 
Teutonic:  see  Nordic. 
Teuto-Nordic,  in  von  Eickstedt's  system, 

288. 
Teviec  crania,  ill.,  52,  fig.  6;  described, 

65-66;  compared  with  Montardit,  66, 

to  N.  Africans,  99. 

Thebans,  in  Bronze  Age  Greece,  144. 
Thebes,  cranial  material,  91. 
Thessaly,  Serbs  in,  589. 
Thracians,    areas   occupied   by,   in   Iron 

Age,    176-77,   chart;   speech  classified, 

179;  lack  of  information  on,  201;  in 

Yugoslavia,  588;  described,  609-10. 
Thuringia,  Corded  people  in,  109;  amber 

trading  route,  134;  Bronze  Age,  164; 

Thuringians  enter,  206. 
Thuringians,  origin,  206;  described,  212- 

13;  distribution,  537. 
Ticuso  crania,  described,  100. 
Tigrigna     language,     distribution,     446, 

map. 

Tin,  early  use  of,  134. 
Tirana  Gypsies,  described,  506. 
Tiszadersz  crania,  classified,  232. 
Tokharian,  speech  classified,  179. 
Tokol  crania,  described,  156. 
Tonsberg  crania,  placed,  204—05. 
Tooth-knocking,   Afalou,   43;  Ofnet,   68. 
Topography,  and  race,  11. 
Toscs,  identified,  595;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 602-04;  ill.,  Plate  14,  figs.  3,  4. 
Trephination,  Ticuso,  100. 
Tronder    type,    defined,    292,    319;    in 

British  Isles,  372;  ill.,  Plate  32,  figs.  3,  4. 
Troy,  described,  137. 
Tuareg,  racial  characteristics,  255,  257, 

471-74;    origin,   463;   language,    467; 

ill.,  Plate  21,  fig.  3. 
Tumtu,  identified,  447. 
Tungus,  compared  with  Lake  Baikal,  126; 

with  Huns,  231,  232;  classified,  237; 

European  influence,  296. 
Tunisia,  races  described,  474-79. 
Turanid,  defined,  635. 
Turkestan,  Bronze  Age  in,  169;  survival 

of  Iranian  in,  198;  Jews  in,  438,  639- 

41;    racial   study   of,    634-38;    racial 

types,  ill.,  Plate  3,  figs.  4-6. 


738 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Turkomans,  origin,  239,  240;  racial  char- 
acteristics, 255,  264,  268,  422-2%; 
relation  to  Osmanli  Turks,  622;  in 
Turkestan,  635;  ill.,  Plate  17,  fig.  5. 

Turko-Tatars,  compared  with  Bazaiha 
woman,  126. 

Turkey,  language  distribution,  561,  map. 

Turks,  Bronze  Age  migrations,  135; 
Altaian,  mythology,  179;  compared 
with  Scyths,  196-97;  discussed,  227, 
229-36;  among  Magyars,  234,  584, 
585;  mixture  with  Mongols,  235;  lan- 
guage, 236;  distribution  in  Europe,  338, 
map;  racial  origin,  237;  Anatolian, 
brachycephaly  in,  261;  head  size,  266; 
influence  on  Savoyedic,  306;  study  of  as 
Mediterraneans,  422-25;  in  Egypt,  459; 
in  European  Russia,  576-84;  Ottoman, 
in  Balkans,  589,  604,  612,  613;  element 
in  Bulgars,  611,  612;  Osmanli,  617-22; 
in  Turkestan,  634;  ill.,  Plate  11,  fig.  1; 
Dinaric,  ill,  Plate  40,  figs.  1-3. 

Tyrker,  identified,  317. 

Tyrol,  Bolognese  type  in,  559. 

Tyrolese,  racial  characteristics,  552-53. 

Tyrrhenian  Sea,  route  of  Copper  Age 
Binaries,  148. 

Tziganes:  see  Gypsies. 

Ugrians,  Magyars  as,  233;  migrations, 
234,  341;  language,  236;  stock,  339, 
chart;  mixture  with  Samoyeds,  307;  in 
Hungary,  584;  in  Bulgaria,  609;  til., 
Plate  2,  figs.  1-4.  See  also  Finno- 
Ugrians. 

Ukraine,  Neolithic  remains  in,  102,  103, 
104;  Bronze  Age  in,  168;  Urnfields  cul- 
ture, 172;  and  Slavic  origin,  216; 
Slavic  skulls  described,  219-20;  lan- 
guage distribution,  561,  map;  Jews  in, 
642. 

Ukrainians,  racial  characteristics,  254, 
261,  568-71;  in  Poland,  563;  ill., 
Plate  14,  fig.  2;  Danubian,  ill.,  Plate  28, 
fig.  3;  Neo-Danubian,  ill.,  Plate  31, 

fig.  2. 
Umbrians,     language     classified,      193; 

origin,  554. 

Umm  Qatafa  cranium,  described,  138. 
Unetifce  culture:  see  Aunjetitz  culture. 
Upper    Austria,     racial    characteristics, 

551-52. 

Ur,  Neolithic  in,  86,  88. 
Ural-Altaic,  as  linguistic  stock,  178. 
Uralic  language,   speakers   of,   223-40; 

languages  based  on,  236;  Samoyedic 


as,  306;  European  distribution,  338, 
map. 

Uriankhai,  identified,  306. 

Urnfields  culture,  described,  171;  relation 
to  Illyrians,  186;  settlement  in  Italy, 
193;  as  Nordic,  221;  in  Germany,  536. 

Uruk  culture,  placed,  87. 

Uzbegs,  origin,  239;  racial  characteris- 
tics, 635-36;  ill,  Plate  3,  fig.  4. 

Vandals,  and  Alans,  197;  speech,  205; 
conversion  to  Christianity,  214;  origin, 
327;  in  Spain,  490;  migrations,  536. 

Vandancourt  crania,  described,  116. 

Vedda,  survival  of,  17. 

Veddoids,  study  of  racial  characteristics, 
266,  425-31;  mixture  with  Arabian 
Mediterraneans,  407;  element  in  E. 
Africa,  448,  in  Mediterranean  races, 
509;  ill.,  Plate  19,  figs.  4-6. 

Vend6e  crania,  placed,  191. 

Veneti,  Illyrian  speech,  181;  origin,  182; 
placed,  195. 

Vepses,  language  distribution  in  Europe, 
338;  language  stock,  389,  chart;  placed, 
340;  racial  characteristics,  345. 

Viking,  survival  in  W.  Norway,  316;  de- 
fined, 323. 

Villafratti  crania,  described,  147. 

Villanova  people,  speech,  181;  settle- 
ments placed,  193. 

Vinzen  crania,  described,  213. 

Visigoths,  invasion  of  Spain,  205;  crania, 
206. 

Vistulan  race,  in  Deniker's  system,  283. 

Vlachs,  racial  characteristics,  272,  613- 
17;  element  in  Dalmatians,  591;  in 
Greece,  604.  See  also  Rumanians. 

Vodes,  language  classified,  338;  placed, 
340. 

Vogelbergers,  racial  characteristics,  542- 
43. 

Voguls,  compared  with  Finns,  125;  classi- 
fied, 223;  migration,  224;  origin,  234; 
language  distribution  in  Europe,  338, 
map;  language  stock,  339,  chart;  relation 
to  Magyars,  341;  racial  characteristics, 
350-51;  ill.,  Plate  2,  fig.  4.  ' 

Volga  Finns,  language  stock,  339,  chart. 

Volhynians,  Neolithic  remains,  104;  ra- 
cial characteristics,  569-71;  ill.,  Plate 
14,  A-  2. 

Volkerwanderung,  effect  of,  8;  placed,  202; 
Swedish  origin,  327;  Danish,  333;  effect 
on  Denmark,  336,  337;  described,  536- 
37. 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


739 


Volosovo  cranium,  described,  126. 
Votiaks,  language  distribution  in  Europe, 

338,  map;  language  stock,  339,  chart; 

Bolgars  and,  341 ;  racial  characteristics, 

347-48. 

Wales,  possible  route  of  Scots  Bell  Beak- 
ers, 160;  P-Keltic  in,  187.  See  also 
British  Isles,  Welsh. 

Wallachia,  racial  study  of,  612-13. 

Walloons,  racial  characteristics,  272,  523, 
524,  525,  526-29;  in  Sweden,  328;  ill., 
Plate  13,  fig.  4.  See  also  Belgium. 

Walser,  racial  characteristics,  554. 

Warka  cranium,  described,  86,  87 

Watta,  identified,  447. 

Waziris,  identified,  417. 

Weight,  body,  in  modern  Europe,  255-56; 
relation  to  head  size,  264.  See  also  Body 
form. 

Welsh,  language,  387;  racial  character- 
istics, 265,  269,  277,  384,  385,  387,  389, 
391,  392,  393,  395,  396-98,  399;  ///., 
Plate  25,  fig.  3. 

Wends,  survival  after  Slavic  invasion,  217; 
described,  219;  survival  in  Germany, 
•  540;  racial  characteristics,  559,  562-63; 
language  distribution,  561,  map, 

West  Frisians,  described,  261,  531. 

Whitechapel  crania,  described,  375. 

White  Russians,  racial  study  of,  568-69; 
Jews  and,  642,  646;  ill.,  Plate  6,  fig.  4; 
Neo-Danubian,  ill.,  Plate  31,  Jig.  1. 

Wiltonians,  described,  59. 


Windmill   Hill  culture,   described,   110; 

fsurvival  in  Great  Britain,  397. 
Wdrms  crania,  described,  109,  156;  com- 
pared with  British  Bell  Beaker,  159. 
Wtirtemburg  crania,  described,  183-84, 

Yemenis,   agriculture,   78;   placed,   402; 

racial    study    of,    403-08;    Veddoids 

among,  425;  ill.,  Plate^l6,  figs.   1-3; 

Dinaric,  ill.,  Plate  43,  fig*  2. 
Yemenite    Jews,    racial    characteristics, 

439-41. 

Yiddish,  origin,  437. 
Yomuds,  racial  characteristics,  422-24. 
York,  Roman  burials,  194. 
Yugoslavia,  Copper  Age  in,  155;  Keltic 

in,  190;  racial  study  of,  587-95;  Os- 

manli  Turks  in,  617. 
Yuruks,  agricultural  habits,  618;  racial 

characteristics,  621. 

Zadrima,  classified,  595;  distribution,  596, 

map;  racial  characteristics,  597. 
Zealand,  brachycephaly  in,  123. 
Zemgali,  speech,  360. 
Zenata,  origin,  463;  invasion,  465,  466; 

and  Tuareg  origins,  474;  and  origin  of 

Riffians,  480. 

Zizernakaberd  cranium,  described,  102. 
Zoned  Beaker  culture,  origin  of,  156;  in 

British  Isles,  159,  371. 
Zuid  Beveland  crania,  described,  531-32. 
Zyrians,  language  stock,  339,  chart.